UNIT - 2 Sand Moulding: Types of base sand, requirement of base sand.

Moulding sand mixture ingredients for different sand mixtures. Method used for sand moulding, such as Green sand, dry sand and skin dried moulds. Cores: Definition, Need, Types. Method of making cores, Binders used, core sand moulding. Concept of Gating & Risers: Principle and types. Fettling and cleaning of castings: Basic steps, casting defects, Causes, features and remedies. Moulding Machines: Jolt type, Squeeze type, Jolt & Squeeze type and Sand slinger. Questions appeared in previous question papers: Question paper Dec 08/Jan 09 a. With neat sketch show all the details of green sand mould (cross section), which is ready to receive molten metal b. With a neat diagram show how carbon dioxide core is made. Give the reaction involved in bonding c. Show the different components of a horizontal gating system for a large plate casting with a neat figure. d. Draw a neat sketch of a Jolt type moulding machine. Show all the details on it, including the pattern and mould box. Question paper June/July 09 a. What are the types of moulding sands? Discuss the properties of moulding sand. b. With neat sketch explain the concept of gating and rising system. c. Mention various casting defects. Question paper May/June 10 a. What are the required properties of moulding sand? b. Discuss briefly how castings are cleaned. c. Sketch and explain a squeezer type of moulding machine. Question paper Dec 10 a. What are cores? Briefly explain their significance in the sand moulding process. b. Explain with a sketch, the working of a Jolt type moulding machine. c. With the help of a neat sketch, explain any two different types of gating systems. What is moulding? It is the process of creating cavity (mould) of the shape of product (casting) to be manufactured in the casting process. Several materials can be used to produce mould such as, metals/alloys, sand, plaster of paris and ceramics etc. Among the above mentioned materials sand is the best suited moulding material because of the following few reasons, 1. Sand is good refractive material.

2. Sand mixed with suitable binders and additives in proper proportion attains good strength to retain any shape of mould. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Sand can be easily moulded. Intricate (difficult/complicated) shapes can be moulded by sand. Sand remains sufficiently porous or permeable to escape the mould gases. Sand is chemically immune to the molten metals Sand can be used repeatedly for making moulds. Sand is inexpensive and available in abundantly.

Moulding Sand: Sand used to prepare mould is called moulding sand.

Moulding sands are broadly classifieds as Natural sand and Synthetic sand. Natural sand (Silica sand SiO ):
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Sand occurs from natural resources i.e., sand from sea beach, deserts, river banks is natural sand. Natural sand contains binding materials (Clay) and by adding water can be used for making moulds as soon as it collected from the source. Synthetic sand: Synthetic sand is mixture of base sand with binding materials in proper proportions. Synthetic sand possesses better qualities required for good moulding sand. Natural sands which are lack in one or more importantly required properties are covered by the mixing with binding materials and converted into synthetic sand. Base Sand: Refractory material Sand used for preparing moulding sand by adding some binding materials or sand which is free from other ingredients of moulding sand. Types of base sands: some of the base sands are as follows, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Silica sand(approx melting point 1700C) Zircon sand(2700C) Thoria sand(3050C) Magnesia sand(2800C) Chromite sand(2180C) Olivine sand(2200C)

Requirements of Base sand: To manufacture a good product, good mould is required which intern depends on the sand used to prepare the mould. The sand used to prepare the mould should meet the following requirements, 1. Grain shape:

Sand contains grains of many arbitrary shapes and these shapes grouped into three categories such as angular, sub angular and spherical shape. Grains which are in angular shape contains many sharp edges by which uniform coating of binding material around the grains will not be possible and intern affects the strength of the mould. Grains which are in spherical shape, uniformly coated with binding material but create more porosity due to more inter granular space between grains. Grains which are in sub angular shape contains edges but are not sharp edges and will not affect coating of binding materials around the grains and thereby strengthens the mould also will not affect the porosity of the mould. 2. Grain distribution:

As sand contains grains of many shapes, it also contains grains in many sizes. For manufacturing good product by casting method, the grain size of the sand used to prepare the mould should not be too fine of not too coarse. The grain size should be moderate size to meet desired mould properties.

The mould prepared by sand having grain size of too fine, will be lack in permeability, collapsibility and leads to casting defects. If the mould prepared by too coarse size grains, the mould suffers more permeability and rough surface finish. 3. Refractoriness:

Refractoriness is the ability of material to withstand high temperature without melting. The sand by which mould prepared should be very high refractive so that any kind of metals(high melting point metals) can be casted. 4. Thermal expansion of grains:

At high temperatures, all materials exhibit expansion. Likewise sand grains also undergo expansion, while coming in contact with high temperature molten metal. The grain expansion leads to separation of grains from each other and thus cracks generate in the mould. To avoid such problems, the moulds are prepared by having low thermal expansion characteristics. 5. Thermal stability:

In the casting process, the grains of sand undergo subsequently heating and cooling. During heating, grains will expand and in cooling, grains will contrast. Due to this operation, grains should not disintegrate or decompose should be thermally stable. 6. Impurities:

Any unwanted material which is having low melting point in moulding sand melts and disturbs desirable properties of mould. Hence, the impurity level must be as low as possible.

