Data Structures and Algorithms

Resmi N.G. Reference: Data Structures and Algorithms: Alfred V. Aho, John E. Hopcroft, Jeffrey D.
Ullman
Syllabus
Module I (11 hours) Review of Data Types - Scalar Types - Primitive types - Enumerated types - Subranges - Arrays- sparse matrices - representation - Records - Complexity of Algorithms - Time & Space Complexity of Algorithms Recursion: Recursive algorithms - Analysis of Recursive algorithms Module II (18 hours) Linear Data Structures - Stacks Queues -Lists - Dequeus - Linked List - singly, doubly linked and circular lists - Application of linked lists - Polynomial Manipulation - Stack & Queue implementation using Array & Linked List - Typical problems - Conversion of infix to postfix - Evaluation of postfix expression priority queues Module III (18 hours) Non Linear Structures - Graphs - Trees - Graph and Tree implementation using array and Linked List Binary trees - Binary tree traversals - pre-order, in-order and postorder - Threaded binary trees Binary Search trees - AVL trees - B trees and B+ trees - Graph traversals - DFS, BFS - shortest path - Dijkstras algorithm, Minimum spanning tree - Kruskal Algorithm, Prims algorithm Module IV (18 hours) Searching - Sequential Search - Searching Arrays and Linked Lists - Binary Searching - Searching arrays and Binary Search Trees - Hashing - Open & Closed Hashing - Hash functions - Resolution of Collision Sorting- n2 Sorts - Bubble Sort - Insertion Sort - Selection Sort - n log n Sorts - Quick Sort - Heap Sort Merge Sort - External Sort - Merge Files
CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1
References
Text Books Aho A.V, Hopcroft J.E. & Ullman J.D, Data Structures and Algorithms, AddisonWesley Reference Books 1. Sahni S, Data Structures, Algorithms and Applications in C++, McGrawHill 2. Wirth N, Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs, Prentice Hall. 3. Cormen T.H, Leiserson C.E & Rivest R.L, Introduction to Algorithms in C++, Thomson Books. 4. Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms, Ellis Horowitz, S. Sahni 5. Deshpande P.S, Kakde O.G, C and Data Structures, Dream- tech India Pvt. Ltd.
Module 1
Introduction Review of Data Types Scalar types Primitive types Enumerated types Subrange types Arrays - representation sparse matrices Records - representation Sets - representation
Complexity of Algorithms Time complexity Space Complexity Recursion: Recursive algorithms Analysis of Recursive algorithms
Problems to Programs
Problem formulation and specification Design of the solution Implementation Testing and documentation Evaluation of the solution
Problems to Programs
Identify the problem Formal model (mathematical model informal algorithm) Check for existing programs for the given problem Algorithm pseudo-language and stepwise refinement Implementation
Algorithm
Finite sequence of instructions Clear meaning Finite amount of effort Finite length of time (never enters an infinite loop on any input.)
Algorithm Specification
Pascal Language Pseudo Language Constructs of a programming language + Informal English statements
Problem Solving Process

Mathematical Model Informal Algorithm Abstract Data Type (ADT) Data Structure Pascal program Pseudo language Program (Step-wise refinement) :
Mathematical model (together with various operations defined on the model). Designing Phase Data Structure: Logical Model (to represent the mathematical model underlying an ADT) Implementation Phase Both are models with collection of operations
ADT
The model defines an abstract view to the problem. This implies that the model focuses only on problem and tries to define properties of the problem. These properties include: the data which are affected and the operations which are identified by the problem.
As an example, consider the administration of employees in an institution. What employee information administration? What tasks should be allowed? is needed by the
Employees are real persons who can be characterized with many properties; a few are: name, size, date of birth, social number, room number, hobbies.
Only some of them are problem specific. Consequently, you create a model of an employee for the problem. This model only implies properties which are needed to fulfill the requirements of the administration, for instance, name, date of birth and social number. These properties are called the data of the (employee) model. Now you have described real persons with help of an abstract employee.
There must be some operations defined with which the administration is able to handle the abstract employees. For example, there must be an operation which allows you to create a new employee once a new person enters the institution. Also, you have to identify the operations which should be able to be performed on an abstract employee. You also decide to allow access to the employees' data only with associated operations.
Data Abstraction
Abstraction is the structuring of a nebulous(not properly defined) problem into well-defined entities by defining their data and operations. These entities combine data and operations.
Properties of Abstract Data Types

With abstraction, you create a well-defined entity which can be properly handled. These entities define the data structure of a set of items. For example, each administered employee has a name, date of birth and social number. The data structure can only be accessed with defined operations.
An entity with the properties just described is called an abstract data type (ADT). ADT consists of an abstract data structure and operations. Only the operations are viewable from the outside.
Once a new employee is ``created', the data structure is filled with actual values; You then have an instance of an abstract employee. As many instances of an abstract employee as needed can be created to describe every real employed person.
An abstract data type (ADT) is characterized by the following properties: 1. It exports a type.
2. It exports a set of operations. This set is called interface. 3. Operations of the interface are the one and only access mechanism to the type's data structure. 4. Axioms and preconditions define the application domain of the type.
Data Structure Encapsulation

The principle of hiding the used data structure and to only provide a well-defined interface is known as encapsulation.
To define an ADT for complex numbers. Complex numbers consists of two parts: real part and imaginary part. Both parts are represented by real numbers. Complex numbers define several operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc.
To represent a complex number, it is necessary to define the data structure to be used by its ADT. Two possibilities: Both parts are stored in a two-valued array where the first value indicates the real part and the second value the imaginary part of the complex number. If x denotes the real part and y the imaginary part, you could think of accessing them via array subscription: x=c[0] and y=c[1].
Both parts are stored in a two-valued record. If the element name of the real part is r and that of the imaginary part is i, x and y can be obtained with: x=c.r and y=c.i. ADT definition also says that for each access to the data structure, there must be an operation defined. The addition of two complex numbers requires you to perform an addition for each part. Consequently, you must access the value of each part which is different for each version.
By providing an operation ``add'' you can encapsulate these details from its actual use. In an application context you simply ``add two complex numbers'' regardless of how this functionality is actually achieved. Once you have created an ADT for complex numbers, say Complex, it can be used in the same way as well-known data types such as integers.
Abstract Data Type (ADT) Mathematical model with collection of operations defined on that model Generalization of primitive data types Eg; Sets of integers together with operations of union, intersection and set difference. Eg; LIST (of integers)
Make list empty Get first member of list, return null if empty Get next member of list, return null if empty Insert integer into list
Implementation of ADT is a translation into statements of a programming language of the declaration that defines a variable to be that ADT, plus a procedure in that language for each operation of that ADT. Implementation chooses a data structure to represent the ADT. Ie; Data structure is used to represent the mathematical model underlying an ADT.
ADT and DATA ABSTRACTION

Encapsulation of operations and data (eg:ADT) 2 properties Generalization Encapsulation Advantages Changes done easily by revising a small section. No concern of underlying implementation.
Data Types, Data Structures and ADTs

Data type determines the set of values which may be assumed by a variable or expression. Type of a value denoted by a variable or expression may be derived from its declaration. Each operator or function expects arguments of a fixed type and yields result of a fixed type.
DATA TYPES IN PASCAL

Pascal supports two major types of data: Simple Vs. Structured Within these types there are scalar and ordinal kinds of data. Simple data types cannot be further broken down into anything finer. Eg; INTEGER, REAL, BOOLEAN and CHAR. These four types of data are also called the Pascal standard data types. These four types are also scalar data, since the relational characters < > = <> <= and >= are all valid between values of any data of these types. INTEGER, BOOLEAN and CHAR are also ordinal data. This means that every value of a given type (except the last) has a unique value which comes after it (called its successor) and every value (except the first) has a unique value which comes before it (called its predecessor). Data of type REAL however, is not ordinal, since finding the "next" value after a real number value is determined by the number of decimal digits the computer can store.
Different Data Types

Scalar Primitive Enumerated Subranges Arrays Records Sets Files Pointers and Cursors Structure
Primitive Data types

Machine dependent boolean char Integer real
Variable declaration in Pascal var result : real Variable result of type real is declared using keyword var.
BOOLEAN Values: FALSE , TRUE Operations: NOT, AND, OR, assignment Predefined functions: PRED, SUCC, ORD Predefined procedures: WRITE, WRITELN CHAR Values: space < '!' < ... < '0' < '1' < ... < '9' < ':' < ';' < '<' < '=' < '>' < '?' < '@'
< 'A' < 'B' < ... < 'Z' < ... < 'a' < 'b' < ... < 'z
Operations: assignment, comparison with relational characters Predefined functions: PRED, SUCC, ORD Predefined procedures: READ, READLN, WRITE, WRITELN
INTEGER Values: -32768, ..., -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... 32767 (= MAXINT) Operations: +, -, *, DIV, MOD, assignment, comparison with relationals Predefined functions: PRED, SUCC, ORD, ABS, SQR, SQRT, ODD, CHR Predefined procedures: READ, READLN, WRITE, WRITELN REAL Values: ratios of integers Operations: +, -, *, /, assignment, comparison Predefined functions: ABS, SQR, SQRT, ROUND, TRUNC Predefined procedures: READ, READLN, WRITE, WRITELN
CHR The chr or character position function returns the character associated with the ASCII value being asked. eg; chr( 65 ) will return the character A. ORD The ord or ordinal function returns the ASCII value of a requested character. In essence, it works backwards to the chr function. Ordinal data types are those which have a predefined, known set of values. Each value which follows in the set is one greater than the previous. Characters and integers are thus ordinal data types. ord( 'C' ) will return the value 67.
SUCC The successor function determines the next value or symbol in the set, thus succ( 'd' ) will return e. PRED The predecessor function determines the previous value or symbol in the set, thus pred( 'd' ) will return c. ord(false) ord(true) ord(21) ord('A') returns returns returns returns 0 1 21 65
USER DEFINED TYPES

In Pascal, a programmer can define his/her own constants (in a const section) and similarly his/her own variables (in a var section). User defined data types are placed in a new section of the program, the TYPE section. This section is found between CONST and VAR sections using the reserved word TYPE. One way to declare a type is to use a subrange. For example: const Last = 50; type Valid_numbers = 1..Last; var X, Y: Valid_numbers;
Enumerated data Type

type <name> = (const1,const2,); eg: type day = (Mon,Tues,,Sun); type boolean = (true,false) ;
ENUMERATED DATA TYPES

type Work_days = (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday); Week_end = (Saturday, Sunday); Wednesday,
var School_days: Work_days; Free_days: Week_end; Worst_days: Monday..Thursday; { user defined subrange type }
type beverage = ( coffee, tea, cola, soda, milk, water ); color = ( green, red, yellow, blue, black, white ); var drink : beverage; chair : color; drink := coffee; chair := green; if chair = yellow then drink := tea;
SUBRANGE TYPES
Identifiers can be defined so that they have a restricted range of values of a given ordinal type. The syntax is: Identifier: First value..Last value; These constructs are called subrange types. Examples: var num: -10..19; { Num has integer values -10 to 19 inclusive } alphabet : 'A'..'Z; { Alphabet is char with values 'A' to 'Z' }
Subranges
type name = <constant1> .. <constant2> eg: type range = low..high type digit = 0..99
Used as array bounds
Cell
Cell Basic building block of data structures Capable of holding a value
Data Structure
Created by giving names to aggregates of cells.
Arrays
Homogeneous Random access structure Index array[0..99] of type var A :array[0..99] of char name:array[index type] of celltype Array is a sequence of cells of a given type often referred to as celltype. Indextype can be an enumerated data type or subrange.
Records
Collection of cells called fields May be of dissimilar types Records can be grouped into arrays.
record <name1> : <type1> <name2> :<type2> . . <namek> :<typek> end
Kinds Of Record Declaration

