Combustion in IC Engines Section 6

Flame Propagation in SI Engine After the intake stroke the fuel-air mixture is compressed and then ignited by a spark plug just before the piston reaches top center
Flow

N = 1400 rpm Pi = 0.5 atm

The turbulent flame spreads away from the spark discharge location.
2

In-cylinder Parameters

Tu unburned gas temperature Tb,e early burning gas elements Tb,l late burning gas elements

T2 P2 = T1 P1

k 1 k

Flame Development Flame development angle d crank angle interval during which flame kernal develops after spark ignition. Rapid burning angle b crank angle required to burn most of mixture Overall burning angle - sum of flame development and rapid burning angles

Mass fraction burned

CA
4

Mixture Burn Time vs Engine Speed The time for an overall burn is:
t90% 90% = o min 360 N rev 60 s

If we take a typical value of 50 crank angles for the overall burn N (rpm) Standard car at idle Standard car at max power Formula car at max N 500 4,000 19,000 t90%(ms) 16.7 2.1 0.4

Note: To achieve such high engine speeds a formula car engine has a very short stroke and large bore.
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Mixture Burn Time B

tcomb =

B / 2 10 cm / 2 = = 0.2 s = 200 ms Sl 25 cm / s

How does the flame burn all the mixture in the cylinder in the time available, especially at high engine speeds?

Mixture Burn Time vs Engine Speed The turbulent burning velocity is proportional to the turbulent intensity St ~ ut, which increases with the piston speed, ut = up Therefore, at higher engine speeds the turbulent flame velocity is also higher St ~ N need less time to burn the entire mixture Combustion duration in crank angles (40-60 degrees) only increases a small amount with increasing engine speed.

= 1.0
Pi =0.54 atm Spark 30o BTC

Heat Losses During Burn During combustion the cylinder volume is very narrow.
Q

Heat loss to the piston and cylinder head is very important In order to reduce the heat loss want burn time to be small (high flame velocity) accomplished by either increasing the - laminar burning velocity, or - turbulence intensity. Highest laminar burning velocity is achieved for slightly rich mixtures (for isooctane maximum Sl = 26.3 cm/s at = 1.13) Squish promotes in-cylinder turbulence
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Optimum Composition Maximum power is obtained for a = 1.1 that gives the highest burning velocity (minimum heat loss) and flame temperature (maximum PCV) Best fuel economy is obtained for a that is less than 1.0

Spark Timing Spark timing relative to TC affects the pressure development and thus the engine imep and power. Ignite the gas before TC in order to centre the pressure pulse around TC. Recall the overall burning angle is typically between 40 to 60o, depending on engine speed.

Engine at WOT, constant engine speed and A/F burn time 50 CA

motored

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Maximum Brake Torque Timing If start of combustion is too early work is done against piston and if too late then peak pressure is reduced. The optimum spark timing that gives the maximum brake torque (MBT) is called MBT timing

Engine at WOT, constant engine speed and A/F

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Effect of Engine Speed on Spark Timing Recall the overall burn angle (90% burn) increases with engine speed, to accommodated this you need a larger spark advance.

Brake Torque

Fixed spark advance

WOT

N*
MBT

Brake Torque

Fixed engine speed

Spark advance CA*

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Abnormal Combustion in SI Engine Knock is the term used to describe a pinging noise emitted from a SI engine undergoing abnormal combustion. The noise is generated by shock waves produced in the cylinder when unburned gas autoignites.

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Engine Damage From Severe Knock Damage to the engine is caused by a combination of high temperature and high pressure.

Piston

Piston crown

Cylinder head gasket

Aluminum cylinder head

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No.1 (26.8o aTC)

No. 2 (29.2o)

No. 3 (31.6o)

No. 4 (34.0o)

No. 5 (36.4o)

No. 6 (38.8o)

No. 7 (41.2o)

No. 8 (43.6o)

No. 9 (45.0o)

1 2 34 5 6 7 8 9

Exhaust valve Spark plug

Knock cycle

Normal cycle

Intake valve

Observation window for photography

1 2 34 5 6 7 8 9

No.1 (3.7o aTC)

No. 2 (6.1o)

No. 3 (8.5o)

No. 4 (10.9o)

No. 5 (13.3o)

No. 6 (15.7o)

No. 7 (18.1o)

No. 8 (20.5o)

No. 9 (22.4o)