Properties of moulding sand: The very important characteristic of a moulding sand is that it should produce sound castings and for doing so, the moulding sand should possess certain desirable properties and they are, 1. Flowability:

Flowability assists moulding sand to flow and pack all around the pattern and take up the required shape Flowability is the ability of the moulding sand to get compacted to a uniform density Good flowability becomes very essential where energy for compaction is transmitted through the sand mass. Flowability increases as clay and water content increases. 2. Green strength:

It is the strength of the mould sand in the moist state. A mould having adequate green strength will retain its shape, will not distort, will not collapse, ever after pattern has been removed from the moulding box. Green strength helps in making and handling the moulds 3. Dry strength:

It is the strength of the moulding sand in the dry condition A mould may either intentionally be dried, skin dried or a green sand mould may loose its moisture and get dried when it comes in contact with molten metal being poured. The sand thus dried must have strength to withstand erosive force due to molten metal and metallostatic pressures and thereby retain its shape. There should be an optimum balance between dry strength and collapsibility of the moulding sand for the production of sound casting. 4. Hot strength:

It is the strength of the moulding sand above 100C The moulding sand should have sufficient hot strength to withstand enlargement, breaking or cracking of mould. 5. Permeability:

It is the ability of the moulding sand to allow easy escape of gases/vapours through it. When molten metal poured into the mould cavity, moisture, binders and additives present in the mould produces gases and vapour. Thus to provide a path for free escape of gases, the moulding sand should be permeable of porous. Soft ramming, coarser grain size or clay addition in lesser amounts improves permeability In the absence of adequate permeability, defects like surface blows, gas holes, mould blast etc may be experienced. 6. Refractoriness:

It is the ability of the moulding sand to withstand high temperatures without fusion, cracking, buckling or scabbing. As compared to castings of low melting point alloys, refractoriness is much more essential in the production of high melting point metals. 7. Adhesiveness:

It is the property of moulding sand due to which, it sticks with the walls of moulding boxes, gaggers and thus makes it possible to mould cope and dreg. The moulds having inadequate adhesiveness will collapse during handling of the moulds. 8. Collapsibility:

It is the ability of the moulding sand which determines the readiness with which the moulding sand automatically gets collapsed after the castings solidifies and breaks down in knock out cleaning operations. Higher collapsibility of mould reduces the damages occurred to the casting during cleaning process. 9. Coefficient of expansion:

It the ability of the moulding sand to expand due to elevated temperatures.

Every material expands to some extent at higher temperatures so the moulding sand. But moulding should have very less expansion characteristics I,e, lesser coefficient of expansion which reduces the expansion defects in the mould and also reduces the crack generation in the mould. 10. Durability

It is the ability of the moulding sand to withstand repeated cycles of heating and cooling and still retain its properties. The sand should be reusable for longer span and also sand should retain its properties during its storage.

Sand moulding methods: Green sand moulding: It is most widely used moulding process. The green sand used for moulding consists of silica, clay, water and additives like, coal dust, wood flour, pitch. The green sand is prepared by mixing above said ingredients in muller. The pattern is first placed on moulding board along with drag. Facing sand is sprayed over the pattern and the drag box is filled with prepared moulding sand and rammed uniformly. The complete assembly is turned over, moulding board is removed and parting sand is sprayed over the mould surface to prevent cope and drag halves from bonding together while ramming the cope. The cope is places over the drag and fixed firmly with the help of pins. The riser and sprue rods are placed at appropriate place in cope and cope if filled with moulding sand and rammed uniformly. The riser and sprue rods are rapped to loosen them and removed from cope which leaves two conical holes for pouring molten metal. Also venting is done in the cope for the escape of gases. The cope is separated from drag and pattern is removed from drag. The runner and in gate is cut with hand tool in the drag which connects sprue and riser to mould cavity. Finally all loose sand is blown out of the mould cavity and mould cavity is closed by placing the cope on drag, using pins. This assembly is ready for pouring the molten metal. Advantages: a. Green sand moulding is adaptable to machine moulding. b. No mould baking or drying is required. c. There is less mould distortion than in the dry moulding. d. Time and cost associated with mould baking or drying is eliminated. Disadvantages a. Green sand moulds possess lower strengths. b. Green sand moulds are less permeable. c. Green sand moulds are more chances of gas casting defects and sand erosion. d. Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of the casting decreases as their weight increases. Dry sand moulding: Dry moulding sand differs from the green moulding sand in the sense that it contains binders like clay, bentonite, molasses, etc which harden when the mould heated and dried. A typical dry sand mixture consists of silica sand, backing sand, coal dust and bentonite. A dry sand mould is prepared in the same manner as green sand mould; however it is baked at 200C to 400C for 8 to 48 hrs depending upon the binders used. Advantages: a. Dry sand moulds possess high strength b. Dry sand moulds are more permeable as compared to green sand moulds c. Surface finish of castings produced by dry sand mould is smooth and clean d. Dry sand moulds reduces casting defects like gas casting defect