Using Enumeration eg; type complex = record re:real; im:real; end;
type complex = record re,im:real; end;
Using var & array combination var reclist: array[1..4]of record data:real; next:integer; end;
type cardsuit = (clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades); card = record suit: cardsuit; value: 1 .. 13; end; var hand: array [ 1 .. 13 ] of card; trump: cardsuit;
Array Vs Record
Array Homogeneous Run Time Record Heterogeneous Compile time
SETS
Ordered collection of elements + No repetition Set brackets - individually or subranges eg:[a..z,A..Z],[0..9],[mon..sun] Operators defined on all set types - [+,-,*, in ]
type T = set of T0 Eg; type set1 = set of [1..3] var A: set1; or var A: set of [1..3];
Set Operations =>Membership operator (in) =>Bitwise operator (Union, difference, intersection) =>Relational (<=,=,>=)
FILES
Sequence of values of some particular type No index type, accessed in order Number of elements in a file can be time-varying and unlimited.
type T = file of T0 Eg; type file1 = file of char var A: file1; Or var A: file of char;
File operators: {rewrite, put, reset, get}

POINTERS
Cell whose value indicates another cell.
var ptr : cell type;
type link = cell; cell = record info: integer; next: link end;
CURSOR
Integer valued cell, used as array(used in Fortran)
header
pointer to an
.
1.2 3.4 5.6 7.8
data reclist
1 2
3 0 2 1
next
type recordtype = record cursor:integer; ptr: recordtype end;

3 4
Complexity of algorithm
Time
Space
Understandability
More important is runtime

Measuring runtime of a program(Factors)

Input
Quality of code generated by the compiler
Nature and speed of the instructions on the machine
Time complexity of the algorithm

Running time of a program

Depends on input It is a function of size of the input. Denoted by T (n) where n is the size of the input.
Views of running time

(1) Worst case: maximum inputs (2) Average case: average number of inputs (3) Best case: no risk considered
T(n) is measured not in seconds but by growth functions.
Generally worst case running time is calculated .
Big-Oh(Worst case)
The time complexity of an algorithm quantifies the amount of time taken by an algorithm to run as a function of the size of the input to the problem. The time complexity of an algorithm is commonly expressed using Big - Oh notation. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm Big - Oh notation usually only provides an upper bound on the growth rate of the function.
Asymptotic efficiency- how running time of an algorithm increases with the size of input.
Definition of Big-Oh
T(n) is O (n) Means that there exist +ve constants c and n0 such that for all n n0 , we have, T(n) c n O(g(n)) = f(n) : if there exist +ve constants c and n0 such that 0 f(n) c.g(n) , for all n n0 Find time complexity of T(n) = (n+1) Find time complexity of T(n) = 3n+2n
Rules for Big-Oh

Rule for sum T(n) of P = O(f(n)) T2(n) of P2 = O(g(n)) Therefore, running time of P1 followed by P2, ie; T(n) +T2(n) = O(max(f(n),g(n))) eg; O(n+n) = O(n)
Find running time of O(n),O(n),O(n log n) Find O(max(f(n),g(n))), if f(n)={n4, if n is even; n, if n is odd} g(n)={n, if n is even; n, if n is odd}
Rules for products T(n) = O(f(n)) T2(n) = O(g(n)) T(n).T2(n) = O(f(n).g(n))
O(c.f(n)) = O(f(n)) Eg: O(n/2) = O(n)
Points to consider when analysing an algorithm

Count the total number of elementary operations in the algorithm for any given input. For algorithms with loops, count the maximum number of iterations for any given input. For algorithms with recursive function calls, count the maximum number of recursive function calls on any given input.
Big O notation will always assume the upper limit where the algorithm will perform the maximum number of operations or iterations. O(1) describes an algorithm that will always execute in the same time (or space) regardless of the size of the input data set. O(1) operations run in constant time. O(N) describes an algorithm whose performance will grow linearly and in direct proportion to the size of the input data set. O(n) operations run in linear time.
O(N2) represents an algorithm whose performance is directly proportional to the square of the size of the input data set. This is common with algorithms that involve nested iterations over the data set. Deeper nested iterations will result in O(N3), O(N4) etc. O(log n) - Any algorithm which cuts the problem in half each time is O(log n). O(log n) operations run in logarithmic time. O(n log n) Performs O(log n) operation for each item in your input. O(n log n) operations run in loglinear time.
O(2^n) - means that the time taken will double with each additional element in the input data set. O(2^n) operations run in exponential time. O(n!) - involves doing something for all possible permutations of the n elements. O(n!) operations run in factorial time.
Elementary operations:
Arithmetic operations Assignment operation Testing a condition Read operation Write operation These operations taken independently has complexity O(1).
1. Sequence of statements which is executed only once. Constant time O(1) Statement1; Statement2; : : Statement k; Total time taken = time(Statement1) + time(Statement2) + + time(Statement k) Time for each statement is a constant. Therefore, total time is a constant and hence T(n) is O(1). This has complexity O(1) as it does not depend on the number of statements in the sequence.
Example: Algorithm to check if a number is even or odd. if n%2 = 0 then ------O(1) writeln(number is even); ------O(1) else writeln(number is odd); ------O(1) T(n) is O(1).
2. For loop Linear time O(n) for i:=1 to n do begin sequence1; end To find time complexity of an algorithm with loops, count the number of times the loop executes. Worst case: loop executes n times. Here, each of the statements in the sequence is O(1). Total no. of iterations = n Therefore, total time taken = n*O(1) = O(n). Hence, T(n) is O(n).
Example: Linear Search or Sequential Search Algorithm to search for a number in an array. Best case: number is found at first position. Worst case: number is found at the last position or it is not present in the array( entire array is searched). for i:=1 to n do begin if num = arr[i] then ---O(1) writeln(number found); ---O(1) end T(n) is n*O(1) = O(n).
n times
3. If-then-else statements if condition then sequence1; else sequence2; Either sequence1 or sequence2 will execute. Worst case time is the slowest of the 2 possibilities. T(n) = O(max[time(sequence1), time(sequence2)]) Suppose time(sequence1) = O(1) and time(sequence2) = O(n), then T(n) = O(n).
Example: Algorithm to print first n numbers if choice = 1 else print wrong choice. Best case: choice not equal to 1. Worst case: choice = 1. All n numbers are printed. if choice = 1 then for i:=1 to n do begin if num = arr[i] then ---O(1) n times writeln(number found); ---O(1) end else writeln(Wrong choice!); ---O(1) T(n) is max(O(n), O(1)) = O(n).
4. Nested for loop a)Quadratic time O(n2) for i:=1 to m do begin for j:=1 to n do begin sequence1; end end To find time complexity of an algorithm with loops, count the total number of iterations. Worst case: Inner loop executes n times and outer loop executes m times.
Here, each of the statements in the sequence is O(1). For each iteration of outer loop, no. of iterations of inner loop = n. Therefore, T(inner loop) = n*O(1) = O(n). No. of iterations of outer loop = m. Therefore, total no. of iterations of O(1) sequence = m*n. Or There are m repetitions of O(n) sequence. Hence, T(n) = m* O(n) = O(mn)
Hence, T(n) is O(n2) when m = n.

Example: Displaying a matrix for i:=1 to n do begin for j:=1 to n do begin writeln(arr[i,j]) ; ---O(1) end end T(n) is n*(n*O(1))) = O(n2).
n times n times
4. Nested for loop b) Cubic time O(n3) Matrix multiplication for i:=1 to n do begin for j:=1 to n do begin c[i,j] := 0; for k:=1 to n do c[i,j] := c[i,j] + a[i,k]*b[k,j]; end To find time complexity of an algorithm with loops, count the total number of iterations.
Here, c[i,j] := c[i,j] + a[i,k]*b[k,j]; is O(1). The innermost loop executes n times. ie; There are n repetitions of O(1) sequence. Therefore, T(innermost loop) = n*O(1) = O(n). No. of iterations of loop with index j = n. Therefore, total no. of iterations of O(1) sequence = n*n = n2. Or There are n repetitions of O(n) sequence. Outer loop executes n times. Therefore, total no. of iterations of O(1) sequence = n2 *n = n3. Or There are n repetitions of O(n2) sequence. Hence, T(n) is O(n3). The algorithm takes Cubic time.
5. Nested loop where inner loop index depends on outer loop index. for i:=1 to m do begin for j:= i+1 to n do sequence1;
Value of i 1 2 : n-2 n-1 No. of iterations of inner loop n-1 n-2 : 2 1
Total number of iterations = 1+ 2 + + n-2 + n-1 = (n-1)n/2 = (n2/2) - n/2 = O(n2)
T(n) is O(n2). The algorithm takes Quadratic time.

Hence,
Some more examples

2 loops one after the other for i:=1 to n do sequence1; for j:=1 to m do sequence2; Complexity of first loop is O(n) and second is O(m). By sum rule, runtime of the whole sequence is T(n) is O(m+n) = O(max(m,n)).
Nested loop followed by non-nested loop for i:=1 to n do for j:= 1 to n do sequence1; for k:=1 to n do sequence2; Complexity of first loop is O(n2) and second is O(n). By sum rule, runtime of the whole sequence is T(n) is O(max(n2,n)) = O(n2).
Analysis of bubble sort algorithm
Analysis of bubble sort algorithm

Assignment statement takes some constant amount of time, independent of input size . ie, (4),(5),(6) each take O(1) time. Testing condition requires O(1) time. Thus if group statements (3) (6) takes O(1) time. For loop lines (2) (6), the running time is the sum over each iteration of the loop, of the time spent executing the loop body for that iteration. no. of iteration of the loop = n-i
Thus, Time taken by loop body for each iteration is O(1). Time spent in the loop of line (2) - (6) = O((n-i)* 1) = O(n-i). Statement (1) is executed (n-1) times. So the total running time of the program is bounded above by some constant times.
n-1 i=1
(n-i) = (n-1)(n-2)(n-3)(1)
Sum of n natural numbers = n(n-1)/2 - So Here, T(n) = O(n2 ).
Most Familiar Big-Oh notations (Orders of growth in increasing order) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Constant time Logarithmic Time Linear time n log n Quadratic time Cubic time Polynomial time Exponential Time O(1) O(logn) O(n) O(nlogn) O(n2) O(n3) O(nk) O(kn)
Recursion Recursive Algorithms

