One Way Slab

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs
One-Way Slabs
CHAPTER 4:
ONE-WAY SLABS
In science, 'fact' can only mean 'confirmed to such a degree that it would be perverse to withhold provisional assent.' I suppose that apples might start to rise tomorrow, but the possibility does not merit equal time in physics classrooms. -Stephen Jay Gould
This Chapter reports on two series of experiments that are extensions to beam AT1 described in Chapter 3. The AT-2 series was designed to study the effect of beam and slab width on shear strength. It is found that the failure shear stress of slabs is independent of width, and it is inappropriate for the ACI-318 code to dictate a different level of usable shear before stirrups are required in slabs versus narrow beams. It is also shown that experimental results from narrow beams can be applied to the study of wide slabs. The AT-3 series of experiments were conducted to study the effect of horizontal shrinkage/temperature steel on one-way shear strength of slabs. It is shown that this type of reinforcement has no effect.
4.1 General
One-way slabs are those slabs with an aspect ratio in plan of 2:1 or greater, in which bending is primarily about the long axis (Figure 4-1). In heavily loaded slabs, the thickness is often governed by shear or flexure, while in lightly-loaded slabs, the thickness is generally chosen based on deflection limitations. Both lightly and heavily loaded slabs are typically dimensioned so that no shear reinforcement is required, as placing stirrups in slabs is perceived to be difficult and costly. One-way slabs are designed for flexure and shear on a per meter width basis, assuming that they act as a series of independent strips. Thus one-way shear in slabs is often referred to as beam shear, and design for flexure and shear is carried out using a beam analogy. The thickness of two-way slabs and plates is typically governed by deflection limitations or two-way shear at the columns, and one-way shear does not usually govern. However, two-way slabs must be checked for both one-way and two-way shear, and it is reasonably straightforward to conceive of a two-way slab system in which one-way shear governs.
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Like one-way slabs, design for one-way shear in two-way slabs is usually carried out using a unit-width beam analogy, assuming the entire slab width is fully effective at resisting shear.
Figure 4-1: One-Way Slab Supported on Beams on all Four Sides Because one-way slabs are designed for shear by assuming that they act as a series of adjacent beams spanning in one direction, it is reasonable to conclude that the size effect that governs the shear behaviour of thick beams will apply. Furthermore, it is likely that two-way slabs in which two-way shear governs will exhibit a size effect in one-way shear. It is also appears (Mitchell et. al. (2005)) that there is a size effect in two-way shear, but that is beyond the scope of the present study. Like the wide beam exemption discussed in Chapter 3, Clause 11.5.6.1.(a) of the ACI 318-05 code exempts slabs from requiring minimum shear reinforcement when the factored shear force, Vu exceeds Vc. See Table 3-1. Thus, the full value of Vc may be employed in slabs before stirrups are required. Similar to the case of wide beams, the ACI commentary states that redistribution of loads is possible, resulting in a higher actual one-way shear strength. In the example shown in Figure 4-1 in which the slab is supported on stiff beams on all four sides, and where the aspect ratio in plan is not much greater than 2:1, some redistribution may be possible due to two-way action. However, in one-way slabs with an aspect ratio considerably greater than 2:1, redistribution due to
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two-way action may be negligible. Furthermore, in one-way slabs supported on stiff supports along only two sides (Figure 4-2) no redistribution will be possible, and the full width of the slab may be called upon to resist the full shear.
Figure 4-2: One-Way Slab Supported on Beams on Two Sides It appears reasonable to assume that one-way slabs will exhibit a size effect in one-way shear. Because one-way slabs are often dimensioned to avoid the use of stirrups, it would appear that they would therefore be particularly vulnerable to the size effect.
4.1.1
One-Way Slabs vs. Wide Beams
Beam AT-1 demonstrated that width had no effect on one-way shear stress capacity and that the ACI wide beam exemption is not appropriate for thick beams. However, it was designed to investigate the specific case of the ACI wide beam exemption. The major differences between a beam and a one-way slab include the fact that one-way slabs may be many times wider than typical beams, and that additional horizontal transverse reinforcement to control shrinkage and temperature cracking is employed. Because shallow one-way slabs are thinner than supporting beams, the slab concrete may exhibit greater shrinkage than the beam concrete at an earlier age (MacGregor and Bartlett (2000)). This restrained shrinkage may result in shrinkage cracks. Furthermore, thin slabs have a lower thermal mass than the supporting beams and may therefore exhibit wider swings in temperature. These different thermal properties can result in
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cracking due to restrained thermal shrinkage. While flexural steel in the spanning direction will limit the width of these shrinkage and temperature cracks, cracks parallel to the span may form. To control the width of these potentially wide cracks, building codes will typically require that additional horizontal steel be placed transverse to the spanning direction. This additional reinforcement is not unimportant, as shrinkage and temperature cracks have the potential to become quite wide. MacGregor and Bartlett (2000), for example, suggest that the purpose of this reinforcement is to hold the slab together after shrinkage occurs. In Section 7.12 of the ACI code it is noted that reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses normal to flexural reinforcement shall be provided in structural slabs where the flexural reinforcement extends in one direction only. For grade 60ksi (414MPa) steel, the required amount of shrinkage and temperature steel is 0.18% of the gross area (width times overall height). In the CSA code, this amount is 0.2% of the gross area. In situations where considerable restraint is present, reinforcement in addition to that specifically required by the code may be required. In completely restrained situations, MacGregor and Bartlett suggest that three times the specified minimum amount is required. While shrinkage and temperature reinforcement may be placed anywhere in the slab, it is typically placed directly above the lower layer of steel to simplify construction. After publishing the results of beam AT-1, it became apparent that additional studies were required in the specific case of one-way slabs. In particular, the effects of horizontal shrinkage and temperature reinforcement perpendicular to the spanning direction needed to be addressed, as well as the one-way shear behaviour of elements with widths many times their depths. Lastly, the question of whether the results of oneway shear tests on narrow beams can be applied to one-way slabs needed to be addressed. A series of specimens were thus designed by the author and tested collaboratively by the author and Adam Lubell (Lubell (2006)) to complement the results from AT-1. These specimens are referred to as the AT-2 and AT-3 series of tests.
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4.2 Experimental Program AT-2 Series

4.2.1 Specimen Design and Construction
The design of the AT-2 series of specimens is summarized in Figure 4-3. A total of five specimens were constructed. The specimens measured nominally 470mm tall and 2900mm long. Two specimens were 250 mm wide, two were 1000mm wide, and one was 3000mm wide. The 3000mm wide specimen was designed to represent a three-bay wide transfer slab supporting three point loads at its mid-point. The 1000mm wide specimens were designed to represent a one-bay wide design strip extracted from the transfer slab. The 250mm wide specimens were designed to represent typical beam specimens that are tested to study one-way shear. They were all reinforced in the longitudinal (N-S) direction with 25M rebars spaced at 125mm at an effective depth of 440mm, for a reinforcement ratio of 0.91%. The 3000mm and 1000mm wide specimens were further reinforced with 15M rebars spaced at 223mm in the transverse (E-W) horizontal direction. These 15M bars were placed as temperature and shrinkage reinforcement. The provided shrinkage and temperature reinforcement ratio, s+t, was 0.19%, which is greater than the 0.18% ratio required by the ACI code. The 250mm wide specimens, representing typical beam-type specimens, did not have horizontal transverse reinforcement as beams are generally not constructed with such reinforcement. Based on the concrete strength of the day of test, and by the ACI code, each specimen had a nominal flexural capacity of about 765kN-m/m width, with corresponding nominal one-way shear capacities of between about 450 to 468kN/meter width. One-way shear governed over two-way shear in all specimens, with the one-way shear capacity being about 44% of the two-way shear capacity calculated on a critical perimeter located d/2 from the edge of the loading plates. After accounting for self weight, the ACI code predicted that the specimens would fail in one-way shear at applied loads of between 7679% of the load required to fail them in flexure.
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Figure 4-3: Design of AT-2 Series of Test Specimens

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The formwork for the AT-2 series is shown in Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5. The formwork was constructed on a base of multiple layers of 19.1mm (3/4 in.) plywood, and consisted of 3/4in. formply supported using steel walers and braces. Following casting, the concrete was cured under wet burlap and plastic sheeting for five days.
Figure 4-4: AT-3 Series Formwork
Figure 4-5: AT-3/3000 Formwork

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4.2.2
Material Properties
Concrete and steel material properties are summarized in Table 4-1 and Table 4-2. The concrete was ordered from a local ready-mix company with a specified 28-day strength of 25MPa. The maximum aggregate size was 10mm (3/8 in.), and the coarse aggregate was obtained from the same quarry as the aggregate used for beam AT-1. On the day of test, ranging from 55 to 84 days after casting, the measured concrete strength varied from 37.7-40.6MPa. The specimens were removed from their formwork and exposed to drying on their bottom faces for between two and seven days. Table 4-1: Concrete Material Properties -AT-2 Series
Specimen AT-2/250N AT-2/250W AT-2/1000N AT-2/1000W AT-2/3000 Cast Date 29 July, 2004 29 July, 2004 29 July, 2004 29 July, 2004 29 July, 2004 Test Date Sep. 22, 2004 Oct. 1, 2004 Sep. 24, 2004 Oct. 8, 2004 Oct. 20/21, 2004
f'c (MPa)
37.7 38.5 37.9 39.0 40.6
'c
-1.8 -2.0 2.1
-3 Day of Test x10
Table 4-2: Steel Properties -AT-2 Series