Disadvantages: a. Dry sand moulding involves more labour and consumes more time in completing the mould. b. Dry sand moulding is more expensive as compared to green sand moulding c. Dry sand moulding involves chances of hot tears, mould distortion occurring in the castings. d. Dry sand moulding gives slower rate of production as compared to green sand moulding. Skin dry sand moulding: A skin dry sand mould is intermediate between green sand mould and dry sand mould Whereas a dry sand mould has its entire surface dried, a skin dried mould has its skin of 6mm to 20mm dried. Moisture from the skin is removed either by storing the mould for some time or with the help of gas torches Skin dry moulding possesses partially the advantages of both green sad and dry sand moulding.

What is Core? Core is mould component or pre-formed sand shape placed in mould cavity to create desired internal or external hollow contours (surfaces) on casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity, core present in the mould cavity acts as an obstruction to molten metal to fill the mould cavity and hence molten metal flows around the core without occupying the place of core, thus leaving a hollow cavity at the place of core in the casting. After solidification, the casting is separated by mould and by knocking out the core, leaves a cavity or void in the casting. In casting processes, like sand mould, core also comes in contact with molten metal and hence core needs to possess some desirable properties like, Core should have 1. Sufficient Strength 2. Good Permeability 3. High Refractoriness 4. Good Collapsibility 5. Minimal thermal expansion 6. Smooth surface Need: Core produces design feature on casting, which is not possible to mould with pattern only. Core creates internal or external surface contour of required shape such as, holes of any shape in the castings, cavities, undercuts, pockets etc which are not possible to create by pattern only. Types of cores: Cores are generally categorized based upon the material by which core is prepared and the position of core in mould cavity. a. Based on the material used to prepare cores, 1. Green sand core: The core is prepared with green sand by which mould will be preparing. The core will not be prepared separately; it is formed by the pattern itself while creating mould with green sand. When the pattern is removed, both core and mould are simultaneously formed. The green sand core is the part of the core so called self core and is preferred for vertical cores and for small size castings as they are not strong enough. 2. Dry sand core:

The core is prepared by core sand unlike green sand core which is formed with same moulding sand (green sand) during the moulding process. A dry sand core is made in core box by pouring the core sand in core box followed by ramming the sand and is baked after removing from core box to get strength. The dry core is positioned in the mould in the core-seats formed by core prints on the pattern before closing the mould. 3. Oil sand core:

The oil sand core is prepared by mixing core sand with small amount of linseed oil. The shape to the core is given by using core box. Due to oxidation and polymerization of chemical additive contained by linseed oil, which, when activated by an oxygen bearing material, will set in the predetermined time. Oil sand core is baked to give higher strength. It is most commonly used core with very good collapsibility property. 4. CO Hardened core:
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This type of core is prepared by mixing core sand with sodium silicate solution. The sand mixture rammed into core box, simultaneously CO2 gas is passed through core for several seconds. CO2 gas reacts with sodium silicate and produces silicon dioxide which intern reacts with water to form silica gel which binds sand particles together. Na2SiO3+CO2-------Na2CO3+SiO2 (Silica gel)

Core thus formed will not be in need of baking.

b.

Based on the position of core in the mould, 1. Horizontal core:

When the core is placed horizontally (axis of core) in the mould is called horizontal core It is supported by the core seats at both ends created by the core prints of the pattern during moulding. Usually horizontal cores placed at parting line of the mould making it symmetrical about parting line. 2. Vertical core:

When the core is placed vertically (axis of core) in the mould is called vertical core. The two ends of vertical core are supported in core seats in cope and dreg respectively. 3. Balance/Overhang core:

It is horizontal type of core having support at one end and only another end is projecting into mould cavity. As core is balanced or supported at one end only it is called as balanced or overhanging core. The core print or seat should be long to prevent bending of the core. 4. Hanging/Cover core:

If core in mould cavity is hanging vertically and supported by cope without touching bottom surface of the mould is called hanging or cover core. Hanging core is not supported by seat rather it hangs from the cope with the help of wires. Hanging core is provided with hole to pour molten metal into mould cavity. 5. Droop/Stop off core:

It is used when a hole, recess, or cavity required in a casing is not in line with parting line; rather it is above or below the parting line of the casting. Drop core is supported by core seat created by pattern in mould. 6. Ram Up core:

Ram Up core is one which is placed in drag along with pattern during moulding. It cannot be placed after creating the mould. It will be fixed in mould during moulding at the required place in the mould. 7. Kiss core:

Kiss core is vertical cores without core seats at cope and drag. Kiss core does not required core seat instead core is held between drag and cope due to the pressure exerted by cope on the drag. A number of kiss cores can be simultaneously positioned in order to obtain a number of holes in casting.