Procedure repeatedly calling itself eg: Factorial Procedure
function fact (n : integer):integer; {fact(n) computes n!} begin (1) if n<=1 then (2) fact:=1; else (3) fact:=n*fact(n-1); end; {fact}
Sample Data fact(3)=3 *fact(2) fact(2)=2*fact(1) fact(1)=1*fact(0) fact(0)=1 fact(1)=1 fact(2)=2 fact(3)=6
Analysis of Factorial Procedure

function fact(n : integer):integer; {fact(n) computes n!} begin (1) if n<=1 then (2) fact:=1; else (3) fact:=n*fact(n-1); end; {fact}
Time Complexity
O(1) O(1)
O(1) + T(n-1)
Computing total running time of factorial procedure T(n) = c+ T(n-1) if n>1 (1) =d if n<=1 Hence, T(n-1) = c + T((n-1)-1) = c + T(n-2) Substitute (2) in (1) T(n) = c + [c + T(n-2)] T(n) = 2c + T(n-2) Similarly, T(n-2) = c + T(n-3)
(2)
(3) (4)
Substitute (4) in (3) Thus, T(n) = 3c + T(n-3) Or, For n>k, T(n) = k.c + T(n-k) Finally, when k = n-1, T(n) = c(n-1) + T(1) = c(n-1) + d = cn c + d Therefore ,T(n) is O(n).
if n>3 .(5)
The Towers of Hanoi
Goal: Move stack of rings to another peg

Rule 1: Can move only 1 ring at a time Rule 2: Can never have a larger ring on top of a smaller ring
Solution
Move top (n-1) disks from A to B.
The Towers of Hanoi

Move larger ring from A to C.
The Towers of Hanoi

Move the (n-1) rings from B to C.
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
The Towers of Hanoi
Towers of Hanoi - Complexity

For 1 rings we have 1 operations. For 2 rings we have 3 operations. For 3 rings we have 7 operations. For 4 rings we have 15 operations. In general, the cost is 2N
1 = O(2N).
Each time we increment N, we double the amount of work. This grows incredibly fast!
Deriving Recurrence Relation function THanoi(n, A, B, C): THanoi (n-1, A, C, B); Move larger disc from A to C; THanoi (n-1, B, A, C); T(n) = T (n-1) + O(1) + T(n-1) = 2T(n-1) + O(1) //A to B using C //B to C using A
T(n) = 2T(n-1) + O(1) = 2[2T(n-2) + O(1)] + O(1) = 2[2 [2T(n-3) + O(1)] + O(1)] + O(1) =23 T(n-3) + 22 O(1) + 2O(1) + O(1) : = 2n T(0) + (2n -1)O(1) Therefore, T(n) is O(2n). The algorithm takes exponential time.
Additional Points
Space complexity Recursive algorithm(Fibonacci) Steps in recursion Recursion Vs Iteration Disadvantages of recursion
Thank You
Resmi N.G. References: Data Structures and Algorithms: Alfred V. Aho, John E. Hopcroft, Jeffrey D. Ullman A Practical Approach to Data Structures and Algorithms: Sanjay Pahuja
Module 2
Module II (18 hours) Linear Data Structures - Stacks Queues -Lists Dequeues - Linked List - singly, doubly linked and circular lists - Application of linked lists - Polynomial Manipulation - Stack & Queue implementation using Array & Linked List - Typical problems - Conversion of infix to postfix - Evaluation of postfix expression priority queues
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CS 09 303 Data Structures - Module 2
LIST
Flexible data structure: grows and shrinks on demand. Elements can be accessed, inserted, or deleted at any position within
a list.
Lists can be concatenated or split into sub-lists. Mathematically, a list is a sequence of zero or more elements of a
given type. Represented by a comma separated sequence of elements a1,a2,an where n>=0 and each ai is of a given type.
n is the length of the list.
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Features Of List
Can be linearly ordered according to their position on the list. Concatenation and splitting possible Main application areas are: => Information retrieval => Programming language translation => Programming language simulation
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LIST OPERATIONS
INSERT(x, p,L) : Inserts x at position p in list L. Move elements at p and following positions to next higher positions. Insert x at position p in list L. If L is a1, a2, , an, then L becomes a1, a2, , ap-1, x, ap, , an . If p is END (L), then L becomes a1, a2, , an, x.
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END(L) : returns the last position of list L LOCATE(x, L) : returns the position of x on list L.
If x appears more than once, it returns the position of first occurrence of x. If x does not appear at all, then it returns END(L).
RETRIEVE(p,L) : returns element at position p on list L.

Result is undefined if p = END (L) or if L has no position p.
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DELETE(p, L) : deletes the element at position p of list L.

If list is a1,a2, , an, then the list L becomes a1, a2, ap-1, ap+1, ,an.
NEXT(p, L): returns position following p on list L. PREVIOUS(p, L):returns position preceding p on list L. MAKENULL(L) : Makes the list L empty and returns the position END(L). FIRST(L) : returns first position on list L. PRINTLIST(L) :prints elements of L in order of occurrence.
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Implementation Of List
2 Ways Array Implementation Pointer Implementation(Linked List representation)
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Array Implementation Of List

Elements are stored in contiguous cells of an array. Easily traversed Elements can be appended readily to the end of the list. Definition of LIST: is a record that contains 2 fields:
an array of elements with maximum required length an integer last : indicating position of the last list element in the array.
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Array Implementation Of List (Definition)

const MAXLEN = 100; type LIST = record elements:array[1..MAXLEN] of elementtype; last :integer; end;
position = integer;
END(L) Algorithm
function END (var L: List) : position; begin return (L.last + 1) {gives total no. of elements in the list} end; {END}
0 50 1 107 2 15 3 201 L.last
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INSERTION Algorithm
procedure INSERT(x : elementtype; p : position; var L: LIST) {INSERT places x at position p in list L} var q:position; begin if L.last >= MAXLEN then error (list is full) else if (p > L.last + 1 ) or ( p < 1) then error(position does not exist) else begin for q := L.last downto p do {shift elements at p, p+1 down by one position} L.elements[q+1] := L.elements[q]; L.last := L.last+1; L.elements[p] := x; end end;{INSERT}
Insertion
Insert (47, 0, L)
0 1 2 3
L.last := L.last + 1 = -1 + 1 = 0 L.elements[0] := 47;

47 p
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L.last
CS 09 303 Data Structures - Module 2 13
Insert (59, 1, L)
0 47 L.last p 1 2 3
L.last := L.last + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 L.elements[1] := 59;

47 p 59 L.last
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Insert (65, 2, L)
0 47 1 59 L.last p 2 3
L.last := L.last + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 L.elements[2] := 65;

47 59 p 65 L.last
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Insert (53, 1, L)
0 47 1 59 p q 2 65 L.last 3
Shift elements down to insert at position 1. Start with q = L.last. L.elements[q+1] := L.elements[q] { Move element at position 2 to position 3. L.elements[2+1] = L.elements[2] L.elements[3] = L.elements[2] }
47 59 p
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65 q L.last q+1
16
Decrement q until q = p. So, q = 1.

0 47 1 59 p q L.last 2 3 65
L.elements[q+1] := L.elements[q] { Move element at position 1 to position 2. L.elements[1+1] = L.elements[1] L.elements[2] = L.elements[1] }
47 p q
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65
17
Now, q = p = 1. So, insert element at position 1.

0 47 p q 1 2 59 L.last 3 65
L.last := L.last + 1 = 2+1 = 3; L.elements[p] := L.elements[1] = 53;
47
53 p q
59
65 L.last
18
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DELETION Algorithm
procedure DELETE (p:position; var L : LIST) {DELETE removes the element at position p of list L} var q:position; begin if ( p > L.last ) or ( p < 1) then error(position does not exist) else begin L.last := L.last-1; for q := p to L.last do {shift elements at p+1, p+2, up one position} L.elements[q] := L.elements[q+1]; end end;{DELETE}
Deletion
Delete (1, L)
0 47 1 53 p 2 59 3 65
L.last
L.last := L.last - 1 = 3-1= 2
47
53 p
59 L.last
65
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To delete element at 1, shift elements at 2 and 3 up by one position. Start with q = p. ie. q = 1.
0 47 1 53 p q q+1 2 59 L.last 3 65
Move element at location q+1 = 2 to location q = 1. L.elements[q] := L.elements[q+1];
47
59 p q q+1 L.last
65
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Increment q until q = L.last = 2. So, q = q + 1 = 2.

0 47 1 59 p q 2 59 L.last 3 65 q+1
Move element at location q+1 = 3 to location q = 2. L.elements[q] := L.elements[q+1];

47 59 p
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22
LOCATE Algorithm
function LOCATE( x:elementtype; var L:LIST) : position; {LOCATE returns position of x on list L} var q:position; begin for q:=1 to L.last do if L.elements[q] = x then return(q); else return( L.last + 1 ) {if not found} end;{LOCATE}
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Removing Duplicates in a LIST

Procedure PURGE (Var L:List); {PURGE removes duplicate elements from list L} Var p,q : position; {p will be the current position in L, and q will move ahead to find equal elements} Begin (1) p := FIRST(L); (2) While p <> END(L) do begin (3) q := NEXT(p, L); (4) while q <> END(L) do (5) if same (RETRIEVE (p, L), RETRIEVE (q, L ) then (6) DELETE(q,L); (7) else (8) q:=NEXT(q,L); (9) p:=NEXT(p,L) (10) End; End; {PURGE}
Pointer Implementation Of List: (LINKED LIST)

Use of special data structure - Linked List Singly-linked cells which use pointers to link successive list
elements are used here. Does not require contiguous memory for storage. Allocates memory dynamically Linked List is made up of cells, and each cell contains: Element of the list Pointer to next cell on the list If the list is a1,a2,an, the cell holding ai has a pointer to the cell holding ai+1, for i = 1, 2, n-1. Header holds no element but points to cell holding a1. The cell holding an has a nil pointer.
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Classification Of Linked Lists

Linear or singly linked list Doubly Linked List Circular Linked List Circular Doubly linked List
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Linear Singly Linked List

Definition type celltype = record element:elementtype; next: celltype; end; LIST= celltype; position = celltype;
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Operations Of Singly Linked List

END(L) Algorithm Function END(var L : List) : position; {END returns a pointer to the last cell of L} Var q:position; begin (1) q:=L; (2) While q .next <> nil do (3) q:= q .next; (4) return(q) end; {END}
Operations Of Singly Linked List INSERTION

Steps involved are : Find the correct location Insert the element
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Finding the Correct Location

Three possible positions: The front The end Somewhere in between the existing cells
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Inserting to the Front

head 93 head 48 17 142
There is no work to find the location. Insertion at the beginning of the list
No Worries!
Inserting to the End

head 48 17 142 93 //
//
Find the end of the list (when at NIL)
No Worries!
Inserting to the Middle

head 17 48 142 93 142 //
//
Used when the order is important.
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Operations Of Singly Linked List(contd..)