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Knock As the flame propagates away from the spark plug the pressure and temperature of the unburned gas increases. Under certain conditions the end-gas can autoignite and burn very rapidly producing shock waves.
end-gas P,T flame shock P,T

time

time

The end-gas autoignites after a certain induction time which is dictated by the chemical kinetics of the fuel-air mixture. If the flame burns all the fresh gas before autoignition of the end-gas can occur then knock is avoided. Therefore knock is a potential problem when the burn time is long.
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Engine Parameters Affecting Knock i) Compression ratio at high compression ratios, even before spark ignition, the fuel-air mixture is compressed to a high pressure and temperature which promotes autoignition ii) Engine speed At low engine speeds the flame velocity is slow and thus the burn time is long, this results in more time for autoignition However at high engine speeds there is less heat loss so the unburned gas temperature is higher which promotes autoignition These are competing effects, some engines show an increase in propensity to knock at high speeds while others dont.

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Engine Parameters Affecting Knock iii) Throttle position - at part-throttle the residual gas fraction increases due to valve overlap, residual gas is a diluent so it lowers the laminar burning velocity and thus the turbulent burning rate. Because of lower burning velocity overall burn angle increases so need to increase spark advance. At idle, the residual gas fraction is very high the burn time is very long long overall burn angle requires more spark advance.

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Engine Parameters Affecting Knock iv) Spark timing increasing the spark advance makes the end of combustion crank angle approach TC and thus get higher pressure and temperature in the unburned gas just before burnout.

x
End of combustion

P,T

x x x x
Ignition

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Knock Mitigation Using Spark Advance

x x X crank angle corresponding to borderline knock x 1% below MBT

x x x

Spark advance set to 1% below MBT to avoid knock

In modern engines the ECU sets the spark advance based on engine speed and throttle position (or air manifold pressure) 20

Engine Knock Detection A knock sensor is mounted on the engine block to determine if an engine is knocking. The sensor consists of a piezoelectric accelerometer that produces an analog electrical signal when engine vibration at a specific frequency (6-15 kHz) is measured

Note, in-cylinder pressure transducers are very expensive and are not widely used for knock detection On receiving a knock signal the ECU temporarily retards spark timing as a countermeasure to prevent engine damage from knock, and the ECU indicates a fault Some manufacturers have knock sensors for each cylinder
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Fuel Knock Scale To provide a standard measure of a fuels ability to resist knock, a scale has been devised by which fuels are assigned an octane number ON. The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock for a specified engine at a specified operating condition. An ON scale is in place where normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value of zero and iso-octane (i-C8H18) has a value of 100. The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock. Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance of intermediate octane numbers: e.g., a blend of 10% n-heptane and 90% iso-octane has an octane number of 90.

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Octane Number Measurement Two methods have been developed to measure ON using a standardized single-cylinder engine developed under the auspices of the Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) Committee in 1931*. The CFR engine is 4-stroke with 3.25 bore and 4.5 stroke, compression ratio can be varied from 3 to 30. Research Inlet temperature (oC) Speed (rpm) Spark advance (oBTC) Coolant temperature (oC) Inlet pressure (atm) Humidity (kg water/kg dry air) 52 600 13 Motor 149 900 19-26 (varies with r)

100 1.0 0.0036 - 0.0072

*Note: In 1931 iso-octane was the most knock resistant HC, now there are fuels that are more knock resistant than iso-octane.
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Octane Number Measurement Testing procedure: - Run the CFR engine on the test fuel at both research and motor conditions. - Slowly increase the compression ratio until a standard amount of knock occurs as measured by an in-cylinder pressure transducer. - At that compression ratio run the engines on blends of n-heptane and isooctane. - ON is the % by volume of octane in the blend that produces the same knock The antiknock index used in North America is the average of the research and motor octane numbers.
Antiknock index = RON + MON 2

Europe uses RON for its antiknock index (note the MON is always lower than RON because it uses more severe operating conditions) The automobile manufacturer will specify the minimum fuel ON that will resist knock throughout the engines operating speed and load range. 24

Knock Characteristics of Various Fuels

Formula CH4 C3H8 CH4O C2H6O C8H18 Blend of HCs n-C7H16 Name Methane Propane Methanol Ethanol Isooctane Regular gasoline n-heptane RON 120 112 106 107 100 91 0 MON 120 97 92 89 100 83 0