Method of making cores: Core making takes place in following stages. 1. Core sand preparation: Core sand which is the mixture of base sand (silica sand) and binder (clay etc...) is added with additives and mixed homogeneously either by hand or by muller. Through mixing of ingredients is done so that all the sand particles are covered by the binder, which leads to obtain uniform strength. 2. Core moulding

Cores are prepared either by hands or by machines depending on the need. Machines are used for large scale continuous production. Some of the machines are Jolt m/c, sans slinger, core blower. A core box is essential for preparation of cores which is a mould for the preparation of core. Prepared core sand is filled in the core box of required shape and rammed to give shape of the core box to core sand. The core box should be made in such a way that core can be withdrawn from the boxes without damaging the shapes of the core. Different types of core boxes are, half core box, dump core box, split core box, strickel core box, gang core box etc. The cores thus prepared are removed from the core box and placed on metal plates for drying. 3. Core venting:

As cores contain some percent moisture, it is necessary to have vents for steam and other gases to leave cores which are produced during baking of core or while molten metal surrounds the core in mould. Venting is done by making adequate channels using scratchers in two piece core and with help of vent rod in single piece core. 4. Core hardening

Green cores are hardened and enhances the strength by baking the core in ovens or by passing carbon dioxide gas into the green core Green cores are baked in ovens in the temperature range of 200C to 300C. baking is carried out in order to remove moisture, impart dry and hot strength. Depending on the number of cores, baking can be done in different ovens like, batch type ovens, continuous type ovens and dielectric bakers. Cores are also hardened by exposing cores to carbon dioxide gas. Sodium silicate present in the core reacts with carbon dioxide produces silica gel which binds the sand particles and hardens the core. 5. Core finishing

The hardened core are finished by rubbing or filing with special tools to remove any fins, bumps, loose sand, and other projections from core surface.

The cores are also checked for dimension sand cleanliness. Finally, if cores are made in many parts, they are assembled by using suitable binders and dried in air before placing them in mould.

Binders used: Some of the commonly used binders for core are as follows, 1. Binders that becomes hard at room temperature. a. Clay (Bentonite) b. Sodium silicate c. Portland cement d. Rubber cement (latex) e. Synthetic resins (phenol, urea formaldehyde) Binders that becomes hard on baking. a. Vegetable oil (linseed oil) b. Marine animal oil (whale oil) c. Cereal binder d. Dextrin from starch e. Molasses f. Pitch (coal tar product) 3. Binders that becomes hard on cooling after being heated. a. wood resins b. Coal tar resins Core sand moulding: The mould cavity is produced by assembling a number of cores made individually in separate core boxes and baked. The cores are made with recesses and projections so that they can be fitted together to make the mould. In this moulding, moulding box is filled with backing sand near walls. Cores are set and are packed tightly in position against the backing sand. Heavy castings can be produced by this kind of moulding. This type of moulding is not economical as cores are prepared separately. Process of core setting is laborious and time consuming. 2.

Gating system: It is the passage way through which the molten metal passes to enter mould cavity. The system consists of following elements, a. Pouring cup/basin b. Sprue c. Sprue well/base d. Runner e. Skim bob f. Gate/in-gate Pouring cup/basin: Pouring cup is conical shaped opening of sprue. It acts as funnel and thereby helps in smooth transfer of molten metal from ladle to sprue without spillage. Pouring basin works in the same manner of pouring cup and also it acts as reservoir for molten metal. Pouring basin stores molten metal, holds back the slag and dirt which floats on the top and allows only clean molten metal underneath it into the sprue. Pouring cup or basin may cut into the cope portion of the mould or separate dry sand pouring basin may be prepared and used.

Sprue:

It is tapered vertical channel in the cope portion of mould. It helps in transfer of molten metal from pouring cup/basin into the runner. Sprue is tapered to minimize the aspirations during the metal flow and also helps to gain the velocity of molten metal into the runner

Sprue well/ bottom well/ sprue base: It is small well like feature at the bottom of the sprue which connects sprue with runner It acts as reservoir and thereby minimizes generation of turbulences in metal flow and minimizes erosion of the sand as molten metal flows with little higher velocity from the sprue into the runner.

Runner: It is long horizontal channel that carries molten metal from sprue to mould cavity through the ingates.