INSERTION Algorithm Procedure INSERT(var x : elementtype, p : position); {Inserts a cell with element x after position p} Var temp : position; Begin (1) temp := p . next; (2) New(p .next); (3) p .next .element := x; (4) p .next .next := temp; End;{INSERT}
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Explanation
(1) temp := p . next; {address of the cell next to p is stored in temp}
head
4 p
6 Temp
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(2) New(p .next); {A new cell is created and its address is assigned to p .next}
head
4 p
6 temp p . next = address of new cell
p . next
(3) p .next .element := x; {Element at p .next is assigned as x}
head
4 p
6 temp p . next . element = 5 5 p . next
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(3) p .next . next := temp; {Next of p .next is assigned as temp}
head
4 p
6 temp
p . next . next = temp 5 p . next

head
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DELETION Algorithm Deletes the element after position p. Procedure DELETE( var p:position); Begin p .next := p .next .next; End;{DELETE}
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Deletion at the front

head
6 4 17 42
Head has the address of first node
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Deletion at the front

head
6 4 17 42
Head is made to point to the next cell.
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Deletion from in between the cells

head
4 17 42
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head
4 17 42
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p p . next = p . next . next p . next p . next . next
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LOCATE Algorithm Function LOCATE( var x : elementtype; var L:LIST):position; Var p : position; Begin p := L; while p . next <> nil do if p . next . element = x then return (p); else p := p . next ; return (p) {if not found} End;{LOCATE}
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Deleting a particular element

head
17
42
Target = 4
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head p 6
17
42
Start searching from the beginning of the list L. Initially, p = L; Target = 4
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head p 6
17
42
Check if p.next.element = 4. NO. So, move onto next cell. p = p.next Target = 4
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head
17
42
p Check if p.next.element = 4. YES. So, perform the operation p.next = p.next.next Target = 4
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head
17
42
p .next = p.next.next
Target = 4
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head
17
42
Target = 4
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head
17
42
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MAKENULL Algorithm Function MAKENULL(Var L:LIST):position; Begin new(L); L .next := nil; return(L); End; {MAKENULL}
Creates an empty list L

Doubly Linked List

Each cell has a pointer to the next and previous cells on the list. Given an element, it is easy to determine the preceding and following elements quickly. Can be used to traverse a list in both forward and backward directions.
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Doubly Linked List

Definition Type celltype = record element : elementtype; next , previous : celltype; End; position = celltype; newnode = celltype;
Doubly Linked List

INSERTION ALGORITHM Procedure INSERT( var element:elementtype; var pos:position) Var Temp : position; Begin Temp := L; i : =1; while (i < pos and Temp < > NIL ) begin Temp : = Temp . Next; i : = i + 1; End;
If Temp < > NIL and i = pos then begin New( newNode); newNode .element : = element; newNode .next : = Temp .next; newNode . previous : = Temp; Temp .next . previous : = newNode; Temp . next := newNode; end { if } Else begin error ( position not found ) end; { INSERT}
Explanation
temp := L; i : =1; temp 5 15 20 head
Check if i<pos, and temp<>NIL. i=1, pos = 2 and temp<>NIL. So, move forward. temp = temp.next i = i+1
head
5 temp
15
20
Check if i<pos, and temp<>NIL. i=2, pos = 2 and temp<>NIL. So, do insertion.
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If Temp < > NIL and i = pos then begin new( newNode); {Creates a new node in memory and assigns its address to newnode.}
newNode .element : = element; {Inserts element at newnode.}

10 head
5 temp
15
20
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head
5 temp
15
20
10
newNode .next : = temp .next;
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head
5 temp
15
20
10
newNode . previous : = temp;
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head temp . next
5 temp
15
20
temp .next . previous : = newNode;
10
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head
5 temp
15
20
temp .next : = newNode;

10
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head
10
15
20
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Deletion in Doubly Linked List
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DELETION ALGORITHM Procedure DELETE ( Var p : position); Begin if p . Previous < > nil then { deleted cell not the first } p . Previous . Next : = p . Next; if p . Next < > nil then { deleted cell not the last } p . Next . Previous : = p . Previous End { DELETE}
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p . previous . next = p . next;
p. next . previous = p . previous ;
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STACK
An Abstract Data Type Special List : insertions & deletions at one
end(top)
Also called LIFO(Last In First Out) list.
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Operations performed on stack

MAKENULL(S) : Make stack S an empty stack. TOP(S) : Return the top element of stack S. POP(S) : Delete the top element from the stack. {check for stack empty condition} PUSH(x,S) : Insert the element x at the top of stack S. { Stack overflow condition should be checked} EMPTY(S) : Returns true if S is an empty stack.
Stack Implementation
Static implementation(Using arrays) Dynamic implementation(Using pointers)
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Definition of Array-Based Stack

type STACK = record top : integer; elements : array[1..MAXLENGTH] of elementtype; end;
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Array Implementation
Procedure PUSH( var x:elementtype; Var s:STACK); Begin If s.top = MAXLENGTH -1 then error(stack is full) Else begin s.top:=s.top+1; s.elements[s.top]:=x; End; End;{PUSH}
Initial stack
3 2 1 0
Top = -1
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Push (12, S)
s.top:=s.top+1 = -1 + 1 = 0; s.elements[s.top]:= s.elements[0] = 12; 3 2 1 0 12
Top = 0
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Push (34, S)
s.top:=s.top+1 = 0 + 1 = 1; s.elements[s.top]:= s.elements[1] = 34; 3 2 1 0 34 12
Top = 1
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Push (47, S)
s.top:=s.top+1 = 1 + 1 = 2; s.elements[s.top]:= s.elements[2] = 47; 3 2 1 0 47 34 12
Top = 2
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Push (53, S)
s.top:=s.top+1 = 2 + 1 = 2; s.elements[s.top]:= s.elements[3] = 53; 3 2 1 0 53 47 34 12
Top = 3
Stack full (Top = max-1);
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Procedure POP( Var s:STACK); begin if EMPTY(s) then error(stack is empty) else s.top := s.top-1; end;{POP}
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Procedure MAKENULL( Var s:STACK); Begin s.top:= -1; End;{MAKENULL}
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Function EMPTY( Var s:STACK):boolean; begin If s.top<0 then return(true); else return(false); end;{EMPTY}
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Function TOP ( Var s:STACK):elementtype; begin If EMPTY(s) then error(stack is empty) else return(s.elements[s.top]); end;{TOP}
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Applications of stack
Explicit and implicit recursive calls Conversion of Infix to postfix Postfix expression evaluation Conversion of infix to prefix Prefix expression evaluation Parenthesis checker
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Expression : operands together with operator Infix notation(A+B) Prefix notation( +AB) Postfix notation( AB+) Operator precedence ^ (Exponential ) .Highest *, /(mul, div) Next highest +, - (add,sub) Lowest
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Conversion from infix to postfix Rules 1. Parenthesize the expression starting from left to right 2. The operands associated with the operator having higher precedence will be parenthesized first. 3. The sub expression which has been converted to postfix is to be treated as single operand. 4. Once the expression is converted to postfix form, remove the parenthesis
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Infix to postfix conversion algorithm

P =>postfix expression Q =>infix expression (1) Push ( onto stack and add ) to the end of Q. (2) Scan Q from left to right and repeat steps 3 to 6 for each element of Q until the stack is empty. (3) If an operand is encountered, add it to P. (4) If an operator # is encountered, then (a) Repeatedly pop from stack and add to P each operator (on the top of stack) which has equal or higher precedence than #.
(b) Add # to stack. 5. If a left parenthesis is encountered, push it onto the stack. 6. If a right parenthesis is encountered then (a) Repeatedly pop from stack and add to P, until a left parenthesis is encountered. (b) Remove the left parenthesis. [ do not add the left parenthesis to P]. 7. Exit #
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Symbolizes any operator in Q

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Evaluating Postfix expression

(1) Add a right parenthesis ) at the end of P[this acts as a
sentinel]. (2) Scan P from left to right and repeat steps 3 and 4 for each element of P until the sentinel ) is encountered. (3) If an operand is encountered, put it on STACK. (4) If an operator # is encountered, then (a) Remove the two top elements of STACK ,where A is the top element and B is the next-to-top element. (b) Evaluate B # A. (c) Place the result onto STACK. 5) RESULT equal to the top element on stack. 6) Exit
Evaluate 45+72-*
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Evaluate 59+2*65*+
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Infix to prefix conversion algorithm

I => infix expression O => output expression P => prefix expression
(1) Push ) onto stack and add ( to the beginning of I. (2) Scan I from right to left and repeat steps 3 to 6 for each
element of I until the stack is empty. (3) If an operand is encountered, add it to O. (4) If an operator # is encountered, then (a) Repeatedly pop from stack and add to O each operator (on the top of stack) which has higher precedence than #.
(b) Add # to stack. 5. If a right parenthesis is encountered, push it onto the stack. 6. If a left parenthesis is encountered then (a) Repeatedly pop from stack and add to O, until a right parenthesis is encountered. (b) Remove the right parenthesis. [ do not add the right parenthesis to O]. 7. Reverse O to get the prefix expression P. 8. Exit #
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Symbolizes any operator in I.

Convert (A*B-F*H)^D
Symbol Scanned D ^ ) H * F B * A ( ( Operator Stack ) )^ )^) )^) )^)* )^)* )^))^))^)-* )^)-* )^ (Empty) Output Expression D D D DH DH DHF DHF* DHF*B DHF*B DHF*BA DHF*BA*DHF*BA*-^
Result: ^-*AB*FHD
Home Work
Convert to prefix: A+ [ B+C - D+E] * F / G +A/*+-+BCDEFG (ab)/c*(d + e f / g) */-abc-+de/fg
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Convert (ab)/c*(d + e f / g)
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Evaluating Prefix expression

(1) Add a left parenthesis ( at the beginning of P[this acts
as a sentinel]. (2) Scan P from right to left and repeat steps 3 and 4 for each element of P until the sentinel ( is encountered. (3) If an operand is encountered, push it onto STACK. (4) If an operator # is encountered, then (a) Remove the two top elements of STACK ,where A is the top element and B is the next-to-top element. (b) Evaluate A # B. (c) Place the result onto STACK. 5) RESULT equal to the top element on stack. 6) Exit
Evaluate *+45-72
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Parenthesis Checker
To check whether a mathematical expression is properly parenthesized or not. 3 sets of grouping symbols The standard parenthesis () The braces { } The brackets []
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Algorithm for Parenthesis Checker

Make an empty stack. Read symbols until end of file is reached. If the symbol is an opening symbol, push it onto the stack. If it is a closing symbol, do the following: If the stack is empty, then report an error. Otherwise, pop the stack. If the symbol popped does not match the closing symbol, then report an error. At the end of the file, if the stack is not empty, then report an error.
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Algorithm for parenthesis checker