Bar Type 15M 25M
As (mm2)
200 500
fy (MPa)
452 465
fu (MPa)
595 618
4.2.3
Test Setup AT-2 Series
AT-2/250 and AT-2/1000 Series The test setup for the AT-2/250 and 1000 series is shown in Figure 4-3 and Figures 4-6 to 4-8. Each specimen was tested in three-point bending in the Baldwin test frame in the Mark Huggins Laboratory at the University of Toronto. Specimen AT-2/3000 was aligned such that it spanned in the north-south direction, while the 250mm and 1000mm wide specimens were aligned such that they spanned in the east-west direction. To
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One-Way Slabs
facilitate comparison between specimens, it will be assumed that the 250mm and 1000mm wide specimens were also aligned in the north-south direction. The actual south faces of the 250 and 1000mm wide specimens correspond to the east face of specimen AT-2/3000. The specimens were supported at their north and south ends, 1300mm from the specimen centerline, at an a/d ratio of 2.95. Specimens AT-2/250W and AT-2/1000W were supported on 1200mm wide, 152mm long steel plates that were in turn supported on rollers and steel beams placed directly on the floor of the test frame. These types of supports will be referred to as wide supports (W). Specimens AT-2/250N and AT2/1000N were supported on 152x152x13mm steel plates placed atop of 152x152x51mm neoprene bearing pads. The neoprene bearing pads were supported in turn on steel pedestals placed directly on the floor of the test frame. These types of supports will be referred to as narrow supports (N). In both the N and W series of specimens, a layer of plaster-of-paris was placed between the bottom of the specimen and the steel plates to avoid stress concentrations due to unevenness of the surface finish. The neoprene bearing pads are of a type commonly used in bridge bearing and other heavy bearing applications. They have little lateral stiffness, and act and as roller bearings. Both the N and W series of specimens were loaded though pinned loading blocks that were free to rotate about the E-W axis. Steel plates measuring 152x152x13mm were placed between the loading blocks and the top of the specimens. A layer of plaster-ofparis was also placed between the steel plates and the top of the specimens to ensure uniform load transfer. Load was applied monotonically to the test specimens. Loading was paused at several stages during the tests at which point the load was reduced slightly. During these load stages cracks were marked using a felt-tip pen and photographed. Generally each test lasted for about four to six hours.
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Figure 4-6: Test Setup AT-2/250 and AT-2/1000 Series

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Figure 4-7: Test Setup: AT-2/250N
Figure 4-8: Test Setup: AT-2/1000W

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AT-2/3000 AT-2/3000 was supported in a manner similar to specimens AT-2/250N and AT-2/1000N. As shown in Figure 4-9 and Figure 4-10, specimen AT-2/3000 was supported on six steel plates, neoprene bearing pads and steel pedestals bearing directly on the floor of the test frame. Plaster-of-paris was placed between the 152x152mm steel plates and the bottom of the specimen. The pedestals were spaced at 1000mm across the width of the specimen. Neoprene bearing pads measuring 152x152x51mm and steel plates were placed on top of the specimen at midspan, spaced at 1000mm on centres across the width. Load was applied to the specimen through back-to-back steel spreader beams that were bolted together and load cells spaced at 1000mm and aligned with the neoprene bearing pads. The steel plates on top of the specimen were placed in a bed of plaster-of-paris prior to loading. The moment of inertia of the combined spreader beam was about ______mm4. Load was applied monotonically to the specimen. Loading was paused at several stages during the test at which point the load was reduced slightly. During these load stages cracks were marked using a felt-tip pen and photographed. Shortly after the third load stage on the first day of testing, specimen AT-2/3000 suddenly shifted to the north by about 25mm and the spreader beam rotated about its longitudinal (east-west) axis. Because the neoprene bearings had little stiffness in their transverse direction, AT-3/3000 was statically unstable on day 1, and free to move in its horizontal plane. After this shift occurred, the load was removed and the neoprene bearings on the top of the specimen were replaced with steel spherical bearings. The test frame spherical head was also locked against rotation, and this change in the test setup prevented the specimen from shifting excessively on its supports. Specimen AT-2/3000 was left overnight without any load applied to it, and loading was resumed the following day (Day 2). The peak load reached on Day 1 was 2123kN.
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Figure 4-9: Test Setup AT-2/3000
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Figure 4-10: Test Setup: AT-2/3000
4.2.4
Instrumentation AT-2 Series
The instrumentation used for the AT-2 series of specimens is summarized in Figure 4-11 and Figure 4-12. Five LVDTs were placed at the midspan of specimen AT-2/3000. One LVDT was placed directly below each of the three load cells, and the remaining two were placed at either edge of the specimen. Additional LVDTs were placed at the supports. Two LVDTs were placed at the midspan, quarterspans and supports for the 1000 and 250 series of specimens. Mid-span and quarterspan deflections were then corrected for support settlement in all of the specimens. Horizontal LVDTs were placed below the specimens at the supports to monitor north-south horizontal movements and to confirm that the neoprene bearings allowed horizontal movements to occur, thereby behaving as
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rollers. Side face LVDTs were applied to the 250mm and 1000mm wide specimens to measure shear strains. No side face LVDTs were installed on specimen AT-2/3000. A series of 5mm electrical resistance strain gauges was applied to the longitudinal reinforcing bars in all of the specimens at midspan and quarterspan as shown in Figure 4-12. A series of strain gauges was also applied to the horizontal transverse reinforcing bars in the 1000mm and 3000mm wide specimens as shown in the figure. These gauges were set to zero prior to the start of loading. A grid of aluminum zurich targets was not used in any of the AT-2 series of tests. Shrinkage strains were measured at various locations in AT-2/1000N, AT-2/1000W and AT-2/3000 prior to removing the specimens from their formwork using a manual strain indicator box, and these shrinkage strains are presented in Table 4-3 and Table 4-4. These strains are calculated based on measurements taken one day prior to removal from formwork relative to zero-measurements taken about one hour after casting had been completed. The shrinkage strains measured in the reinforcing bars were all compressive (negative).
Table 4-3: Shrinkage Strains -AT-2/1000 Specimens

Strain Gauge Strain () AT-2/1000N AT-2/1000W EN EC ES MN MC MS TN TC TS -119 -186 -134 -98 -109 -101 -21 -69 -48 -121 -152 -201 -133 -120 -181 -50 -101 -92
Table 4-4: Shrinkage Strains -AT-2/3000

Strain gauge 1N 1C 1S 3N 3C 3S TSW TSCW TSC TSCE TSE
Strain () -96 -102 -120 -52 -84 -145 -171 -202 -160 -218 -132
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Figure 4-11: External Instrumentation AT 2 Series (See Table 4-5 for as-built dimensions)
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Figure 4-12: Reinforcement Strain Gauge Setup AT-2 Series (See Table 4-5 for as-built dimensions)
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4.3 Experimental Results AT-2 Series

4.3.1 General
All specimens exhibited brittle shear failures prior to reaching their flexural capacities. A summary of important experimental results, including as-built dimensions, are summarized in Table 4-5. These results include the following: experimentally determined failure load, Pexp, the midspan deflection at the failure load, ult, the ratio of this deflection to one-half of the span-length, ult /0.5L, the shear strain at the failure load measured using the LVDTs on the east face of the specimen, ult, the average mid-span steel strain at the failure load, s,ult, and the maximum measured crack width at the load stage prior to failure. Also shown is the ratio of the peak shear strain ult to ult /0.5L (shear). Failure shears are listed in Table 4-6. Photographs of failed specimens are provided in Figure 4-13. The photographs of the AT-2/250 and /1000 specimens are composite photographs constructed from multiple photos of the failed specimens. The crack widths shown are from the last load stage prior to failure. Interestingly, cracks in the 1000mm wide and 3000mm wide specimens tended to initiate at locations of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement (Figure 4-14). The AT-2 series of specimens failed at shear stresses ranging from 0.99MPa to 1.07MPa. Specimen AT-2/250N, supported on a 152mm square neoprene bearing, failed at the highest shear stress. Its failure shear stress was 2% greater than that of AT-2/250W, the companion 250mm specimen supported across its full width on a steel plate and roller. Specimen AT-2/1000N, on the other hand, failed at a shear stress that was 7% less than the failure shear stress of the companion 1000mm specimen supported across its full width. Specimen AT-2/3000 failed at the lowest shear stress and AT-2/1000N failed at the second lowest shear stress of the AT-2 series of specimens. Both of these specimens were supported on narrow supports.
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Table 4-5: As-Built Properties and Experimental Observations AT-2 Series