Skim bob: It is the enlarged portion of the runner which helps in trapping the impurities such as dross, slag, sand grains thus prevents them from entering into mould cavities.

Gate/in-gate: These are small length channels which connects runner with mould cavity.

Functions of the gating system: a. Gating system regulates the velocity of molten metal and intern reduces turbulent flow of metal flow and thereby reduces sand erosion, sand oxidation and gas entrapment. b. Gating system helps to promote temperature gradients favorable for proper directional solidification c. Gating system separates the non metallic inclusions which are either introduced with molten metal or are dislodged in the gating system. Types of gating system: 1. Top gating system 2. Bottom gating system 3. Parting line gating system Top gating system: In this type of gating system, sprue is directly connected to mould cavity and the molten metal poured into the pouring cup/basin will directly drops into the mould cavity. Advantages a. The construction is very simple b. Saving in the time of mould making and metal pouring and also low consumption of metal c. Absence of turbulence because of straight path d. The system itself acts as a riser for simple castings e. It provides favorable temperature gradient for directional solidification Disadvantages a. Dropping of the liquid metal directly into the mould cavity erodes the mould surface and causes casting defects. b. Splashing of the molten metal in mould cavity increases splash defects and oxidation of metal. c. Metal feeding is not smooth as in case of bottom and parting line gating system. Bottom gating system: In this type of gating system, gate is provided at the bottom of the mould cavity or in the drag portion of mould cavity.

Here molten metal fills gradually the bottom portion of the mould cavity and rises steadily and gently up the mould walls Advantages a. No splashing and scouring takes place in the bottom gating system b. Bottom gate produces good casting surface Disadvantages a. In the bottom gate, molten metal enters the mould cavity at the bottom. If freezing takes place at the bottom, it could choke off the metal flow before the mould is filling b. Construction is not simple Parting line gate: In this type of gating system, gates are connected to mould cavity at the parting line of mould. Here the molten metal enters the mould cavity from the side of the mould Parting line gates can be made by pattern itself or it can be cut manually after preparing the mould cavity. Advantages a. Simple in construction b. Directional solidification is possible c. Parting line gate makes best compromise between moulding conveniences and the ideal gating arrangement Disadvantages a. In case of the parting line is not near the bottom of the mould cavity or the drag portion is deep, some turbulence and sand erosion will occur as the liquid metal falls into the mould cavity Riser: It is the tapered vertical channel in the cope portion of the mould. When the mould cavity is filled by molten metal, metal will rise in the riser so the name riser or feeder head. It is also the part of gating system which performs the following functions, a. The primary function of the riser is to feed metal to the solidifying casting so that shrinkage cavities are minimized. b. A riser permits escape of air and mould gases as the mould cavity is being filled with molten metal c. A riser full of molten metal indicates that the mould cavity has been completely filled up with molten metal d. Riser promotes directional solidification Types of risers: Top/open riser: This is the most commonly used riser in sand casting. The riser is open to atmosphere and located vertically above the mould cavity in the cope portion of the mould. The molten metal from the riser is fed to the solidifying casting under the force of gravity and atmospheric pressure. Advantages: a. Construction is simple b. An open riser is open to atmosphere, thus it ensures that unlike a blind riser it will not draw metal from the casting as a result of partial vacuum in the riser. Disadvantages: a. Being exposed to atmosphere, the liquid metal in the top portion of the riser starts solidifying because there is major heat loss to atmosphere by radiation. The use of insulating and exothermic compounds is required. b. Its height is determined not by feeding requirements, but by the dept of moulding box used. Blind riser: Unlike open riser blind riser is surrounded by moulding sand and completely enclosed. It can be located either in the cope or in the drag depending on the convenience. It is in the form of cylindrical cavity. Since blind riser is not exposed to atmosphere, feeding is done only by gravity. However, to provide a partial exposure to the atmosphere, a permeable core is provided at the top of the blind riser Advantages: a. Since blind riser is surrounded by sand, solidifies very slowly and provides directional solidification. b. Blind riser is smaller in size and can be placed either inn cope or drag

Disadvantages: a. It needs more skill and experience in forming blind riser than an open riser. b. A blind riser may draw metal from casting due to partial vacuum creating in the riser.

Fettling and cleaning of castings:

After solidification, the casting is taken out from the mould which is attached with unwanted parts like gating system, extended metal parts, sand particles etc. For the proper casting to be useful, these unwanted things are to be removed by cleaning and finishing operations. The process of cleaning and finishing of casting is called fettling process. Fettling processes involves the following steps, Removal of cores: After separating the casting from mould, cores are removed from the casting. As the cores are prepared by sand, can be easily collapsed and removed from the casting or by rapping/knocking the casting by iron rod can removes the cores from casting. In some complicated design, hydroblasting (high velocity jet of water hits the casting and collapses the cores present in the casting)is used to remove cores.