Begin read expression for each character c in expression if(current symbol or character is a left symbol) then push the character onto stack. else if (current symbol is a right symbol ) then if(stack is empty) then print (Error no matching open symbol) exit
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else pop a symbol s from the stack if (s does not correspond to c ) then print error incorrect nesting of symbols exit end {if} end {if} end {if} end {for}
if (stack is not empty ) then print error missing closing symbol else print input expression is OK end {if} END
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Self-Study (Homework)
Stack using Linked List Write algorithms to:
Push an element onto stack Pop an element Create an empty stack Check if stack is empty Return the top element from the stack
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QUEUES
Abstract data type which is special kind of List where items are
inserted at one end (rear) and deleted from the other end (front).
Insertion :Rear Deletion :Front Also called FIFO(First In First Out) list.
front
rear
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QUEUE OPERATIONS
MAKENULL(Q) : makes queue Q an empty list FRONT(Q) : returns first element of Q ENQUEUE(x, Q) : inserts element x at end of Q DEQUEUE(Q) : deletes first element of Q EMPTY(Q) : returns true if Q is an empty queue.
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IMPLEMENTATION OF QUEUE
Using Arrays (Static implementation) Using Pointers (Dynamic implementation)
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Type QUEUE = record elements : array[1..MAXLENGTH] of elementtype; front, rear: integer; end;
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Queue operations using Arrays

Insertion Operation procedure ENQUEUE( Var data:integer, Var Q: QUEUE) begin read(data); If Q.rear >= SIZE then begin error(Queue Overflow); exit(); end else Q.rear := Q.rear+1; end; Q.elements[Q.rear] := data; end;{ENQUEUE}
(1)
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(1)Empty Queue
Rear := -1 Front := -1 0 rear front 1 2 3
(2)ENQUEUE(10,Q)
Front := 0 Rear := rear + 1 = 0 Q[Rear] := Q[0] = 10
10
0 rear 1 front 2 3
(3) ENQUEUE(3,Q) Rear = rear + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 Q[Rear] := Q[1] = 3
10
0 front 1
3
2 3 rear
120
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(4)ENQUEUE(17,Q)
Rear := rear + 1 = 1 + 1 =2 Q[Rear] := Q[2] = 17
10
0 1 front
17
2 rear 3
(5)ENQUEUE(29,Q)
Rear := rear + 1 = 2+1 = 3 Q[Rear] := Q[3] = 29
10
0 front 1
17
2
29
3 rear
Queue Full (rear = max - 1)
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Deletion Operation Function DEQUEUE(Var Q: QUEUE) : elementtype; Begin if Q.rear < Q.front then begin Q.front:=0; Q.rear:= -1; error(Queue is empty); exit(); end else begin dequeue := Q.elements[Q.front]; Q.front:= Q.front+1; end; end;{DEQUEUE}
(2)
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(1)DEQUEUE(Q)
data := Q[front] = Q[0] =10 front := front + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 0 1 front
17
2
29
3 rear
(1)DEQUEUE(Q)
data := Q[front] = Q[1] = 3 front := front + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
17
0 1 front 2
29
3 rear
(2)DEQUEUE(Q)
data := Q[front] = Q[2] = 17 front := front + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
29
0 1 2 3 front rear
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(4)DEQUEUE(Q)
data := Q[front] = Q[3] = 29 front := front + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 0 1 2 3 rear front = 4
Queue empty (rear < front)
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Queue operations using Pointers

(1) Definition of Queue
type celltype = record element: elementtype; next : celltype; end; type QUEUE = record front, rear : celltype; end;
(1) To Make a NULL QUEUE procedure MAKENULL(Var Q:QUEUE); begin new(Q.front);{create header cell } Q.front .next := nil; Q.rear := Q.front; {header is both first &last cell } end;{MAKENULL}
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(2) Check if QUEUE is empty function EMPTY(Var Q:QUEUE): boolean; begin if Q.front = Q.rear then return(true); else return(false); end;{EMPTY}
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(3) Returning first element from a queue
function FRONT(Var Q:QUEUE):elementtype begin If EMPTY(Q) then error(Queue is empty); else return(Q . front . next . element) end;{FRONT}
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(4) Insertion into a queue
Procedure ENQUEUE( var x:elementtype;Var Q:Queue); begin new(Q.rear . next); {add new cell to rear of queue} Q.rear := Q.rear . next; Q. rear .element := x; Q.rear .next:=nil; end; {ENQUEUE}
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(5) Deletion from a queue
Function DEQUEUE(Var Q:Queue): elementtype; Begin if EMPTY(Q) then error(queue is empty) else begin dequeue := Q.front .element; Q.front := Q.front .next; end; end; {DEQUEUE}
Different Types Of Queue

Circular Queue Double ended Queue Priority Queue
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Circular Queue
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CIRCULAR QUEUE
Q[1] following Q[n] Conditions of circular Queue: Insertion Condition
rear = (rear+1) % SIZE
Deletion Condition
front = (front + 1) % SIZE
QUEUE FULL
rear = front
Algorithms of Circular Queue

Insertion Procedure ENQUEUE(Var data:integer,Var Q : QUEUE); Begin if Q.front = ((Q.rear + 1) % SIZE) then begin error(Queue Full) exit(); end else begin Q.rear := (Q.rear + 1) % SIZE; end; if Q.front = -1 then begin Q.front := 0; Q.rear := 0; end; read(data); Q.elements[Q.rear] := data; end;{ENQUEUE}
Queue is empty (front = rear = -1)

0 1
Rear=-1 Front=-1
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Enqueue (14, Q) Rear := (rear + 1) % SIZE = (-1 + 1) % 4 = 0 % 4 = 0 Q.elements[0] := 14;

Rear = 0
0
Front = 0
1 14
3
2
136
Enqueue (42, Q) Rear := (rear + 1) % SIZE = (0 + 1) % 4 = 1 % 4 = 1 Q.elements[1] := 42;

1 14 42
0
Front = 0
Rear = 1
3
2
137

1 14 42
0
Front = 0
20 3
Rear = 2
138

0
Front = 0
1 14 42
Queue full
20 2
37
Rear = 3
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Queue full front := (rear + 1) % SIZE = (3 + 1) % 4 = 4 % 4 = 0

0
Front = 0
1 14 42
37
Rear = 3
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3
140
Deletion Function DEQUEUE(Var Q : QUEUE): elementtype; begin if Q.front = -1 then begin error(Queue is empty) exit(); end else dequeue := Q.elements[Q.front]; Q.front := (Q.front + 1) % SIZE; end;{DEQUEUE}
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Is this situation possible in a circular queue?
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Double-ended Queue (DEQUEUE)

Homogeneous list Insertion &deletion can be done at both ends. 2 types of dequeue: (1) Input restricted queue (insertion: rear end deletion: both ends) An input-restricted dequeue is one where deletion can be made from both ends, but insertion can only be made at one end. (2)Output restricted queue (insertion: both ends deletion: front end) An output-restricted dequeue is one where insertion can be made at both ends, but deletion can be made from one end only.
Operations on Dequeue
(1) Add an element at the rear end ( insert right) (2)Delete an element from the front end ( delete left ) (3) Add an element at the front end ( insert left ) (4) Delete an element from the rear end (delete right )
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Insert an element at the right side of dequeue

procedure insertRightDequeue(Var data: integer, Var Q: QUEUE); Begin read(data); if ((Q.left = 0 && Q.right = MAX - 1) || (Q.left = Q.right + 1)) then begin error(Queue overflow ); exit(); end;
if Q.left = -1 then begin Q.left := 0; Q.right := 0; end else begin if Q.right = MAX-1 then Q.right := 0; else Q.right := Q.right+1; end; Q.elements[Q.right] := data; end; {insertRightDequeue}
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Insert an element at the right side of dequeue

Empty Queue (If left = right = -1)
0 1 2 3
l r
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insertRightDequeue ( 5, Q) Set left = 0, right = 0; Insert at 0. Q.elements[right] : = Q.elements[0] = 5;

0 5 left = 0 right = 0 1 2 3
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insertRightDequeue ( 2, Q) Increment right. Right := right + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1; Insert at right. Q.elements[right] : = Q.elements[1] = 2;

0 5 left = 0 1 2 right = 1 2 3
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0 5 left = 0 1 2 2 10 right = 2 3
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0 5 left = 0 1 2 2 10 3 17 right = 3
Queue full (left = 0 and right = MAX 1 = 4 1 = 3)
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Perform a delete operation. So, left will be incremented by one. left := left + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1;
1 2 left = 1
2 10
3 17 right = 3
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insertRightDequeue (15, Q) 15 can be inserted at 0. If left <> -1 and right = MAX 1, there are vacant positions at the beginning of the queue. Set right = 0 and insert at 0.
0 15 right = 0 1 2 left = 1 2 10 3 17
Queue full (left = right + 1= 0 + 1 = 1)
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Insert an element at the left side of dequeue

procedure insertLeftDequeue(Var data:integer, Var Q: QUEUE); Begin read(data); if((Q.left = 0 && Q.right = MAX - 1) | | (Q.left = Q.right+1)) then begin error(Queue overflow ); exit(); end
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if Q.left = -1 then begin Q.left := 0; Q.right := 0; end else begin if Q.left = 0 then Q.left := MAX-1; else Q.left := Q.left-1; end; Q.elements[Q.left] := data; end; {insertLeftDequeue}
Insert an element at the left side of dequeue

Empty Queue (If left = right = -1)
0 1 2 3
l r
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insertLeftDequeue ( 5, Q) Set left = 0, right = 0; Insert at 0. Q.elements[left] : = Q.elements[0] = 5;

0 5 left = 0 right = 0 1 2 3
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insertLeftDequeue ( 2, Q) If left = 0, set left = MAX - 1. left := MAX - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3; Insert at left. Q.elements[left] : = Q.elements[3] = 2;
0 5 right = 0 1 2 3 2 left = MAX- 1
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insertLeftDequeue ( 10, Q) Decrement left. left := left - 1 = 3 - 1 = 2; Insert at left. Q.elements[left] : = Q.elements[2] = 10;
0 5 right = 0 1 2 10 left = 2 3 2
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insertLeftDequeue ( 17, Q) Decrement left. left := left - 1 = 2 - 1 = 1; Insert at left. Q.elements[left] : = Q.elements[1] = 17;
0 5 right = 0 1 17 left = 1 2 10 3 2
Queue full (left = right + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1)
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Perform a delete operation. Right will be set to MAX 1 so that element at zero is deleted first. right := MAX - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3;
1 17 left = 1
2 10
3 2 right = 3
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insertLeftDequeue (15, Q) 15 can be inserted at 0. If left <> -1 and left <> 0, there are vacant positions at the beginning of the queue. Set left := left - 1 = 2 -1 = 0 and insert at 0.
0 15 left = 0 1 2 2 10 3 17 right = 3
Queue full (left = 0 and right = MAX - 1)
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Dequeue Operations(Normal Queue Operations)

Insert Right (Rear) and Delete Left (Front) Insert Left (Front) and Delete Right (Rear)
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Delete an element from the right side of dequeue

procedure deleteRightDequeue(Var Q: QUEUE); Begin Var data: integer; if((Q.left = -1) then begin error(Queue underflow ); exit(); end;{if} data := Q.elements[Q.right];
if (Q.left = Q.right ) then begin {only one element} Q.left:= -1; Q.right := -1; end;{if} if (Q.right = 0) then Q.right = MAX -1; else Q.right = Q.right -1; end; { deleteRightDequeue}
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Delete an element from the right side of dequeue
deleteRightDequeue ( Q) Right = 0. So, delete the first element. data := Q.elements[right] = Q.elements[0] = 5; Set Right := MAX - 1 = 3; {Next deletion occurs at right = 3}.
0 5 right = 0 1 2 left = 1 2 10 3 17
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deleteRightDequeue ( Q) Right = 3. data := Q.elements[right] = Q.elements[3] = 17; Set Right := right - 1 = 3 1 = 2;