Specimen Properties (as built) Specimen h 469 471 470 471 472 d bw Suport Size w (%) s+t f'c sxe Pexp Vexp
(1)
Experimental Observations ult ult/0.5L x10-3 6.97 7.23 6.38 7.69 6.25 4.53 4.70 4.15 5.00 4.06 ult x10-3 1.04 1.01 0.80 0.76 -15% 14% 13% 10% -shear s,ult(2) wmax x10-3 (mm) 1950 1800 1790 2020 1660 0.35 0.40 0.20 0.25 0.25
(mm) (mm) (mm) (w x L, mm) AT-2/250N AT-2/250W AT-2/1000N AT-2/1000W AT-2/3000 Notes: 437 250 152 x 152 439 252 252 x 152 438 1002 152 x 152 439 1002 1002 x 152 440 3005 152 x 152
(%) (MPa) (mm) (kN) (kN/m) (mm) 458 448 440 471 427
0.915 - 37.7 529 229 0.904 - 38.5 532 224 0.911 0.191 37.9 531 880 0.909 0.190 39.0 532 942 0.908 0.190 40.6 533 2564
(1) -Appled shear force per metre width. Does not include self-weight (2) -Average of mid-span gauges for 250 and 1000 Series. Average of gauges 2C, 4C and 6C for AT-2/3000
Table 4-6: Failure Shears AT-2 Series

Specimen AT-2/250N AT-2/250W AT-2/1000N AT-2/1000W AT-2/3000 Notes: (1) Calculated at d from load, incl. self-weight (2) Calculated at d from support, incl. self weight Vexp Vexp vexp Vexp vexp (kN/m) (kN/m) (MPa) (kN/m) (MPa) 458 448 440 471 427 463 453 445 476 432 1.06 1.03 1.02 1.08 0.98 468 458 450 481 437 1.07 1.04 1.03 1.09 0.99
(1) (2)
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West Face
West Face
West Face
West Face
East Face
Figure 4-13: Failure Crack Patterns -AT-2 Series (Crack widths in mm, measured at the last load stage prior to failure)
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Longitudinal Reinforcement Shrinkage Reinforcement
Figure 4-14: Initiation of Flexural Cracks at Locations of Shrinkage Reinforcement -AT2/1000N
4.3.2
Load-Displacement Response AT-2/3000
Graphs displaying the load-displacement response from Day 1 and Day 2 area presented in Figure 4-15. The horizontal instability in the Day 1 test setup is reflected in the loaddisplacement response at a load of about 648kN/m, but no such instability is reflected in the Day 2 response. After the load was removed at the end of day 1, the vertical LVDTs were reset to zero, thus day 2 deflections are presented relative to zero on day 2, rather than zero on day 1. It is interesting to note that there was significantly greater deflection measured at the centre of the slab than at the edges. For example, at a load of 648kN/m on day 1, just prior to considerable increases at VCC and VCW due to the horizontal instability, the displacement at VCC was 3.4mm, versus an average of 2.7mm at VCE/VCW and 2.3mm at VCEE/VCWW. The differences in the vertical displacements are demonstrated in Figure 4-16, in which the VCC displacement is plotted as a percentage of VCE/VCW and VCEE/VCWW. On day 2, at a load of 648kN/m, the displacement at VCC was 2.8mm, versus averages of 2.4mm and 2.2mm at VCE/VCW and VCEE/VCWW. At the failure load, the displacements were 4.2mm, 3.8mm and 3.5mm. There thus appears to have
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One-Way Slabs
been bending about the north-south axis of the slab, indicating two-way bending occurred in this one-way slab. This out-of-plane bending can be resisted by the shrinkage and temperature reinforcement. While it was not possible to accurately measure the deflections after the slab shifted on day 1, it appears that the specimen was permanently deformed in the two-way bending direction after the load was removed. This offset is built into the day 2 deflection readings, and may partly explain why there was a difference of 1.1mm between the centre and edge deflections on day 1 at 648kN/m, versus only 0.6mm on day 2. As shown in Figure 4-16, the loads measured were similar in the three load cells. The centre load cell (LCC) reached a maximum of 37% of the total load applied by the Baldwin test frame, at which point the loads measured by the east and west load cells were each about 31.5% of the total load. On the second day of testing, after the neoprene bearing pads below the load cells had been replaced by spherical bearings, the load measured by the centre load cell increased gradually from 0% of the total load at an applied load of 20kN to 33% at the failure load (Figure 4-17). The load behaviour exhibited by the three load cells on day 2 occurred due to the permanent deformation in the two-way bending direction and the flexibility of the spreader beam. That is
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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1000
1000
VCE, VCW
900
900
VCEE, VCWW VCC
800
VCEE
VCWW
VCE
VCW VCC
800
Applied Load (kN/m width)
700
700
600
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
a) Day 1
b) Day 2
Figure 4-15: Day 1 and Day 2 Load-Displacement Response -Specimen AT-2/3000

1000 900
Load Cell Reading as Percent of Total Load
33% LCE LCW
Peak Load, Day 1

VCC Deflection as percent of Average of VCE, VCW VCC Deflection as percent of Average of VCEE, VCWW
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
LCC LS 3
LS 2
LS 1
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
125%
150%
175%
200%
Percent
Figure 4-16: Load Measured by Load Cells as Percentage of Total Applied Load, and VCC Deflection as Percent of Other Deflections Day 1
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1000 900
Failure
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100
Load Stage 7 Load Stage 6 Load Stage 5 LCE LCW
LCC
33%
0 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Percent of Total Applied Load
Figure 4-17: Load Measured by Load Cells as Percentage of Total Applied Load -Day 2
4.3.3
Longitudinal Steel Strain ResponseAT-2/3000
Strains measured in the longitudinal steel at various load stages in Specimen AT-2/3000 are shown in Figure 4-18. They are plotted as strain profiles across the width of the specimen at the north quarterspan (Figure 4-18(a)), midspan (Figure 4-18(b)), and south quarterspans (Figure 4-18(c)). Load stages one to three were taken on the first day, and stages four to seven were taken on the second day. At the quarterspans, it can be seen that strains in the longitudinal steel along support lines (lines 2, 4 and 6) generally were similar to, or smaller than, the adjacent strains outside the support lines (1, 3, 5 and 7). This is in contrast to the behaviour exhibited by the strain gauges in the quarterspans of AT-1 in which the longitudinal strains increased towards the centreline of the beam. With the exception of the strains measured at gauges 4C, 5C and 6C, no strain profiles similar to that exhibited at the quarterspans of beam AT-1 were observed. It does not appear, therefore, that any effect of loading through narrow loading points, and supporting the slab on narrow supports, could be found in the longitudinal strain profiles.
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Figure 4-18: Strain Readings in Longitudinal Rebar Strain Gauges AT-2/3000

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A minor effect of narrow loading points was found in the rate of increase of the strains measured by the strain gauges. In Figure 4-19 the rates of increase in the strain measured by gauges 2C, 4C and 6C on the second day of loading are shown as functions of the applied load. Recall that gauges 2C, 4C and 6C were located directly below load cells LCW, LCC and LCE. As shown in Figure 4-17, the load measured by load cell LCC, located directly above gauge 4C was lower than the loads at cells LCW (above gauge 2C) and LCE (above gauge 6C) up to an applied load of 800kN/m. The loads measured by LCE and LCW were generally similar to one another throughout loading. In Figure 4-19, it can be seen that the rates of increase in gauges 2C and 6C follow very similar trends, and the increase in 6C was slightly higher than in 2C. However, the rate of increase of strains in 4C increased over the entire loading regime, and this corresponds with the increasing proportion of the total load measured by load cell LCC. This behaviour was not noted on day 1, where the ratios of the loads in the load cells to the total load were closer to 1:3 throughout.
(/kN)
bar Papp 3
6.0 5.0 4.0 6C 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0