Removal of gates and risers: Gates and risers of a casting are removed by various methods depending upon the size, material, and the complexity of the gating system. some of the important methods are, Hammering method in which hammers are used hit the runner or gate of the gating system to separate the casting from the gating system. This method is commonly used for brittle materials because they have tendency to break easily by impact force. Sawing method in which various kinds of saws used to separate sprue, riser, runner etc. The method is commonly used for soft materials. Gas cutting/flame cutting method in which oxyacetylene is used to produce flame and melts the unwanted part and thereby separates from casting. The method is used for hard materials which are unable to separate by sawing and hammering. Abrasive cutting method in which different types of grinding wheels used to remove gating system from the casting. The method is used for small sized castings of all kinds of materials. Cutting out of fins and unwanted projections: In casting process, if the mould boxes are not matched perfectly, molten metal will flow through any cavity formed due to miss match and gets solidified which results in some extra metal projections along parting line of the mould and this extra projected metal is called fins and also as casting defects, metal will be projected outward on the casting. In this step of fettling all above said unwanted projections are removed either by chipping, flame gouging, grinding or snagging. Chipping is removing of unwanted fins and projections of metals on castings with the help of sharp chisel. The operation is done either by hand or pneumatic hammer. In flame gouging oxyacetylene cutting torch is used to remove unwanted projection. The operation is much faster and safer to casting by without damaging the casting. Grinding or snagging is a abrasive machining in which different grinding machines are used such as, portable grinders, floor stand grinders and swing frame grinders depending on the size of the castings. Cleaning and smoothing of surface: In this step, adhered sand particles are removed from the surface of the castings and also improve the surface finish of the castings. The various methods employed are tumbling, hydroblasting, sand blasting, shot blasting and arc air gouging and cleaning. In tumbling, a number of castings to be cleaned are charged into a horizontally mounted tumbling barrel with small pieces of white iron stars. The barrel is provided with motor to rotate barrel about horizontal axis. When the barrel is rotated, the castings rub against each other and with stars and this causes surface cleaning action. The method is usually employed for small sized castings.

In hydroblasting, a fast moving jet of water which carries abrasive particles strikes the slowly rotating casting surface and cleans the casting surface. The abrasive material used here is sand particles. Sand blasting and shot blasting are same as hydroblasting but differs in the material used to hit the casting. In sand blasting, sand is used to hit the surface of casting with the help of high pressure compresses air. A high pressure compresses air which carries sand particles strikes the casting surface and cleans the casting surface. In shot blasting, steel bolls of diameter 1mm to 2mm are used to hit the casting surface. A impeller which is rotating at high velocity is used to blast steel balls on the casting surface. In arc air gouging, the casting surface which is having unwanted particles is heated by an electric arc to the fusion temperature and the melted surface metal is blown off using high pressure compressed air to remove that unwanted particle from the casting surface. Repairing of defects (if possible): If the produced casting is having defect which is in repairable limits that is defect can be removed from the casting, the defects are repaired. the common defects which can be repaired are hair cracks on the casting surface, open blows, rough surface, slightly out of shapes, bent etc which can be removed by grinding operation, by filling suitable metal in the cavities, by straightening to the correct shapes.

Casting defects:
Any unwanted deviation from the desired requirements in a cast product results in a defect. Some defects in the cast products are tolerable while others can be rectified by additional processes like welding etc. The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings: 1. Gas defects 2. Shrinkage cavities 3. Moulding material defects 4. Pouring metal defects 5. Metallurgical defects Gas Defects These defects are due to lower gas passing tendency of the mould which is caused by lower venting , lower permeability of the mould and improper design of the casting. The lower permeability of the mould is due to use of finer size grains of sand, higher percentage of clay & moisture and excessive ramming of the mould. The various gas defects are discussed here in detail. Blow holes and Open blows: These are spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the casting or on the surface. When present inside the casting it is called blow hole while it is termed as open blow if it appears on the surface of the casting. These defects are caused by the moisture left in the mould and the core. Due to heat of the molten metal the moisture is converted into steam, part of which when entrapped in the casting ends up as blow hole or ends up as open blow when it reaches the surface. Thus in green sand mould it is very difficult to get rid of the blow holes, unless properly vented. Scar: A shallow blow, usually found on a flat casting surface, is referred to as a scar. Blister: This is a scar covered by the thin layers of a metal. Air inclusions: The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the ladle and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be trapped inside the casting and weaken it. The main reasons for this defect are the higher pouring temperatures which increase the amount of gas absorbed; poor gating design such as straight sprue in unpressurised gating; abrupt bends and other turbulence causing practices in the gating, which increase the air aspiration and finally the low permeability of the mould. The remedies would be to choose the appropriate pouring temperature and improve gating practices by reducing the turbulence. Pin hole porosity: As the molten metal gets solidified it loses the temperature which decreases the solubility of gases and thereby expelling the dissolved gases. The hydrogen which is picked up by the molten metal either in the furnace from the unburnt fuel or by the dissociation of water inside the mould cavity may escape the solidifying metal leaving behind very small diameter and long pin holes showing the path of escape. The high pouring temperature which increases the gas pick up is the main reason for this defect. Shrinkage Cavities These are caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. An improper riser and gating system may give this type of defect which has a shape of a funnel. Moulding Material Defects