0 1 2 left = 1 2 10 3 17 right = 3
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deleteRightDequeue ( Q) Right = 2. data := Q.elements[right] = Q.elements[2] = 10; Set Right := right - 1 = 2 1 = 1;

0 1 2 left = 1 2 10 right = 2 3
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deleteRightDequeue (Q) data : = Q.elements[right] : = Q.elements[1] = 5; Left = right = 1; {only one element} Set left := -1, right := -1; {Queue becomes empty}
0 1 2 left = 1 right = 1 2 3
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deleteRightDequeue (Q) Empty Queue (left = right = -1) Cannot perform deletion
l r
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Delete an element from the left side of dequeue

procedure deleteLeftDequeue(Var data:integer,Var Q: QUEUE); Begin if((Q.left = -1) then begin error(Queue underflow ); exit(); end;{if} data:=Q.elements[Q.left];
if Q.left = Q.right then begin {only one element} Q.left:= -1; Q.right := -1; end;{if} if ( Q.left = MAX - 1 ) then Q.left = 0; else Q.left = Q.left + 1; end; { deleteLeftDequeue}
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Delete an element from the left side of dequeue

deleteLeftDequeue ( Q) Left = 0. So, delete the first element. data := Q.elements[left] = Q.elements[0] = 12; Set left := left + 1 = 1; {Next deletion occurs at left = 1}.
0 12 left = 0 1 27 2 60 3 18 right = 3
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deleteLeftDequeue ( Q) Left = 1. data := Q.elements[left] = Q.elements[1] = 27; Set left := left + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2;

0 1 27 left = 1 2 60 3 18 right = 3
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deleteLeftDequeue ( Q) Left = 2. data := Q.elements[left] = Q.elements[2] = 60; Set left := left + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3;

0 1 2 60 left = 2 3 18 right = 3
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deleteLeftDequeue (Q) data : = Q.elements[left] : = Q.elements[3] = 18; Left = right = 3; {only one element} Set left := -1, right := -1; {Queue becomes empty}
0 1 2 3 18 left = 3 right = 3
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deleteLeftDequeue (Q) Empty Queue (left = right = -1) Cannot perform deletion
l r
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Example
Insert right (rear)
0 21 left = 0 right = 0
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Insert left (front)
0 21 right = 0
3 42 left = 3
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Insert right (rear)
0 21
1 35 right = 1
3 42 left = 3
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Insert left (front)
0 21
1 35 right = 1
2 5 left = 2
3 42
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Delete left (front)
0 21
1 35 right = 1
3 42 left = 2
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Delete right (rear)
0 21 right = 0
3 42 left = 2
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Delete right (rear)
3 42 left = 2 right = 3
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Delete left (rear)
l ,r = -1
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PRIORITY QUEUE
Collection of elements such that each element is assigned a priority number. Rules are: An element of higher priority is processed before any element of lower priority. Elements of same priority are processed according to the order in which they were added into the queue.
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Two types of priority queues

Ascending priority queue
Items are inserted arbitrarily and element with least priority is removed.
Descending priority queue

Items are inserted arbitrarily and element with highest priority is removed.
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Implementation
Implementation of priority queue: (1) One way list representation (2) Multiple Queues (one for each priority - Array representation) (3) Maximum or minimum heap
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One Way List Representation

Each node contains: INFO: Information field PRT : Priority number NEXT: Next pointer A node x precedes a node y in the list when x has higher priority than y or when both have same priority but x was inserted before y.
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Operations performed: Searching an element with maximum priority Inserting an element Deleting an element with maximum priority
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Insert A with priority number 2.
Start
A 2 NULL
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Insert B with priority number 1.
Start
B 1
A 2 NULL
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Insert C with priority number 2.
Start
B 1
A 2
C 2 NULL
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Delete operation deletes element with highest priority.
Start
B 1
A 2
C 2 NULL
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Delete operation deletes element with highest priority.
Start
A 2
C 2 NULL
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Insertion algorithm of one way list representation of priority queue

(1) Traverse the one way list until you find a node X
whose priority number exceeds N (item to be inserted).

(2) Insert ITEM N in front of node X. (3) If no such node is found, insert ITEM as the last element
of the list.
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Deletion algorithm of one way list representation of priority queue

(1) Set ITEM := INFO[START] { This saves the data in the
first node }
(2) Delete first node from the list (3) Process ITEM (4) Exit
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As multiple queues. Multiple queues are defined in the same array queue[] of size n. Each queue i is allocated a predefined space bounded by array indices. A queue is maintained for each priority. In order to process an element of the priority queue, element from non-empty highest priority number queue is accessed.
front[0]
rear[0] front[1]
rear[1] front[2]
rear[2] front[3]
rear[3]
Queue1
Queue2
Queue3
Queue4
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Insertion algorithm of array representation of priority queue

(1) Insert ITEM as the rear element in row M of QUEUE. (2)Exit
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Deletion algorithm of array representation of priority queue

(1)Find the smallest k such that FRONT[K]!=NULL. {Find the first non-empty queue} (2)Delete and process the front in row k of queue. (3) Exit
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Comparison of array & one way list representation

Array :Time efficient One way list :Space efficient
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Applications of Queue
Round robin techniques :Process scheduling Print server routines All types of customer service software(Railway/airticket reservation)
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Application of linked lists Polynomial Manipulation

Polynomial of single variable of degree m f(x) = amxm + am-1xm-1 + + aixi + + a1x + a0 ai are non-zero coefficients with exponents i. Each term is represented by a node with three fields, which represent the coefficient, exponent of a term and a pointer to the next term.
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A term of a polynomial of single variable x:

powerx coef next
p = 6x5 + 2x3 + x + 4 Store the polynomial in descending order of powers.

5 6 1570 1526 3 2 1607 1570 1 1 1750 1607 0 4 NULL 1750
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A term of a polynomial of variables x, y, z:

Power x Power y Power z coef next
p = 2x3 + 3xy + y2 + yz Store the polynomial such that terms are arranged in descending order of powers of x first, then y and then z.
3002 1103 0201 0111
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Addition of Two Polynomials of Single variable

p = 6x5 + 2x3 + x + 4 q = 2x4 + 10 x + 1
6x5 6x5 + + 2x4 2x4 2x3 + + 2x3 + + x + 4 1 5
10 x + 11 x +
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5 6 1570
ptrp
3 2 1607 1570 1 10 1700 1660
1 1 1750 1607 0 1 NULL 1700
0 4 NULL 1750
1526
4 2 1660
ptrq
1500
p.powerx > q.powerx (Add first term of p. Increment ptrp)

5 6
ptrr
1826
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5 6 1570 1526 4 2 1660

ptrq
3 2 1607
ptrp
1 1 1750 1607 0 1 NULL 1700
0 4 NULL 1750
1570
1 10 1700 1660
1500
p.powerx < q.powerx

5 6 1870 1826
ptrr
4 2 Null 1870
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5 6 1570 1526 4 2 1660 1500
3 2 1607
ptrp
1 1 1750 1607 0 1 NULL 1700
0 4 NULL 1750
1570
1 10 1700
ptrq
1660
p.powerx > q.powerx

5 6 1870 1826 4 2 1860 1870
ptrr
3 2 Null 1860
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5 6 1570 1526 4 2 1660 1500
3 2 1607 1570 1 10 1700

ptrq
1 1 1750
ptrp
0 4 NULL 1750
1607
0 1 NULL 1700
1660
p.powerx = q.powerx (Add the coefficients and increment both the pointers)
5 6 1870 1826 4 2 1860 1870 3 2 1807 1860
ptrr
1 11 Null 1807
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5 6 1570 1526 4 2 1660 1500
3 2 1607 1570 1 10 1700 1660
1 1 1750 1607 0 1 NULL

ptrq
0 4 NULL
ptrp
1750
1700
p.powerx = q.powerx (Add the coefficients)

5 6 1870 1826 4 2 1860 1870 3 2 1807 1860 1 11 1950 1807 0 5
NULL 1950
212
ptrr
Algorithm for polynomial addition (single variable)

1. Repeat upto step 3 while there are terms in both polynomials yet to be processed. 2. Obtain values for terms from each polynomial. 3. If the powers associated with the two terms are equal then If the sum of coefficients of both terms is not zero then Insert sum of the coefficients into the sum polynomial. Obtain the next terms from both polynomials.
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Else if the power of first polynomial > power of the second polynomial then
Insert the term from first polynomial into sum polynomial. Obtain the next term in the first polynomial.
Else
Insert the term from second polynomial into sum polynomial. Obtain the next term in the second polynomial. 4. Copy remaining terms from non-empty polynomial into sum polynomial. 5. Return the address of the sum polynomial.
Thank You
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Resmi N.G. References: Data Structures and Algorithms: Alfred V. Aho, John E. Hopcroft, Jeffrey D. Ullman A Practical Approach to Data Structures and Algorithms: Sanjay Pahuja
Syllabus
Non Linear Structures - Graphs - Trees - Graph and Tree implementation using array and Linked List -Binary trees - Binary tree traversals - pre-order, in-order and postorder - Threaded binary trees Binary Search trees - AVL trees B trees and B+ trees - Graph traversals - DFS, BFS shortest path - Dijkstras algorithm, Minimum spanning tree - Kruskal Algorithm, Prims algorithm
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Trees
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Trees
A tree is a collection of nodes, one of which is designated as the root, along with a relation (parenthood). Represents hierarchical relationship. A node can be of any type.
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Trees
A tree can be recursively defined as : A single node by itself is a tree. This node is called the root of the tree. A tree is a finite set of one or more nodes such that there is a specially designated node called the root and the remaining nodes are partitioned into n>=0 disjoint sets T1, T2, ,Tn, where each of these sets is a subtree. Every node except the root has a parent node associated to it.
TREE TERMINOLGIES
Root :Specially designed first node Degree of a node: Number of subtrees of a node Degree of a Tree :Maximum degree of any node in a given tree. Terminal node/Leaf node: Node with degree zero.
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Non terminal node : Any node (except root) whose
degree is non-zero.
Siblings: Children nodes of same parent node. Level : If a node is at level n, then its children will be
at level n+1. Root is at level 0, next immediate is level 1 etc..

Path: If n1,n2,nk be the node sequence of a tree such
that ni is the parent of ni+1 for 1<=i<k, then this sequence is called a path from node n1 to node nk.
Length of path :One less than the number of nodes in a
path.
Ancestor/descendant of a node: If there is a path from
node a to node b, then a is an ancestor of b, and b is descendant of a.