4C
2C 200 400 600 800 1000
Figure 4-19: Rate of Increase in Measured Strain as a Function of Applied Load (Day 2) The behaviour described in Figure 4-19 was the only indication found in the longitudinal rebar strains of an effect caused by loading through individual narrow loading points.
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4.3.4
Transverse Steel Strain ResponseAT-3/3000
It is useful to analyze the measured rebar strains in AT-2/3000 in the shrinkage/ temperature reinforcement to assess its role, if any, in determining one-way shear behaviour. Strains measured in the shrinkage/temperature steel at various load stages are shown in Figure 4-20 and Figure 4-21 for Day 1 and Day 2. They are plotted as strain profiles across the width of the specimen at (a) the north quarterspan, (b) midspan and (c) south quarterspan. It can be seen that there was very little strain measured in the gauges on the transverse steel throughout the loading of the slab. On the north side of the specimen, the largest tensile (positive) strain measured at the quarterspan was 22 microstrain. The maximum compressive (negative) strain was -25 microstrain. At midspan, the largest tensile strain measured was 210 microstrain, and at the south quarterspan it was 90 microstrain. The strains measured in the transverse rebars generally were negative (compressive) at the start of the test prior to cracking. This behaviour is due to the Poissons effect in the bottom of the slab. After flexural cracking due to moments associated with the longitudinal steel, the strains generally became more positive (tensile). The shrinkage strains summarized in Table 4-4 indicate that the rebars in AT-2/3000 were slightly precompressed prior to loading. The shrinkage strains in the south transverse bar are plotted in Figure 4-20(c) and Figure 4-21(c) on the tensile side (decompression strains). This indicates the required measured tensile strain so as to decompress the rebar. It can be seen that the maximum tensile strains occurred in the south transverse bar at the peak load on Day 2, but these strains were, on average, only about a quarter of the required measured strains to decompress the rebar. In other words, the bar was likely still slightly compressed at the peak load. On average, the bar was precompressed by about 177 microstrain prior to removal from the formwork, and at the peak load, the bar was still precompressed by about 125 microstrain.
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While the shrinkage strains in the northern quarterspan were not measured, based on the shrinkage strains in the southern span, it is likely that the northern transverse bar was still compressed at the peak load. Similarly, it is likely that the transverse strains in the middle bar were small enough such that the bar, on average, was still slightly compressed at the peak load. It thus appears that there was only a very small internal moment about the north-south axis associated with the measured bending about the north-south axis. The strain profiles in the north and south quarterspans in Figure 4-20 show that the outer gauges (gauges TNW, TNE and TSE) remained compressive for most of the test on Day 1. The inner gauges (TNWC, TNC, TNEC, TSWC, TSC and TSEC), on the other hand, became tensile after about load stage 2. There is a clear similarity between the shapes of the profiles in the north and south quarterspans on Day 1. Once the slab started to shift to the north on Day 1, however, the strain profiles in the north quarterspan were disrupted, with the inner gauges becoming more compressive. This disruption was not noted in the south quarterspan. On Day 2, the profiles in the north quarterspan were generally reversed from their Day 1 shape, with TNEC and TWC showing compressive strains. Profiles in the south quarterspan on Day 2 resembled the shapes of the Day 1 profiles. Figure 4-22 shows the average of gauges TNW, TNE and TSE (the transverse strain gauges located in the east and west bays) and the average of all other gauges on the transverse rebars at the quarterspans. These averages are shown for both Day 1 and Day 2, with the load stages removed for clarity. It can be seen that the inner gauges are consistently tensile over the entire course of the test, while the outer gauges, on average, are compressive, until close to the end of the test. The behaviour exhibited in Figure 4-22, and the shapes of the quarterspan strain profiles on Day 1, and on Day 2 in the south quarterspan, can be explained by the fact that the slab was bending about its north-south axis as well as its primary east-west axis. The bending about the north-south axis would result in flexural tensile strains in the east-west direction, and these strains would be larger towards the centre strip of the slab than they would be in the outer strips.
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Figure 4-20: Strain Readings in Transverse Rebar Strain Gauges AT-2/3000, Day 1
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Figure 4-21: Strain Readings in Transverse Rebar Strain Gauges AT-2/3000, Day 2
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80
60 Rebar Strain (microstrain)
Average of: TNWC, TNC, TNEC TSWC, TSC, TSEC
40
20
tens.
0
comp.
-20
Average of: TNW, TNE, TSE
-40 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Applied Load (kN/m)
Figure 4-22: Average Strain Readings in Shrinkage Reinforcement -AT-2/3000 It should be noted that the strains in the transverse gauges in the north and south quarterspans are extremely small, and were well below the shrinkage strains measured prior to testing. Thus other effects such as the location of cracks with relation to the instrumented location, and differential shrinkage can not be entirely ruled out. It certainly appears, however, that the slab exhibited some two-way behaviour in both the midspan deflections as well as the transverse rebar strains.
4.3.5
Load-Displacement Response -AT-2/250 and AT-2/1000 Series
Plots of the applied load per meter width vs. the mid-span deflection for the 250mm and 1000mm wide specimens are presented in Figure 4-23 and Figure 4-24. It can be seen that the 250mm wide specimens exhibited very similar responses, failing at similar loads and deflections. On average, there was about 15% greater deflection in the specimen supported on the wide supports than the specimen supported on the narrow supports. This difference was not due to different support settlement between specimens, as vertical LVDTs were placed at the supports specifically to account for this effect. The load deflection curves in Figure 4-23 and Figure 4-24 are reproduced in Figure 4-25, and compared to the measured mid-span deflections in AT-2/3000. The AT-2/3000 loaddisplacement curves have been generated by combining the day 1 and day 2 responses at
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a load of 1866kN. The deflections from AT-2/3000 include the largest deflections measured (at VCC) the smallest deflections measured (at VCWW) and the average of all the mid-span LVDT measurements, weighted for the tributary width of the LVDT. It can be seen that AT-2/1000W, AT-2/250N and W exhibited reasonably similar load deflection characteristics. The average deflection in AT-2/3000 also was fairly similar to the deflections measured in these specimens. All the load deflection curves fall within the envelope bounded by AT-2/3000 VCWW and AT-2/3000 VCC.
4.3.6 Steel Strain Response AT-2/250 and AT-2/1000 Series

Longitudinal Steel Strains AT-2/1000 Series Strains measured in the longitudinal reinforcement in the 250mm and 1000mm wide specimens are provided in Figure 4-26. They are presented as strain profiles across the width of the specimens, and profiles from AT-2/3000 are provided for comparison at equivalent applied loads. Quarterspan profiles at three loads are shown, and the midspan profiles at loads corresponding to the peak load of AT-2/3000 are shown. The profiles for the quarterspans represent the average strains measured in the north and south quarterspans. The outer gauges consistently measured higher strains than the centreline gauges at the midspans of both AT-2/1000N (supported on narrow supports) and AT-2/1000W (supported on full-width supports). Likewise, at the quarterspans of AT-2/1000W, the outer gauges measured consistently higher strains than the centreline gauges. At low loads (at P=400kN/m width, for example) the quarterspan outer gauges measured higher strains than the centreline gauges in AT-2/1000N, but as the load increased, the centreline gauges measured higher strains than the outer gauges. This is opposite to the strain profiles measured elsewhere in the 1000mm wide specimens.
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1000
250N 250W
1000
1000N
900
900
1000W
800
800
Applied Load, Papp (kN/m Width)
Applied Load, Papp (kN/m Width)
700
700
600
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Mid-Span Displacement, (mm)
Mid-Span Displacement, (mm)
Figure 4-23: Load-Displacement Response Figure 4-24: Load-Displacement Response AT-2/1000 Series AT-2/250 Series
1000
900
AT-2/3000 -VCWW
800
700
600
500
AT-2/3000 -VCC
400
AT-2/3000 -Average mid-span deflection
300
200
100
0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Displacement (mm)
Figure 4-25: Load-Displacement Response -AT-2 Series

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Figure 4-26: Longitudinal Steel Strain Profiles -AT-2 Series

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AT-2/250 Series It can be seen in Figure 4-26 that consistently higher longitudinal strains were measured in the quarterspans of the AT-2/250 specimens than in the other specimens. This was not a result of one or more gauges measuring unusually high strains; all gauges measured consistently higher strains. Consistently lower strains were measured in AT-2/3000 at the midspan than in the midspan of other specimens. This is shown in Figure 4-27, in which the average longitudinal strains at mid-span and quarterspan locations are shown for all the AT-2 series.
1000
Quarter-span Gauges Mid-span Gauges
900
800
Applied Load, Papp (kN/m width)
700
600
500
400
300
200 AT-2/3000 AT-2/1000 AT-2/250 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
100
Average Rebar Strain (microstrain)
Figure 4-27: Average Longitudinal Steel Strains -AT-2 Series Based on the strain gauge response shown in Figure 4-27, it appears that tension stiffening effects may have been more prominent in the AT-2/3000 longitudinal strains than in the strains measured in the narrower specimens. Since bars in the corners of specimens are located close to two faces, these bars may have exhibited less tension
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stiffening than interior bars. In AT-2/3000, with a large number of interior bars, the reduced tension stiffening in the corner bars is masked in the overall response (Figure 4-27), but can be seen in the individual strain responses (Figure 4-26). The higher measured strains in the narrow specimens appears to have been a result of reduced tension stiffening due to a larger percentage of the longitudinal bars being corner bars. Comparison with AT-1 It is interesting to compare the longitudinal strain profiles in the AT-2/1000 series to those in AT-1 (Figure 3-14). Recall that the longitudinal rebar strains at the quarterspans were larger in the inner gauges than they were in the outer gauges. This pattern is similar to that exhibited at the quarterspans of AT-2/1000N, but is opposite to the profiles measured at quarterspans of AT-2/1000W. Also recall that the longitudinal strains measured at the midspan were generally smaller in the inner gauges than they were in the outer gauges. This pattern is similar to the midspan profiles measured in both AT-2/1000 specimens. Figure 4-28 presents a plot showing the ratio of the strains in centreline gauges to the strains in outer gauges at the quarterspans and midspans of both AT-1000 specimens and beam AT-1. It can be seen that the ratios at the midspans of AT-2/1000N, 1000W and AT-1 are all remarkably similar, and are equal to about 0.95 at the peak load. The ratio at the quarterspans of AT-2/1000W is generally the lowest, reaching a low of 0.55 at P=300kN/m. The ratios at the quarterspans of AT-2/1000N and AT-1, however, are generally the highest. Comparison with Shear Strains Figure 4-29 shows the shear stress vs. shear strain curves for the AT-2/250 and AT2/1000 series of specimens, in which the shear strain shown is the average of the strains measured in the north and south spans. In this figure it can be seen that the shear stressshear strain curves for specimens AT-2/250N, AT-2/250W and AT-1000W are remarkably similar up to a shear stress of about 0.9MPa. The shear strains in AT125
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2/1000N, however, are consistently smaller than the shear strains in the other three specimens. It appears that, in AT-2/1000N, lower longitudinal steel strains measured near the side faces of the specimen were associated with lower shear strains measured on those side faces. It appears reasonable to conclude that the higher longitudinal strains in the middle of AT-2/1000N were associated with higher shear strains. It is suggested that this higher shear strain in the interior of AT-2/1000N may have triggered failure at an overall shear stress that was 93% of the failure shear stress in AT2/1000W. Clearly, though, further work is required to clarify this area, based on the small sample size used here. Transverse Shrinkage and Temperature Steel Strains The strains measured in the gauges on the shrinkage and temperature reinforcement are shown in Figure 4-30 at an applied load of 854kN/m width. This load corresponds to the peak load in AT-2/3000. The strain at which, on average, the bars would be decompressed due to shrinkage is also shown. These decompressed strains are the average of the shrinkage strains measured in the transverse steel in the specimens. Transverse rebar strains at the quarterspans of AT-2/1000N were, on average, 1.2 times the rebar strains at the quarterspans of AT-2/1000W. This is consistent with the higher strains measured in the longitudinal reinforcement at these locations. The strains measured at the quarterspans in the AT-2/1000 specimens were small, and were generally either lower or only slightly higher than the decompression strains. The strains in the shrinkage reinforcement in the AT-2/1000 specimens were generally larger than the corresponding strains in AT-2/3000. It is apparent that the shrinkage and temperature steel in AT-2/3000 was unable to modify the shear behaviour in any meaningful way.
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Figure 4-28: Ratios of Centreline Strains to Outer Strains AT-2/1000 series and AT-1
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1.2
AT-2/1000W AT-2/1000N
1.0
0.8 Shear Stress (MPa)