For fuels with antiknock quality better than octane, the octane number is: ON = 100 + 28.28T / [1.0 + 0.736T+(1.0 + 1.472T - 0.035216T2)1/2] where T is milliliters of tetraethyl lead per U.S. gallon

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Fuel Additives Chemical additives are used to raise the octane number of gasoline. The most effective antiknock agents are lead alkyls; (i) Tetraethyl lead (TEL), (C2H5)4Pb was introduced in 1923 (ii) Tetramethyl lead (TML), (CH3)4Pb was introduced in 1960 Lead compound reacts with the chain carrier O to reduce its concentration In 1959 a manganese antiknock compound known as MMT was introduced to supplement TEL (used in Canada since 1978). About 1970 low-lead and unleaded gasoline were introduced over toxicological concerns with lead alkyls (TEL contains 64% by weight lead). Alcohols such as ethanol and methanol have high knock resistance. Since 1970 another alcohol, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), has been added to gasoline to increase octane number. MTBE is formed by reacting methanol and isobutylene (not used in Canada). 26

Engine Stability If the fuel-air mixture is leaned out with excess air, or is diluted with increasing amounts of residual gas or exhaust gas recycle the cycle-by-cycle variations in the combustion process increases. Eventually a point is reached where engine operation becomes rough and unstable, this point defines the engines stable operating limit. With little or no dilution combustion occurs prior to the exhaust valve opening consistently cycle after cycle.
x End of burn
Ignition Exhaust valve opens

TC

BC

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Engine Stability contd

As the dilution is increased the burn time increases With increasing dilution, first, in a fraction of the cycles the burns are so slow that combustion is only just completed prior to the exhaust valve opening. As dilution increases further, in some cycles combustion is not complete prior to the exhaust valve opening and the flame extinguishes before all the fuel is burned. Finally misfire cycles start to occur where the mixture doesnt ignite at all. As the dilution is further increased the proportion of partial burns and misfires increase to a point where the engine no longer runs.

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Effect of Fuel-air Dilution Set spark timing for MBT, leaner mixture needs more spark advance since burn time longer. Along MBT curve as you increase excess air reach partial burn limit (not all cycles result in complete burn) and then ignition limit (misfires start to occur).

Spark timing, deg BTC

Ignition limit

Partial burn limit Complete burns in all cycles MBT spark timing Partial burn regime

Equivalence Ratio 29

Combustion in CI Engine In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and the vaporised part of the fuel mixes with air and ignites spontaneously. These photos are taken in a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl

Air flow

0.4 ms after ignition

3.2 ms after ignition

1 cm

3.2 ms after ignition

Late in combustion process

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In-Cylinder Measurements This graph shows the fuel injection flow rate, net heat release rate and cylinder pressure for a direct injection CI engine.

motored

Start of injection Start of combustion End of injection 31

Four Stages of Combustion in CI Engines

Start of injection

c b
-10

End of injecction

d
-20

e
20 30

TC

10

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Combustion in CI Engine The combustion process proceeds by the following stages: Ignition delay (ab) - fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of the compression stroke. The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and penetrates into the combustion chamber. The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the high-temperature high-pressure air. Premixed combustion phase (bc) combustion of the fuel which has mixed with the air to within the flammability limits (air at high-temperature and highpressure) during the ignition delay period occurs rapidly in a few crank angles. Mixing controlled combustion phase (cd) after premixed gas consumed, the burning rate is controlled by the rate at which mixture becomes available for burning. The burning rate is controlled primarily by the fuel-air mixing process. Late combustion phase (de) heat release may proceed at a lower rate well into the expansion stroke (no additional fuel injected during this phase). Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is responsible for this.
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CI Engine Types Two basic categories of CI engines: i) Direct-injection have a single open combustion chamber into which fuel is injected directly ii) Indirect-injection chamber is divided into two regions and the fuel is injected into the prechamber which is connected to the main chamber via a nozzle, or one or more orifices. For very-large engines (stationary power generation) which operate at low engine speeds the time available for mixing is long so a direct injection quiescent chamber type is used (open or shallow bowl in piston). As engine size decreases and engine speed increases, increasing amounts of swirl are used to achieve fuel-air mixing (deep bowl in piston) For small high-speed engines used in automobiles chamber swirl is not sufficient, indirect injection is used where high swirl or turbulence is generated in the pre-chamber during compression and products/fuel blowdown and mix 34 with main chamber air.