Proper Ancestor/Proper Descendant : An ancestor or
descendant of node ,other than the node itself is called proper ancestor or proper descendant respectively.
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Height of a node :Length of the longest path from the
node to a leaf.
Height of a tree: Height of the root. Depth of a node : Length of the unique path from root
to that node. Depth of a tree :One more than the maximum level of any node in a given tree.
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Order of nodes
Children of a node are usually ordered from left-to-right.
These are two distinct ordered trees.

If a and b are siblings, and a is to the left of b, then all the descendants of a are to the left of all descendants of b. A tree in which the order of nodes is ignored is referred to as unordered tree.
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Tree Traversal (Orderings)

Preorder Inorder Postorder These orderings are recursively defined as:
If a tree t is null (with no nodes), then the empty list is the preorder, inorder and postorder listing of T. If T consists of a single node, then that node itself is the preorder, inorder and postorder listing of T.
Otherwise, let T be a tree with root n and subtrees T1, T2, , Tk.
T1
T2
Tk
The preorder listing of the nodes of T is the root n of T followed by the nodes of T1 in preorder, then the nodes of T2 in preorder, and so on, upto the nodes of Tk in preorder.
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The inorder listing of the nodes of T is the nodes of T1 in inorder, followed by the root n of T , followed by the nodes of T2, , Tk in inorder. The postorder listing of the nodes of T is the nodes of T1 in postorder, then the nodes of T2 in postorder, and so on, upto Tk, all followed by node n.
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Preorder Procedure
Procedure PREORDER (n : node) begin (1) list n; (2) for each child c of n, if any, in order from the left do PREORDER(c) end;
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a a b c
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a b a b c
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a b d a b c
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a b d e a b c
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a b d e c a b c
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a b d e c f a b c
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a b d e c f g a b c
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A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, J, G, K
Postorder Procedure
Procedure POSTORDER (n : node) begin (1) for each child c of n, if any, in order from the left do POSTORDER(c) (2) list n; end;
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d a b c
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d e a b c
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d e b a b c
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d e b f a b c
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d e b f g a b c
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d e b f g c a b c
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d e b f g c a a b c
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H, I, D, E, B, J, F, K, G, C, A
Inorder Procedure
Procedure INORDER (n : node) begin if n is a leaf then list n; else begin INORDER (leftmost child of n); list n; for each child c of n, except for the leftmost, in order from the left do INORDER(c) end end;
d a b c
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d b a b c
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d b e a b c
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d b e a a b c
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d b e a f a b c
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d b e a f c a b c
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d b e a f c g a b c
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H, D, I, B, E, A, J, F, C, K, G
Labeled Trees and Expression Trees

Every leaf is labeled by an operand and consists of that operand alone. Every interior node n is labeled by an operator. Suppose, n is labeled by a binary operator, #, and that the left child represents expression E1 and the right child E2. Then, n represents (E1) # (E2).
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n1 = (a + b) * (a + c)
*
n2 = (a + b)
+ a b a
n3 = (a + c)
n4 = (a)
n7 = (c)
n5 = (b) n6 = (a)
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The preorder listing of labels in an expression tree gives the prefix form of the expression, where the operator precedes its left and right operands. The prefix expression for (E1)#(E2), with # a binary operator, is #P1P2 , where P1 and P2 are the prefix expressions for E1 and E2 respectively.
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The postorder listing of labels in an expression tree gives the postfix form of the expression, where left and right operands precede the operator. The postfix expression for (E1)#(E2), with # a binary operator, is P1P2#, where P1 and P2 are the postfix expressions for E1 and E2 respectively. The inorder listing of labels in an expression tree gives the infix expression.
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The ADT Tree Operations

PARENT (n, T) : Returns the parent of node n in tree T.
If n is the root, it returns NULL.
LEFTMOST_CHILD (n, T) : Returns the leftmost child of node n in tree T.

It returns NULL if n is a leaf.
RIGHT_SIBLING (n, T) : Returns the right sibling of node n in tree T, defined to be that node m with same parent p as n such that m lies immediately to the right of n in the ordering of children of p.
LABEL (n, T) : Returns the label of node n in tree T. CREATEi (v, T1, T2, , Ti) : For each value of i = 0, 1, 2, CREATEi makes a new node r with label v and gives it i children, which are the roots of trees T1, T2, , Ti, in order from the left. The tree with root r is returned. ROOT (T) : Returns the node that is the root of tree T, or returns NULL T is null tree. MAKENULL (T) : makes T the null tree.
IMPLEMENTATION OF TREE
Array Representation Linked List representation
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IMPLEMENTATION OF TREES
Array Representation (Parent Representation) Uses the property of trees that each node has a unique parent. Uses a linear array A where A[i] =j, if node j is parent of node i, and A[i]=0,if node i is the root. It supports LABEL operator, where L be an array with L[i], the Label of node i.
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With this representation, the parent of a node can be found in constant time. Limitations: Lacks child-of information. Given a node n, it is expensive to determine the children of n, or the height of n. Parent pointer representation does not specify the order of the children of a node.
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Definition type node = integer; TREE = array[1..MAXNODES] of node;
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Right Sibling Operation function RIGHT_SIBLING (n:node; T:Tree): node; {returns right sibling of node n in tree T} Var i,parent:node ; begin parent:=T[n]; for i = n+1 to maxnodes do {search for node after n with same parent} if T[i] = parent then return(i); return(0);{null node will be returned if no right sibling is ever found} End;(RIGHT_SIBLING}
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Linked List representation Of Tree

Way of representing trees where a list of children is formed for each node. Header : An array of header cells, indexed by nodes. Each header points to a linked list of nodes. Elements on the list headed by header[i] are the children of node i.
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Definition Type node = integer; LIST = {appropriate definition for list of nodes}; position = {appropriate definition for positions in lists}; TREE = record header : array[1..maxnodes] of LIST; labels : array[1..maxnodes] of labeltype; root : node; End;
LEFTMOST-CHILD Operation function LEFTMOST_CHILD (n:node ;T:Tree): node; {returns the leftmost child of node n of tree T} Var L : LIST {list of ns children} begin L:= T.header[n]; if EMPTY(L) then {n is a leaf} return(0) else return (RETRIEVE(FIRST(L),L); End;{LEFTMOST_CHILD}
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Definition of cellspace For PARENT Operation

T.header[n] points directly to the first cell of the list. Var cellspace :array[1..maxnodes] of record node :integer; next :integer; end;
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PARENT Operation function PARENT(n:node ;T:Tree): node; {returns the parent of node n of tree T} Var p: node; {runs through possible parents of n} i: position; {runs down the list of ps children} begin for p:=1 to maxnodes do begin i := T.header[p]; while i <> 0 do { see if n is among children of p} if cellspace[i].node = n then return(p)
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else i:= cellspace[i].next; end; return(0); end;{PARENT} {returns null node if parent not found}
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Shortcoming Inability to create large trees from smaller trees using CREATEi operator.
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Leftmost-Child, Right-Sibling Representation of a Tree

Definition Of Node Space Var nodespace :array[1..maxnodes] of record label:labeltype; header: integer; {cursor to cellspace} end;
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Definition Of Cell Space Var cellspace :array[1..maxnodes] of record label:labeltype; leftmost_child :integer; right_sibling: integer; end;
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Binary Trees
Definition A binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two child nodes, usually distinguished as "left child" and "right child". A binary tree can be defined as : (1) either an empty tree, or (2) a tree in which every node has either no children, a left child, a right child, or both a left and a right child.
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Two Distinct Binary Trees

An Ordinary Tree
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Left-Skewed: If a binary tree has only left subtree, it is called left-skewed. Right-Skewed: If a binary tree has only right subtree, it is called right-skewed.
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In a binary tree a degree of every node is maximum two. Binary tree with n nodes has exactly (n-1) edges. A full binary tree is a tree in which every node other than the leaves has two children. A complete binary tree is a binary tree in which every level, except possibly the last, is completely filled, and all nodes are as far left as possible.
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Complete Binary Tree
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Full Binary Tree
A full binary tree of depth k has 2k -1 nodes, k>=0.
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Binary Tree Representations

Array Representation Array stores nodes Nodes accessed sequentially Root node index starts with 1. SIZE of array=(2^d)-1 where d=depth of tree
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Binary Tree Representations

Pointer Based Implementation Binary Tree linked list declaration as type node = record leftchild : node; rightchild: node; parent : node; end;
Binary Trees: Pointer Based Implementation

CREATION Algorithm Function create (lefttree, righttree: node): node; Var root : node; begin new ( root); root .leftchild := lefttree; root .rightchild := righttree; root .parent:=0; lefttree .parent := root; righttree .parent:=root; return (root) end;{create}
INSERTION Algorithm Function insert(root: node,digit:number): node; Var root : node; begin If root = NULL then begin new(root); root .leftchild:=NULL; root .rightchild:=NULL; root .data := digit; count := count+1; end;{if}
else if count %2 = 0 then begin root .leftchild :=insert(root .leftchild, digit); else root .rightchild := insert(root .rightchild, digit); end;{elseif} return(root); end;{insert}
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Binary Trees Operations

TRAVERSAL Pre-order(Node-left-right) In-Order(Left-Node-Right) Post-Order(Left-Right-Node)
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Recursive TRAVERSAL Pre-order Algorithm Steps: (1) Visit the root node (2) Traverse the left subtree in pre-order (3) Traverse the right subtree in pre-order
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Recursive TRAVERSAL Pre-order Algorithm procedure preorder (root : node) begin if root <> NULL begin write (root .data); preorder(root .lchild); preorder(root .rchild); end{if} end;{preorder}
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Recursive TRAVERSAL In-order Algorithm Steps: (1) Traverse the left subtree in inorder (2) Visit the root node (3) Traverse the right subtree in inorder
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Recursive TRAVERSAL Inorder Algorithm procedure inorder(root : node) begin if root <> NULL begin inorder(root .lchild); write (root .data); inorder(root .rchild); end{if} end;{inorder}
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Recursive TRAVERSAL Postorder Algorithm Steps: (1) Traverse the left subtree in postorder (2) Traverse the right subtree in postorder (3) Visit the root node
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Recursive TRAVERSAL
Postorder Algorithm procedure postorder(root : node) begin if root <> NULL begin postorder(root .lchild); postorder(root .rchild); write (root .data); end{if} end;{preorder}
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Binary Tree Vs General Tree

Binary Tree : May be empty Tree : cannot be empty Binary Tree : Exactly 2 subtrees Tree : Any number of subtrees Binary Tree : Ordered Tree : Unordered
Binary Search Tree
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Binary Search Tree Operations