These defects are originated due to some specific characteristics of the moulding materials like insufficient strength, improper ramming etc. The various defects under this category are discussed in detail. Cuts and Washes: Theses appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal and are caused by the erosion of the moulding sand by the flowing molten metal. This may be due to insufficient strength of mould material or the high velocity of the molten metal. The proper choice of moulding sand and appropriate moulding method together with better design of gating system which reduces turbulence by increasing the size of the gates or by using multiple ingates can eliminate these defects. Metal Penetration: When molten metal enters the gaps between the sand grains, the result would be a rough casting surface. This is due to either use of coarse sand grains in mould material or no use of mould wash. This can also be caused by higher pouring temperature. Choosing appropriate grain sizes, together with proper mould wash should be able to eliminate this defect. Fusion: This is caused by the fusion of sand grains with molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main reasons for this defect are the lower refractoriness of the clay used in moulding sand and very high pouring temperature. The choice of an appropriate type and amount of Bentonite would cure this defect. Run out: This is happened when the molten metal leaks out of the mould due to faulty mould making or defective moulding flask. Buckles: This refers to a long, fairly shallow, broad, vee-shaped depression occurring in the surface of a flat casting of a high temperature metal. At this high temperature, an expansion of the thin layer of sand at the mould face takes place before the liquid metal at the mould face solidifies. As this expansion is obstructed by the flask, the mould face tends to bulge out, forming the vee shape. A proper amount of volatile additives in the sand-mix is therefore essential to make room for this expansion and to avoid the buckles. Rat tail: It is a long shallow angular depression normally found in a thin casting. The reason for its formation is the same as that of buckles. Here, instead of the expanding sand up heaving, the compressed layer fails by one layer, gliding over the other. Scab: This refers to the rough thin layer of a metal, protruding above the casting surface, on top of a thin layer of sand. The layer is held onto the casting by a metal stringer through the sand. A scab results when the upheaved sand is separated from the mould surface and the liquid metal flows into the space between the mould and the displaced sand. Swell: Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting. As a result of the swell, the feeding requirements of the casting increase which should be taken care of by the proper choice of risering. The main cause of this defect is improper ramming of the mould. Drop: An irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface of a casting is called a drop. This is caused by dropping of sand from the cope or other overhanging projections into the mould. An adequate strength of the sand and the use of gaggers can help in avoiding the drops. Dross: Lighter impurities appearing on the top of a casting are called dross. It can be taken care of at the pouring stage by using items such as a strainer and skim bob. Dirt: Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get embedded on the top surface of a casting. When removed, these leave small, angular holes, known as dirts. Mould and Core shift: A misalignment between two halves of a mould or of a core may give rise to a defective casting. Pouring Metal Defects The likely defects under this category are mentioned here. Misrun: Many a time, the liquid metal may, due to insufficient superheat, start freezing before reaching the farthest point of the mould cavity. This defect is called Misrun. Cold shut: For a casting with gates at its two sides, the misrun may show up at the centre of the casting due to non fusion of two streams of metal resulting in a discontinuity or weak spot in casting. Above two defects are due to lower fluidity of the molten metal or small thickness of the casting. The fluidity of the metal can be increased by changing the composition of molten metal or raising the pouring temperature. The other causes for these defects are large surface area to volume ratio of the casting, high heat transfer rate of the mould material and back pressure of the gases entrapped in the mould cavity due to inadequate venting. Slag inclusions: During the melting process, flux is added to remove the undesirable oxides and impurities (refractory materials, sand) present in the metal. At the time of tapping, the slag should be properly removed from the ladle, before the metal is poured into the mould. Otherwise any slag entering the mould cavity will be weakening the casting and also spoiling the surface of the casting. Metallurgical Defects The defects under this category are hot tears and hard spots.

 Hot tears: Since metal has low strength at higher temperatures, any unwanted cooling stress may cause the rupture of the casting. The better design of casting avoids this defect. Hard spots: These are caused by the chilling of the casting. For example, with grey cast iron having small amounts of silicon, very hard white cast iron may result at the chilled surface. This hard spot will interfere with subsequent machining of this region. Proper metallurgical control and chilling practices are essential for eliminating the hard spots. The remedies of some defects are also causes of others. Therefore one has to analyze the casting from the viewpoint of its final application and thus arrive at a proper moulding procedure to eliminate or minimize the most undesirable casting defects.