AT-2/250N AT-2/250W
0.6
0.4
Average of South "X" and North "X"
0.2
0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Average Shear Strain (mm/m)
Figure 4-29: Shear Stress vs. Average Shear Strain-AT-2 Series
Figure 4-30: Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement StrainsAT-2/1000N, AT2/1000W and AT-2/3000 (Papp=854kN/m width)
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4.3.7 Failure Photos AT-2 Series

AT-2/250W A high-resolution digital camera capable of taking 3 to 4 frames per second was used to photograph the failures of the AT-2 series of specimens. A sequence of photographs showing the failure of Specimen AT-2/250W is shown in Figure 4-31. The applied loads are also shown, and on Figures (e) through (n), the times in seconds relative to the time the peak load is reached are also shown. Cracks have been digitally enhanced for clarity. Figure 4-32 presents figures showing the (a) measured horizontal displacements, (b) shear strains, (c) longitudinal rebar strains and (d) vertical displacements. The rebar strains are the average strains measured by gauges on adjacent bars. Data presented in Figure 4-32 corresponding to various photos in Figure 4-31 are identified with an open symbol. In this figure, it can be seen that after the peak load was reached, the vertical displacements at VS (located just slightly to the north of the critical crack) started to increase dramatically, while the vertical displacements at VC and VN increased at lower rates. The portion of concrete to the north of the failure crack (to the left-hand side, as seen in the failure photos) was therefore rotating in a clock-wise direction following the peak load. As the load was increased up to the peak load, positive horizontal movements were measured at both the north and south ends, indicating that the beam was lengthening. At the peak load, however, the south end started to move northwards. This movement was caused by the clockwise rotation of the concrete to the north of the critical crack. This movement caused the reinforcement to pull the south end of the beam to the north by dowel action. At final failure (photo m)), the block of concrete to the south of the crack rotated clockwise and shifted northwards as indicated by the arrows. The considerable increases in deflection were associated with corresponding increases in the shear strain. From the peak load to final failure, for example, the shear strain
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increased by about 3.6 times. The vertical deflections were not associated with increases in the rebar strains, all of which decreased following the peak load (Figure 4-32(c)), and this is consistent with shear failure. The increases in vertical deflection following the peak load were therefore a result of increasing shear strain, and were not a result of flexural action. This shear strain was a result of widening and slip at the critical flexuralshear crack. No crushing was noted at the tip of the crack or in the compression zone at or after the peak load. Also note that failure was not initiated by a sudden formation of a crack due to unstable crack growth. Indeed, the final failure crack extended 185mm between +11 sec. and +66 sec., corresponding to an average velocity of 3.4mm/second.
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North
South
Figure 4-31: High-Speed Digital Photos of Failure in South Side of Specimen AT-2/250W (West Face)
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Figure 4-32: Displacements, Shear Strains and Rebar Strains AT-2/250W

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AT-2/1000W Digital photos of the north end of AT-2/1000W at failure are presented in Figure 4-33. Figure 4-33a and b were taken at the last two load stages prior to failure. At the peak load of 942kN (Figure 4-33c) it can be seen that crack (b) had extended slightly towards the load, and crack (a) had extended slightly towards the support, as the load was increased from 880kN to 942kN. Both cracks had also widened. After the load dropped, no continued extension of crack (b) was noted until 16 seconds after the peak load (Figure 4-33d). From 16 to 18 seconds after the peak load, crack (a) extended, and as it extended it started to widen (Figure 4-33e and f). By 28 seconds after the peak load, crack (a) had widened considerably, formed a continuous crack with the upper portion of crack (b), and extended up towards the load point. Failure is shown in Figure 4-33h.
Figure 4-33: High-Speed Digital Photos of Failure in Specimen AT-2/1000W