Types of CI Engines

Glow plug

Orifice -plate

Direct injection: quiescent chamber

Direct injection: swirl in chamber

Indirect injection: turbulent and swirl pre-chamber 35

Direct Injection quiescent chamber

Direct Injection multi-hole nozzle swirl in chamber

Direct Injection single-hole nozzle swirl in chamber

Indirect injection swirl pre-chamber 36

Combustion Characteristic Combustion occurs throughout the chamber over a range of equivalence ratios dictated by the fuel-air mixing before and during the combustion phase. In general most of the combustion occurs under very rich conditions within the head of the jet, this produces a considerable amount of solid carbon (soot).
1o ASI 5o ASI

Shadow graph

Backlit photo
Liquid fuel Fuel vapour High soot

Diffusion flame

No combustion

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Ignition Delay Ignition delay is defined as the time (or crank angle interval) from when the fuel injection starts to the onset of combustion. Both physical and chemical processes must take place before a significant fraction of the fuel chemical energy is released: Physical processes include fuel spray atomization, evaporation and mixing of fuel vapour with cylinder air. - Good atomization requires high fuel pressure, small injector hole diameter, optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder pressure (large divergence angle). - Rate of vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet diameter, velocity, fuel volatility, pressure and temperature of the air. Chemical processes similar to that described for autoignition phenomenon in premixed fuel-air, only more complex since heterogeneous reactions (reactions occurring on the liquid fuel drop surface) also occur.

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Fuel Ignition Quality The properties of the fuel affect the ignition delay. The ignition quality of a fuel is defined by its cetane number (CN). For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is long and most of the fuel is injected before autoignition and rapid combustion, under extreme cases this produces an audible knocking sound referred to as diesel knock. For high cetane fuels the ignition delay is short and very little fuel is injected before autoignition, the heat release rate is controlled by the rate of fuel injection and fuel-air mixing smoother engine operation.

39

Cetane Number The method used to determine the ignition quality in terms of CN is similar to that used for determining the antiknock quality of fuels via the ON. The cetane number scale is defined by blends of two pure hydrocarbon reference fuels: isocetane and cetane Isocetane (heptamethylnonane (HMN), C16H34) is assigned a cetane number of 15* and cetane (n-hexadecane, C16H34) a value of 100. The cetane number is given by: CN = (% cetane) + 0.15 (% isocetane) *In the original procedures 1-methylnaphtalene (C11H10) with a cetane number of zero represented the bottom of the scale. This has since been replaced by HMN which is a more stable compound.

40

Cetane Number Measurement The method employed to measure CN uses a standardized single-cylinder engine with variable compression ratio The operating condition is: Inlet temperature (oC) Speed (rpm) Start of fuel injection (oBTC) Coolant temperature (oC) Injection pressure (MPa) 65.6 900 13 100 10.3

With the engine running at these conditions with the test fuel, the compression ratio is varied until combustion starts at TC ignition delay period of 13o. The above procedure is repeated using blends of isocetane and cetane. The blend that gives a 13o ignition delay with the same compression ratio is used to calculate the test fuel cetane number.
41

Cetane Number versus Octane Number

Octane-heptane

Alcohol-gasoline

Cetane number

ON and CN are inversely correlated so gasoline makes a poor diesel fuel 42 and vice versa!

Cetane motor method octane number

Factors Affecting Ignition Delay Time Injection timing At normal engine conditions the minimum delay occurs with the start of injection at about 10-15 BTC. Earlier or later injection timing results in a lower air temperature and pressure during the delay period increase in the ignition delay time Load For a CI engine the air is not throttled so the load is varied by changing the amount of fuel injected. Increasing the load (bmep) increases the residual gas and wall temperature which results in a higher charge temperature at injection decrease in the ignition delay. Intake air temperature and pressure an increase in either will result in a decrease in the ignition delay, an increase in the compression ratio has the same effect.
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Factors Affecting Ignition Delay

CN=50 CN=30

25oC 66oC

Ignition delay (ms)

Ignition delay (ms)

CN=39

Naturally Aspirated 103 kPa boost

Ignition delay (ms)

CN=34

CN=52

CN=50

bmep (kPa)

bmep (kPa)

bmep (kPa)

44

Multiple injection Diesels (YouTube video) New common rail fuel systems (2000 bar) with piezoelectric injectors make it possible to have multiple injections per cycle Pilot injection reduces engine knock Post injection is used to reduce emissions, e.g. regenerate particle filter Multiple injections causes cooling due to vapour evaporation

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