Moulding machine:
Jolt type moulding machine: Constructional features: The machine mainly consists of piston inside a cylinder. Piston carries the table on which moulding performed Cylinder is provided with 2 openings called as ports. Among one is called inlet port and other one is called exit port through these ports, compressed air passing to operate machine. Inlet port is situated at the bottom side of the cylinder and exit port is situated at some height above the inlet port. A hopper carrying moulding sand is located above the table. The machine is located on a firm and rigid concrete base

Working: Moulding box with pattern is placed on the table appropriately Moulding box which contains pattern is filled with moulding sand As machine starts, compressed air from the inlet port passes into the cylinder and lifts the piston. As soon as piston uncovers the exit port, compressed air escapes through exit port and piston carrying the table dropped suddenly inside the cylinder due to its own weight and simultaneously covers the exit port. Again compressed air entered into the cylinder as exit port closes and lifts the piston along with table and repeats the operations. Rising of piston to a height and suddenly dropping is called jolting action. The process is repeated for several time to achieve desired hardness of the mould. The box is ejected out using ejector pins One half of the mould is ready to use, similarly second half is prepared and completed the mould. In this type of moulding machine, mould is more denser at the lower portion I,e, sand is more denser around the pattern than at parting line.

Squeeze type moulding machine: Constructional features: The machine mainly consists of piston inside a cylinder. Piston carries the table on which moulding performed The cylinder is provided with single port at the bottom side of cylinder through which compressed air enters into the cylinder and leaves from the cylinder to operate machine. The machine is fitted with squeeze head above the table which can be swing in 360 about the vertical axis. A hopper carrying moulding sand is located above the table. The machine is located on a firm and rigid concrete base

Working: Moulding box with pattern is placed on the table appropriately Moulding box which contains pattern is filled with moulding sand By swinging the squeeze head, brought it above the table for squeezing action. As the machine starts, compresses air enters into the cylinder through the port provided on the cylinder and lifts the table along with mould box and squeezes the moulding sand against stationary squeeze head. After squeezing action, compresses air is released from the same port by operating the two way valve and brought the piston and mould box to downward original place. The box is ejected out using ejector pins One half of the mould is ready to use, similarly second half is prepared and completed the mould. In this type of moulding machine, mould is more denser at the upper portion I,e, sand is more denser at parting line than around the pattern in the mould.

Jolt-Squeeze moulding machine: Constructional features: The machine mainly consists of piston, sleeve and outer casting/cylinder as shown in the figure. Piston carrying the table is housed in the sleeve and sleeve along with piston is housed in outer casting/cylinder. Sleeve has an opening O1 at the top and another opening O3 at the bottom. The outer casting has 3 openings as shown in the figure. Opening O4 is connected to valve 1 referred to as jolt valve. Opening O5 is connected to valve 2 referred to as squeeze valve. Opening O2 is exhaust port and connects the opening O1 Valves are connected to compressed air supply The machine is fitted with squeeze head above the table which can be swing in 360 about the vertical axis. A hopper carrying moulding sand is located above the table. The machine is located on a firm and rigid concrete base

Working: Moulding box with pattern is placed on the table appropriately Moulding box which contains pattern is filled with moulding sand By swinging the squeeze head, brought it above the table for squeezing action. As the machine starts, jolt valve opens and compressed air enters into the sleeve through O3 and lifts the piston along with mould box. As soon as piston uncovers O1 opening, compressed air escapes through exhaust port and piston dropped suddenly due to own weight and simultaneously covers exhaust port and repeats the action to get jolting action. After performing the jolting action, squeezing action is performed by opening the squeeze valve and passing compressed air into the outer casting. Compressed air in the outer casting lifts the sleeve along with piston and table and squeezes mould sand in the mould box with squeeze head provided above the table. By this mechanism both jolting and squeezing can be imparted to the sand in the mould box. The hardness of the mould will be uniform throughout from top to bottom.

Sand slinger: Constructional features: Sand slinger mainly consists of impeller fitted in the hopper, two types of conveyor which transfers moulding sand from container to hopper as shown in the figure.

Sand slinger is used for large boxes for preparing the large moulds. Swinging hopper produces a number of moulds one after the other around the slinger..

Working: Mould box with pattern is placed below the hopper of sand slinger. Prepared mould sand is dumped in container. As slinger switched on, conveyor buckets carry the moulding sand from the container to the top and transfers to belt conveyor. Belt conveyor transfers moulding sand to hopper which contains impeller. As impeller starts rotating, it through the moulding sand at high velocity in the mould box around the pattern and gets compacted and results in the uniform hardness throughout mould.