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AT-2/3000 Digital photos of AT-2/3000 at failure are presented in Figure 4-34. Failure in this specimen was more rapid and sudden than the specimens described previously. From load stage 7 (Figure 4-34b) to the peak load (Figure 4-34c), it can be seen that crack (a) extended slightly, but after the peak load was reached, no immediate extension of the crack was observed. See, for example, Figure 4-34(d), taken 7.2 seconds after the peak load. At 10.4 seconds after the peak load, however, crack (a) rapidly extended up towards the load points and widened. At 10.8 seconds after the peak load, crack (a) continued to rapidly extend towards the loads, and started to extend back towards the supports. Failure occurred 11.2 seconds after the peak load.
Figure 4-34: High-Speed Digital Photos of Failure in Specimen AT-2/3000 No crushing of the concrete above the critical crack or in the compression zone was noted at or after the peak load in any of the AT-2 specimens. It must also be stressed that, in the failures described here, the load started to drop prior to the extension of the visible critical crack towards the loading point. Based on comparing the crack lengths in photos e) and f) above, the speed of the visible final failure crack propogating towards the load point was about 1.1m/sec.
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4.3.8
Analysis of AT-2/250N
As described in Chapter 2, there are several theories and analytical studies that describe the shear behaviour of reinforced concrete beams assuming that there is no aggregate interlock action at cracks. In these methods, it is assumed that all the vertical shear is carried in the uncracked compression block. Beam AT-2/250N can be analyzed to explore the accuracy of these theories. The crack patterns in this specimen up to failure are shown in Figure 4-35. Photographs of the beam at, and following, an applied load of 220kN are shown in Figure 4-36. At an applied load of 220kN (load stage 5), a large crack starting at 395mm from the centre of the south support and extending up to 95mm from the top of the beam had formed (Crack (a)). As the load was increased past 220kN, crack (a) slowly widened up to the peak load (Figure 4-36 (b)). This peak load was held for approximately 8 seconds, after which failure occurred (Figure 4-36 (c)). If all of the vertical shear was carried in the uncracked compression zone above crack (a), the maximum shear stress above the tip of crack (a) would be estimated as: max =
3 V 3 229,000 2 = = 7.2MPa , excluding self-weight. 2 bh 2 250 95
Based on an average horizontal flexural stress in the compression zone of 7.5MPa (15MPa at the top of the beam and 0 at the neutral axis), the principal tensile stress would be 4.4MPa, which greatly exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete. Nevertheless, let us continue on the assumption that the uncracked concrete can resist this high shear stress. The author suggests that the only way that the beam might be able to transfer shear without aggregate interlock or dowel action is by the formation of a direct strut from the loading plate to the centre of the uncracked compression zone above crack (a), as shown in Figure 4-37(a). Due to the geometry of the crack, this strut must then rotate so as to extend to the support plate. Statics requires that a diagonal tie force be present in some form past crack (a) in order to allow the compressive strut to rotate sufficiently so that it may extend into the support. As there is no vertical steel placed in the beam, this tie force must be developed by tensile stresses in the concrete alone. It is difficult to
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imagine how the compressive strut might make a sharp turn towards the support as shown in Figure 4-37(a), as the tension tie would need to be developed across a crack. Thus, it is more likely that a gradual change in the angle of inclination of the strut would occur well past the crack, as shown in Figure 4-37(b). The required tension tie is provided by tensile stresses developed in the concrete as shown in the figure.
Load Stage 5 Crack (a)
Figure 4-35: Crack Patterns at Load Stages -Specimen AT-2/250N (West Face)
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T=-44sec.
T=0sec.
T=+8sec. fc=31.7MPa
Figure 4-36: Photos of Failure in Specimen AT-2/250N A free-body diagram of the portion of concrete to the north of crack (a) is presented in Figure 4-37(c). Assuming no aggregate interlock, the vertical shear, V, is carried as the vertical component, Cstrut,y, of the force in the strut, Cstrut. The angle of inclination of the force in the strut, , is governed by the geometry of the cracking pattern in the beam, and since crack (a) is located close to the support and extends well up into the beam, this angle is very shallow. The actual force in the strut, Cstrut, is thus governed by the value of Cstrut,y required for vertical equilibrium and the angle of inclination of the strut, . For the specific case of AT-2/250N, the angle of inclination, , is 4.2o, and when Cstrut,y=229/2=115kN, Cstrut,x=1455kN and Cstrut=1459kN. This would result in a compressive stress in the compression zone of 61MPa, which is about 1.6fc, and a force in the tensile steel that is 3 times the maximum force that can be developed by yielding of the steel. If the concrete were to crush due to the Cstrut force and the steel were to yield, the freebody diagram in Figure 4-37(c) would not be in static equilibrium. This, combined with the high shear stress that would be required in the compression zone, should be enough to show that it is unlikely that the entire shear force is carried in the compression zone. The maximum horizontal force that can be developed in the compression zone is equal to
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AsFy. Let us assume that the compressive force in the compression zone is equal to AsFy = (1000*465) = 465kN = Cstrut,x.
Crack (a)
Figure 4-37: Analysis of AT-2/250N Assuming no Aggregate Interlock Action The compression strut beyond crack (a) is shown in Figure 4-37(d). The vertical component of the strut at the tip of the crack is equal to the shear force, and is thus equal to the vertical reaction at the support. Equilibrium requires that horizontal tensile stresses, t, in combination with the force in the steel at the support, will rotate the strut into the support. In the figure, it is assumed that the entire cross-section is effective at providing the required tension.
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As tension cracks do not form past crack (a) where the tension tie is being developed, the tensile stress in the concrete must remain below the tensile strength of the concrete. For an angle 1 = 0o, the longitudinal steel at the support would be unstressed, and the required tensile stresses would be equal to (465,000)/(250*470) = 3.95MPa. This required tensile strength is about double the tensile strength of the concrete, assuming that the uniaxial tensile strength of the concrete is equal to 0.33(fc)0.5. In order to reduce the required tensile stress to the uniaxial tensile strength of the concrete, the force in the tensile steel would need to be 230kN, resulting in a steel stress of 230MPa. Rebars that have been instrumented with strain gauges near the supports in other beam tests (for example, beam AT-1, as well as other beams described later in this thesis) have consistently shown that rebars near the supports are very lightly stressed, and are therefore not capable of significantly increasing the angle 1. The preceeding analysis has shown that it is highly unlikely that the entire shear force was carried in AT-2/250N by direct strut action above the final failure crack.
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4.4 Experimental Program AT-3 Series

A series of tests designed to complement the results of the AT-2 series was conducted. The main variable studied in the AT-3 series of tests was the effect of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement in the form of a horizontal mat of steel placed perpendicular to the primary flexural reinforcement. This section describes the AT-3 experimental program.
4.4.1
Specimen Design and Construction
The design of the AT-3 series of specimens is presented in Figure 4-38 A total of four specimens were constructed and tested. The specimens nominally measured 700mm wide x 338mm tall x 2800mm long, and were reinforced with four 25M rebars at an effective depth of 306mm (w=0.93%). In two of the beams (AT-3/T1 and AT-3/T2), shrinkage and temperature reinforcement consisting of nine 15M bars with standard 180o hooks at their ends were placed on top of the bottom flexural reinforcement (s+t=0.19%). No shrinkage and temperature reinforcement was used in the other two specimens (AT3/N1 and AT-3/N2). The formwork for the AT-3 series is shown in Figure 4-39. The formwork was constructed on a base of multiple layers of 19.1mm (3/8 in.) plywood, and consisted of 3/8in. formply supported using steel walers and braces. Following casting, the concrete was cured under wet burlap and plastic sheeting for five days. The concrete for the specimens was supplied by a local ready mix company with a maximum aggregate size of 20mm (3/4in.) and a 28-day strength of 25MPa. The aggregate was quarried on Manitoulin Island in Northern Ontario. One batch was used to fill all four forms. On the day of test, ranging from 42 to 48 days after casting, the concrete strength varied from 37.1 to 37.8MPa (see Table 4-7). Steel material properties are identical to those listed in Table 4-2.
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Figure 4-38: Specimen Design and Test Setup -AT-3 Series
Figure 4-39: AT-3 Series Formwork

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Table 4-7: Concrete Material Properties AT-3 Series

Specimen AT-3/N1 AT-3/N2 AT-3/T1 AT-3/T2 Cast Date 24 June, 2004 24 June, 2004 24 June, 2004 24 June, 2004 Test Date Aug 5, 2004 Aug 10, 2004 Aug 6, 2004 Aug 11, 2004 Age f'c (MPa) (Days) Day of Test 42 47 43 48 37.5 37.1 37.8 37.1
4.4.2
Instrumentation and Test Setup
Instrumentation used in the AT-3 series is summarized in Figure 4-40. In all four specimens, two 5mm electrical resistance strain gauges were installed on the longitudinal steel at midspan (LCE and LCW). In the specimens constructed with horizontal transverse steel (AT-3/T1 and T2), two of the transverse bars were instrumented with two 5mm electrical resistance strain gauges near the centres of the bars (TNE, TNW and TSE, TSW). One instrumented transverse bar was located near the north quarterspan, and the other instrumented bar was located near the south quarterspan. To avoid measuring strain due to bending of the steel at a crack, the instrumented rebars were oriented such that the gauges were on the vertical sides of the rebar. Prior to the test, a total of eleven LVDTs were placed below each specimen to measure midspan deflection, north and south quarterspan deflection and support settlement. Additional dial gauges were placed at the supports to measure support settlement. Horizontal LVDTs (HN and HS) were placed at the level of the steel to measure horizontal displacements at the supports. Holes were drilled in the end faces to expose the ends of a longitudinal reinforcing bar, and an LVDT was placed at the exposed rebar ends to measure rebar slip (SlipN and SlipS). A series of LVDTs were fastened to the west face of each specimen to measure shear strains. The X-s measured 250mm x 250mm, and were centered at 545mm an 220mm from the centre of the loading, in both the north and south spans. A grid of aluminum Zurich targets was not used in the AT-3 series of specimens.
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Figure 4-40: Test Instrumentation -AT-3 Series The test setup for the AT-3 series is shown in Figure 4-38 and Figure 4-41. Each specimen was aligned in the north-south direction beneath the Baldwin test frame in the Mark Huggins Laboratory in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Toronto. The specimens were supported on 152 x 1200mm steel plates and rollers at their north and south ends, with a layer of plaster placed between the plates and the soffits of the specimens. The specimens were loaded through two 152 x 1200mm plates and a steel spreader beam placed on the top of the specimens at midspan. A layer of plaster was placed between the steel plates and the top of the specimens. The span of the specimens was 2080mm, corresponding to an a/d ratio of 3.39.
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Figure 4-41: Test Setup -AT-3 Series Load was applied monotonically to each specimen, and at various stages during the tests the loading was stopped, and the load reduced slightly, to mark and measure cracks, and read dial gauges. The specimens were loaded to failure, and each test lasted for about two to three hours.
4.5 Experimental Results AT-3 Series

As-built specimen properties and experimental results are summarized in Table 4-8. Load vs. mid-span deflection curves for the AT-3 specimens are presented in Figure 4-42. The AT-3 specimens failed in shear at applied loads ranging from 475-517kN, which correspond to shear stresses ranging from 1.12 - 1.20MPa. Failure was preceded by only small deflections, with ult/L ratios ranging from 1/400 1/370. The two specimens constructed without shrinkage and temperature reinforcement exhibited both the lowest and the highest failure shear stresses of the four specimens tested. The average failure shear stress for the specimen without shrinkage steel was 1.16MPa, while the average for the specimens with shrinkage steel was 1.17MPa, a difference of 1%. It can be safely concluded, then, that the horizontal transverse mat of steel had no appreciable effect on the shear strength of these specimens.
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Table 4-8: Experimental Results -AT-3 Series

Specimen Properties (as-built) Specimen bw h d L (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) 339 339 338 339 307 306 306 307 697 706 700 706 1080 1080 1080 1080
w
(%) 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
s+t
0 0 0.19 0.19
f'c 37.5 37.1 37.8 37.1
ag,eff 19 19 19 19
sxe 276 275 275 276
(%) (MPa) (mm) (mm)
AT-3-N1 AT-3-N2 AT-3-T1 AT-3-T2
Experimental Observations Specimen Pexp (kN) AT-3-N1 AT-3-N2 AT-3-T1 AT-3-T2 Notes: (1) Calculated at d from support (2) Calculated at d from load s+t,ult = Avg. strain at peak load in shrinkage/temperature steel 475 517 506 497 ult (mm) 5.25 5.6 5.51 5.38 ult/0.5L (x10 ) 9.7 10.4 10.2 10.0
-3
ult (x10 ) 1.45 0.66 0.71 0.44

-3
shear 15% 6% 7% 4%
s,ult 2205 2728 2414 2730
s+t,ult Vexp(1) vexp(1) Vexp(2) vexp(2) (kN) (MPa) (kN) (MPa) --145 229 241.6 262.6 257.1 252.6 1.13 1.22 1.20 1.17 239.2 260.2 254.7 250.2 1.12 1.20 1.19 1.15
600
AT-3N2
500
AT-3T1
400 Applied Load (kN)
AT-3T2 AT-3N1
300
200
100
0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 Mid-Span Displacement, (mm)
Figure 4-42: Load Deflection Curves -AT-3 Series

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4.5.1
Transverse Steel Strains
The measured strains in the shrinkage steel are shown in Figure 4-43 at applied loads of 250kN and 497kN. The load of 497kN corresponds to the peak load of AT-3/T2. The strains shown represent the average of the two strain measurements on each bar. The data presented in Figure 4-43 indicate that the strains in the horizontal transverse steel were very small. The largest strains were measured in AT-3/T2 at the peak load (455). However, this represented only 17% of the midspan longitudinal rebar strain. Shrinkage strains were measured in a number of the strain gauges placed on the shrinkage and temperature steel prior to removal from the formwork. The average of these readings are presented in Figure 4-43, where it can be seen that only the midspan gauges in AT3/T2 significantly exceeded the uncompressed strains. Clearly the horizontal shrinkage and temperature reinforcement placed transverse to the spanning direction did not play a role in determining the shear behaviour of the AT-3 specimens.
Figure 4-43: Transverse Steel Strains -AT-3 Specimens

146
One-Way Slabs
4.5.2
Failure Photos
The high-speed digital camera used as part of the AT-2 experimental program was used to photograph the failures in the AT-3 series of specimens. These sequences of photos are shown in Figure 4-44, Figure 4-45, Figure 4-46 and Figure 4-47. Arrows have been placed on the final photos in each sequence to indicate the directions of movement when failure occurred. In Specimen AT-3/N1, no extensions of existing cracks were observed at the peak load, or at one second following the peak load. By 1.5 seconds after the peak load, however, a wide, flat crack formed in the south end that rapidly extended up towards the load and back towards the support. At failure, the south portion of the beam rotated counterclockwise, caused by dowel action from the downward and northward shift of the north portion of the specimen. Like AT-3/N1, specimens AT-3/N2 did not exhibit a sudden extension of the critical crack at the peak load (Figure 4-45). At twelve seconds after the peak load, a small crack connected to the critical crack initiated at just above the mid-height of the beam. This crack gradually extended both upwards towards the load and back towards the support (Figure 4-45d, e and f). At failure, the portion of the beam to the north of the failure rotated clockwise due to the downward movement of the longitudinal steel. Figure 4-46 shows digital photos of specimen AT-3/T1, and it can be seen that no sudden extension was noted in the critical crack (crack (a)) at the peak load or at 40 seconds past the peak load. AT 54 seconds past the peak load (Figure 4-46d), a small crack initiated from crack (a) at mid-height, and this crack gradually extended and widened until failure occurred. The failure of specimen AT-3/T2 was slightly different than the other AT-3 specimens. A second crack did not initiate at mid-height from the main critical crack. Rather, the critical crack (crack (a)) started to extend towards the load point at two seconds after the peak load was reached. The crack widened as it extended, and final failure occurred at 23.6 seconds after the peak load was reached.
147
One-Way Slabs
Figure 4-44: High-Speed Digital Photos of Failure East Face, AT-3/N1
148
One-Way Slabs
Figure 4-45: High-Speed Digital Photos of Failure East Face, AT-3/N2
149
One-Way Slabs
Figure 4-46: High-Speed Digital Photos of Failure East Face, AT-3/T1

150
One-Way Slabs
Figure 4-47: High-Speed Digital Photos of Failure East Face, AT-3/T2
151
One-Way Slabs
4.6 Discussion AT Series

Analysis of the results of the AT series provides interesting observations about the effects of slab width, shrinkage reinforcement, effective depth and the use of narrow supports on the shear behaviour of reinforced concrete beams and slabs.
4.6.1
Beam/Slab Width
It was found in the AT-2 series of specimens that the failure one-way shear stresses of beams and slabs tested with widths scaled by the ratios 1:4:12 did not increase. The AT1/DB165 series of specimens also did not show an increase in failure shear stress as the beam width increased. Kani (1967) came to a similar conclusion when he tested a series of small scale beams in which the widths of the beams were increased from 12 in. to 24 in. (152mm to 610mm). Rajagopalan and Ferguson (1969) also found that width did not significantly affect the failure shear stress in lightly-reinforced beams/slabs. Kanis series of tests are summarized in Table 4-9 and predicted shear strengths are presented in Table 4-10. Data from Kanis tests are plotted in Figure 4-48, along with the data from the DB165/AT-1 series, AT-2 series and Rajagopalan and Ferguson (1969). This figure shows that the width does not significantly affect the one-way failure shear stress. The ACI exemption on minimum stirrups for one-way slabs is thus not appropriate. Indeed, as the width was increased in the AT-2 series, the failure shear stress tended to drop slightly. The failure crack surface of AT-2/3000, shown in Figure 4-49, was reasonably straight across the slab width, with only slight undulations between support lines. This supports the conclusion that slab width has no effect on one-way shear capacity.
4.6.2
Shrinkage and Temperature Steel
It was also discussed previously that the use of shrinkage and temperature steel placed in a horizontal layer transverse to the spanning direction had no impact on the one-way
152
One-Way Slabs
shear strength of reinforced concrete slabs. The ratios of the shear strength of specimens with shrinkage and temperature steel to the shear strength of companion specimens without such reinforcement are presented in Figure 4-50. In this figure, it can be seen that the average strength of the AT-3/T series was 1% greater than the average strength of the AT-3/N series. In the AT-2 series, the average strength of AT-2/3000 and the AT-2/1000 series was about 98% that of the average strength of the AT-2/250 series. This decrease was due to the lower shear strengths of AT-2/1000N and AT-2/3000. It can be safely concluded that horizontal shrinkage and temperature reinforcement placed transverse to the spanning direction does not appreciably affect one-way shear behaviour. In design situations, one-way slabs must be assumed to have a similar shear stress capacity to beams, particularly in the absence of significant opportunity to shed load to the adjacent structure. Because the shear strengths of the AT-2/250 series were similar to the shear strengths of the wider AT-2 specimens, it can be further concluded that the results of shear tests of narrow beams can be applied in studying the shear capacity of wide one-way slabs.
4.6.3
Effect of Slab Depth
Because one-way slabs exhibit similar shear behaviour as narrow beams, the wellestablished size effect can be expected to apply. The failure shear stresses, normalized to the square root of the concrete strengths, of the AT series of specimens and Kanis narrow/wide beam test series are presented in Figure 4-51 as a function of the effective depth. It can be seen that ACI Equation (11-3) can be expected to predict unconservative shear strengths for very thick slabs, while producing accurate and safe predictions for shallower slabs. As discussed in Chapter 3, the 1994 CSA simplified expression for Vc (Equation (2-16)) provides an acceptable prediction of the shear strength of the normal strength specimens, while overestimating the shear strength of high-strength concrete specimens. Nevertheless, it does account for the size effect in shear. The data from Kani
153
One-Way Slabs
(1967) are very conservatively predicted because their high reinforcement ratio resulted in lower longitudinal strains in the beam web than were assumed in deriving the CSA expression. The shear strengths of the AT series, with lower reinforcement ratios, are better predicted by the 1994 CSA simplified method. The failure shear stresses of the AT series and Kanis series of specimens normalized by the square root of the concrete strength and the SMCFT strain effect factor are plotted in Figure 4-52 vs. the effective crack spacing of the specimens. Also shown is the SMCFT prediction of the variation of the normalized shear stress as a function of the effective crack spacing, and this is the SMCFT size effect factor. By accounting for both the use of high-strength concrete and the effect of the axial stiffness of the longitudinal reinforcement, the SMCFT produces a clearer picture of the size effect.
4.6.4
Final Remarks
The AT series of specimens have shown that one-way slabs and wide beams without stirrups exhibit similar shear behaviour to narrow beams. The beam width and use of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement have been shown to have no significant effect on the shear stress at failure. The exemption from minimum stirrup requirements outlined in Clause 11.5.6.1 of the ACI 318 code should not be applicable to thick, wide beams and thick one-way slabs. The average failure shear stress of AT-2/1000N and AT-2/3000, both of which were supported on narrow supports, was 94% that of the average of the other three AT-2 specimens. These results indicate that slabs and wide beams supported on narrow supports may exhibit a slight decrease in their one-way shear capacity. This difference accounts for the slight loss of strength exhibited in Figure 4-50 for the AT-2 specimens with shrinkage steel, and is a far more significant effect than the effect of the shrinkage steel. The shear strength of AT-2/3000 is identified in Figure 4-51 and Figure 4-52, where it can be seen that it exhibited a significantly lower shear strength than the other AT-2 specimens.
154
One-Way Slabs
It is suggested that cracks are wider, and shear strains higher, along the support lines of such elements, thereby initiating failure at a lower overall shear stress than in specimens supported across their entire widths. In addition to having a shear strength governed by the size effect, a thick slab or wide beam constructed without stirrups and designed using the ACI code, may thus be further disadvantaged if supported on narrow supports. The effect of narrow supports on one-way failure shear stress is greater than the effect of the slab width and the effect of shrinkage and temperature steel. The reader is referred to Lubell (2006) who studied this effect in detail. Table 4-9: Data for Narrow and Wide Beams Tested by Kani (1967)
Specimen Properties Specimen bw (mm) 97 83 96 84 81 91 Series W3.8-2.80-12P 274 273 272 271 612 612 611 611 270 271 271 269 3.02 4.02 5.02 6.06 2.73 2.72 2.72 2.75 27.2 27.2 26.9 26.9 19 19 19 19 243 243 243 241 409 337 373 355 1.51 1.24 1.38 1.32 152 156 153 151 153 154 d (mm) 276 271 275 271 274 269 a/d w (%) 2.68 2.73 2.76 2.83 2.76 2.71 f'c ag,eff sxe (MPa) (mm) (mm) 27.2 27.4 25.3 27.4 27.5 27.4 19 19 19 19 19 19 248 243 247 243 246 241 Experimental Observations Vexp (kN/m width) 411 416 368 367 334 331 v exp (MPa) 1.49 1.54 1.34 1.35 1.22 1.23
Series 3.8-2.80-12P 2.95 3.00 3.94 4.01 5.94 6.05
Table 4-10: Predicted Failure Shears for Beam/Slab Width Series

SMCFT Specimen DB165 AT-1 AT-2/250N AT-2/250W AT-2/1000N AT-2/1000W AT-2/3000 AT-3/N1 AT-3/N2 AT-3/T1 AT-3/T2 3.8-2.80-12P 97 83 96 84 81 91 W3.8-2.80-12P 274 273 272 271 152 156 153 151 153 154 612 612 611 611 276 271 275 271 274 269 270 271 271 269 248 243 247 243 246 241 243 243 243 241 27.2 27.4 25.3 27.4 27.5 27.4 27.2 27.2 26.9 26.9 1.26 1.26 1.14 1.17 1.03 1.02 1.26 1.16 1.07 1.01 1.19 1.22 1.18 1.15 1.19 1.21 1.20 1.07 1.28 1.30 1.06 1.06 0.96 0.99 0.92 0.92 1.06 0.98 0.94 0.91 1.40 1.45 1.40 1.37 1.32 1.34 1.43 1.27 1.47 1.45 1.16 24% 0.87 0.87 0.84 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.87 1.72 1.76 1.60 1.55 1.40 1.41 1.74 1.43 1.59 1.53 1.36 17% 0.871 0.874 0.84 0.874 0.876 0.874 0.871 0.871 0.866 0.866 1.71 1.76 1.59 1.55 1.39 1.41 1.74 1.43 1.59 1.53 1.25 29% sxe vpred d f'c (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) 300 2016 250 252 1002 1002 3005 697 706 700 706 925 916 437 439 438 439 440 307 306 306 307 1404 1330 540 542 541 542 544 276 275 275 276 65.0 64.0 37.7 38.5 37.9 39.0 40.6 37.5 37.1 37.8 37.1 0.80 0.74 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.94 0.93 0.94 0.93 bw vexp vpred 0.82 0.86 1.22 1.18 1.17 1.24 1.10 1.19 1.29 1.26 1.24 ACI Eq. 11-5 vpred (MPa) 1.36 1.33 1.05 1.06 1.05 1.07 1.09 1.03 1.03 1.04 1.03 vexp vpred 0.48 0.48 1.01 0.97 0.97 1.02 0.90 1.08 1.17 1.15 1.12 Eq. 2-23 vpred (MPa) 0.69 0.71 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.99 vexp vpred 0.98 0.93 1.30 1.25 1.25 1.30 1.16 1.14 1.23 1.20 1.18 ACI Eq. 11-3 vpred (MPa) vexp vpred
1.346 0.49 1.336 0.48 1.025 1.036 1.028 1.043 1.064 1.023 1.017 1.027 1.017 1.03 1.00 0.99 1.04 0.92 1.09 1.18 1.16 1.13
Average: 1.17 Coefficient of Variation: 10%
155
One-Way Slabs
0.30
Kani (1967) a/d=2.95-6.06 w=2.74%
0.25
Shear Strength (MPa-units)
0.20
AT-2 Series a/d=2.95 w=0.91%
ACI Eq. 11-3
0.15
Rajagopalan and Ferguson (1968) a/d=4.16 w=0.63%
0.10
0.05
AT-1/DB165 a/d=2.95 w=0.76-1.01%
0.00 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Beam/Slab Width (mm)
Figure 4-48: Effect of Beam or Slab Width on On-Way Shear Capacity
Figure 4-49: Failure Crack Surface -AT-2/3000

156
One-Way Slabs
1.08
1.06 Ratio of Shear Capacity to Specimens with s+t=0
1.04
1.02 AT-3
1.00 AT-2
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.90
0.88 -0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Transverse Horizontal Reinforcement Ratio, s+t (%)
Figure 4-50: Effect of Shrinkage/Temperature Steel on Shear Strength of One-Way Slabs The measured strains in the longitudinal steel have indicated that tension stiffening may have a greater effect in slabs than in narrow beams. Bars in the middle of slabs would be expected to exhibit greater tension stiffening than bars at the corners as they are exposed to only one face. This was the behaviour exhibited in Figure 4-26 and Figure 4-27. However, the greater tension stiffening in AT-2/3000 did not translate to a higher shear strength.
157
One-Way Slabs
0.35
Vc
' b w d fc
Kani (1967)
a/d=6 a/d=4 a/d=3
0.30
AT-3 Series
Normalized Shear Strength
0.25
AT-2 Series
0.20
ACI Eq. 11-3
0.15
AT-2/3000
' Vc = 0.167 fcbwd
0.10
AT-1/DB165
CSA-94 Eq. 11-7
0.05
0.00 -300
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
Beam/Slab Depth (mm)
Figure 4-51: Effect of Depth on Shear Strength of Wide Beams and Slabs
Kani (1967)
Vc b w d v 0.40 ' fc (1 + 1500 x )
1.4
a/d=6 a/d=4 a/d=3
1.2
AT-3 Series
Normalized Shear Strength
1.0
AT-2 Series
0.8
AT-2/3000
0.6
0.4
AT-1/DB165
0.2
SMCFT:
1300 1000 + s xe
0.0 -500
500
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Effective Crack Spacing, sxe (mm)
Figure 4-52: Effect of sxe on Shear Strength of Wide Beams and Slabs
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Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

One-Way Slabs vs. Wide Beams

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

4.2 Experimental Program AT-2 Series

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Figure 4-3: Design of AT-2 Series of Test Specimens

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Figure 4-4: AT-3 Series Formwork

Figure 4-5: AT-3/3000 Formwork

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

-3 Day of Test x10

Table 4-2: Steel Properties -AT-2 Series

Test Setup AT-2 Series

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Figure 4-6: Test Setup AT-2/250 and AT-2/1000 Series

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Figure 4-7: Test Setup: AT-2/250N

Figure 4-8: Test Setup: AT-2/1000W

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Figure 4-9: Test Setup AT-2/3000

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Figure 4-10: Test Setup: AT-2/3000

Instrumentation AT-2 Series

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Table 4-3: Shrinkage Strains -AT-2/1000 Specimens

Table 4-4: Shrinkage Strains -AT-2/3000

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

4.3 Experimental Results AT-2 Series

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Table 4-5: As-Built Properties and Experimental Observations AT-2 Series

Table 4-6: Failure Shears AT-2 Series

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Longitudinal Reinforcement Shrinkage Reinforcement

Figure 4-14: Initiation of Flexural Cracks at Locations of Shrinkage Reinforcement -AT2/1000N

Load-Displacement Response AT-2/3000

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

VCEE, VCWW VCC

Applied Load (kN/m width)

Applied Load (kN/m width)

0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Figure 4-15: Day 1 and Day 2 Load-Displacement Response -Specimen AT-2/3000

Load Cell Reading as Percent of Total Load

33% LCE LCW

Peak Load, Day 1

Applied Load (kN/m width)

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

Shear Behaviour of Large, Lightly-Reinforced Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs

Applied Load (kN/m width)

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100

Load Stage 7 Load Stage 6 Load Stage 5 LCE LCW