Inserting a node
Searching a node Deleting a node
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BST INSERTION
procedure INSERT (x: elementtype, var A: Set)); {add x to set A} Begin if A = NIL then begin new (A); A . element := x; A . leftchild := NIL; A . rightchild := NIL; end
else if x < A . element then INSERT (x, A .leftchild); else if x > A . element then INSERT (x, A .rightchild); {if x = A . element then, do nothing; x is already in the set} End; {INSERT}
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BST SEARCH
function MEMBER (x: elementtype, var A : SET) : boolean; {returns true if x is in A, false otherwise} Begin if A = NIL then return (false) else if x = A .element then return (true) else if x < A .element then return (MEMBER (x, A .leftchild)) else {x > A .element} return (MEMBER (x, A .rightchild)) End; {MEMBER}
BST DELETION
(1) Deleting leaf node - Just delete the leaf node (2) Deleting a node with a single child (either a left child or a right child) - Replace the node with its left (or right) child. (3) Deleting a node with both left and right child - Replace the node to be deleted with its inorder successor (with smallest value in its right subtree) and then delete the node.
BST DELETION
Procedure DELETE (x: elementtype, var A : SET); {remove x from set A} Begin if A <> NIL then if x < A .element then DELETE (x, A .leftchild) else if x > A .element then DELETE(x, A .rightchild)) {if we reach here, x is at the node pointed to by A}
else if A .leftchild=NIL and A .rightchild=NIL then A := NIL; {delete the leaf holding x} else if A .leftchild=NIL then {A has only right child} A := A .rightchild; else if A .rightchild=NIL then {A has only left child} A := A .leftchild; else {both children are present} A .element := DELETEMIN (A .rightchild); End; {DELETE}
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Function DELETEMIN (var A : SET) : elementtype; {returns and removes the smallest element from set A} Begin if A .leftchild = NIL then begin {A points to the smallest element} DELETEMIN := A .element; A := A .rightchild); {replace the node pointed to by A by its right child} end else {the node pointed to by A has a left child} DELETEMIN := DELETEMIN (A .leftchild); End; {DELETEMIN}
(1)
Deleting leaf node with value 13
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(2)
Deleting node with single (right)child (with value 16)
Replace the node with its right child (with value 20).
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(3)
Deleting node with left and right child (with value 5)
Replace the node with its inorder successor and delete the node.
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BST Traversal
Inorder : 3 5 6 7 10 12 13 15 16 18 20 23 (sorted in ascending order) Preorder : 15 5 3 12 10 6 7 13 16 20 18 23 Postorder : 3 7 6 10 13 12 5 18 23 20 16 15

Deleting a node with two children from a BST

Rule 1: Find the largest node of left subtree (inorder predecessor). Rule 2: Find the smallest node of right subtree(inorder successor). A node's in-order successor is the left-most child of its right subtree, and a node's in-order predecessor is the right-most child of its left subtree.
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Node to be deleted : node with value 7. The triangles represent subtrees of arbitrary size. Rule 1: Find the largest node of left subtree.
Rule 2: Find the smallest node of right subtree.

Binary Search trees Vs Arrays

Advantages: Complexity of searching: O (log2N) Better insertion time: O (log2N) Vs O(N) Better deletion time Disadvantage: BST requires more memory space to store the two pointer references to left and right child for each data element.
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Application of BST
Sorting: We can sort the data by reading it, item by item, and constructing a BST as we go. The inorder traversal of a BST gives the elements in ascending order. A sorted array can be produced from a BST by traversing the tree in inorder and inserting each element sequentially into the array as it is visited. Time Complexity -?????
Threaded Trees
Binary trees have a lot of wasted space: each of the leaf nodes has 2 null pointers. We can use these pointers to help us in inorder traversals. We have the pointers that reference the next node in an inorder traversal; called threads. To know whether a pointer is an actual link or a thread, a boolean variable can be maintained for each pointer.
Threaded Tree Example

6 3 1 5 7 9 8 11 13
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Threaded Binary Trees

A binary tree is threaded according to a particular traversal order. A binary tree is threaded by making all right child pointers that would normally be null point to the inorder successor of the node, and all left child pointers that would normally be null point to the inorder predecessor of the node.
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Types: Single Threaded: each node is threaded towards either the inorder predecessor or successor. Double threaded: each node is threaded towards both the inorder predecessor and successor.
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Threads are references to the predecessors and successors of the node according to an inorder traversal. Inorder of the threaded tree is ABCDEFGHI.
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Inorder: DBAEC
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Threaded Tree Traversal

We start at the leftmost node in the tree, print it, and follow its right thread. If we follow a thread to the right, we output the node and continue to its right. If we follow a link to the right, we go to the leftmost node, print it, and continue.
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6 3 1 5 7 9
Start at leftmost node, print it
Output 1
8 11 13
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6 3 1 5 7 9
Follow thread to right, print node
Output 1 3
8 11 13
118

6 3 1 5 7 9
Follow link to right, go to leftmost node and print
8 11 13
Output 1 3 5
119

6 3 1 5 7 9
8 11 13
Output 1 3 5 6
120

6 3 1 5 7 9
8 11 13
Output 1 3 5 6 7
121

6 3 1 5 7 9
8 11 13
Output 1 3 5 6 7 8
122

6 3 1 5 7 9
8 11 13
Output 1 3 5 6 7 8 9
123

6 3 1 5 7 9
8 11 13
Output 1 3 5 6 7 8 9 11
124

6 3 1 5 7 9
8 11 13
Output 1 3 5 6 7 8 9 11 13
125
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Advantages
The traversal operation is faster than that of its unthreaded version, because with threaded binary tree non-recursive implementation is possible which can run faster. We can efficiently determine the predecessor and successor nodes starting from any node (no stack required). Any node is accessible from any other node. Threads are usually upward whereas links are downward. Thus, in a threaded tree, one can move in either direction and nodes are in fact circularly linked.
Limitations of BSTs
BSTs can become highly unbalanced (In worst case, time complexity for BST operations become O(n)).
root A C F M Z
Height-balanced Binary Search Trees

A self-balancing (or height-balanced) binary search tree is any binary search tree that automatically keeps its height (number of levels below the root) small after arbitrary item insertions and deletions. A balanced tree is a BST whose every node above the last level has non-empty left and right subtree. Number of nodes in a complete binary tree of height h is 2h+1 1. Hence, a binary tree of n elements is balanced if: 2h 1 < n <= 2h+1 - 1
AVL Trees
Named after Russian Mathematicians: G.M. AdelsonVelskii and E.M. Landis who discovered them in 1962. An AVL tree is a binary search tree which has the following properties: The sub-trees of every node differ in height by at most one. Every sub-tree is an AVL tree.
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Implementations of AVL tree insertion rely on adding an extra attribute, the balance factor to each node. Balance factor (bf) = HL - HR An empty binary tree is an AVL tree. A non-empty binary tree T is an AVL tree iff : | HL - HR | <= 1 For an AVL tree, the balance factor, HL - HR , of a node can be either 0, 1 or -1.
The balance factor indicates whether the tree is: left-heavy (the height of the left sub-tree is 1 greater than the right sub-tree), balanced (both sub-trees are of the same height) or right-heavy (the height of the right sub-tree is 1 greater than the left sub-tree).
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+1
0 0
+1
-1
0 AVL Tree 2
0 AVL Tree 0
-1
0 0
+1 Not an AVL Tree
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AVL Tree Insertion

Insertion is similar to that of a BST. After inserting a node, it is necessary to check each of the node's ancestors for consistency with the rules of AVL. If after inserting an element, the balance of any tree is destroyed then a rotation is performed to restore the balance.
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For each node checked, if the balance factor remains 1, 0, or +1 then no rotations are necessary. However, if balance factor becomes less than -1 or greater than +1, the subtree rooted at this node is unbalanced.
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Theorem: When an AVL tree becomes unbalanced after an insertion, exactly one single or double rotation is required to balance the tree. Let A be the root of the unbalanced subtree. There are four cases which need to be considered. Left-Left (LL) rotation Right-Right (RR) rotation Left-Right (LR) rotation Right-Left (RL) rotation
LL Rotation: Inserted node is in the left subtree of left subtree of node A. RR Rotation: Inserted node is in the right subtree of right subtree of node A. LR Rotation: Inserted node is in the right subtree of left subtree of node A. RL Rotation: Inserted node is in the left subtree of right subtree of node A.
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LL Rotation: New element 2 is inserted in the left subtree of left subtree of A , whose bf becomes +2 after insertion.
+1 B 4 0 AR 0 BL BR BL 2 BR A 6 +1 4 AR B +2 A 6
To rebalance the tree, it is rotated so as to allow B to be the root with BL and A to be its left subtree and right child respectively, and BR and AR to be the left and right subtrees of A.
B 0 4 0 BL 2 A 0 6
BR
AR
A.Leftchild = B.rightchild B.Rightchild = A
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RR Rotation: New element 10 is inserted in the right subtree of right subtree of A , whose bf becomes -2 after insertion.
-2 -1 A 6 B AL BL 0 8 BL BR BR 10 AL 8 A 6 B -1
To rebalance the tree, it is rotated so as to allow B to be the root with A as its left child and BR as its right subtree, and AL and BL as the left and right subtrees of A respectively.
B 0 8 0 A 6 0 10
AL
BL
BR
A.Rightchild = B.leftchild B.leftchild = A
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Left-Left case and Left-Right case: If the balance factor of P is 2, then the left subtree outweighs the right subtree of the given node, and the balance factor of the left child L must be checked. The right rotation with P as the root is necessary. If the balance factor of L is +1, a single right rotation (with P as the root) is needed (Left-Left case). If the balance factor of L is -1, two different rotations are needed. The first rotation is a left rotation with L as the root. The second is a right rotation with P as the root (Left-Right case).
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Right-Right case and Right-Left case: If the balance factor of P is -2 then the right subtree outweighs the left subtree of the given node, and the balance factor of the right child (R) must be checked. The left rotation with P as the root is necessary. If the balance factor of R is -1, a single left rotation (with P as the root) is needed (Right-Right case). If the balance factor of R is +1, two different rotations are needed. The first rotation is a right rotation with R as the root. The second is a left rotation with P as the root (Right-Left case).
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AVL Tree Deletion

If the node is a leaf or has only one child, remove it. Otherwise, replace it with either the largest in its left sub tree (in order predecessor) or the smallest in its right sub tree (in order successor), and remove that node. The node that was found as a replacement has at most one sub tree. After deletion, retrace the path back up the tree (parent of the replacement) to the root, adjusting the balance factors as needed.
The retracing can stop if the balance factor becomes 1 or +1 indicating that the height of that subtree has remained unchanged. If the balance factor becomes 0 then the height of the subtree has decreased by one and the retracing needs to continue. If the balance factor becomes 2 or +2 then the subtree is unbalanced and needs to be rotated to fix it.
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Reference
Sanjay Pahuja, A Practical Approach to Data Structures and Algorithms, First Ed. 2007. For Height Balanced Trees: AVL, B-Trees, refer: Pg. 292 296, 301 315
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B-Trees
B-tree is a tree data structure that is a generalization of a binary search tree.ie; A node can have more than two children. It is also called Balanced M-way tree or balanced sort tree. A node of the tree may contain many records or keys and pointers to children. Used in external sorting. It is not a binary tree.
Properties of B-tree of order M

(1) Each node(except the root and leaf) has maximum of M children and a minimum of ceil(M/2) children and for root, any number from 2 to maximum. (2) Each node has one fewer key than children with a maximum of M-1 keys.
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(3) Keys are arranged in a defined order within the node. All keys in the subtree to the left of a key are predecessors of the key and those to the right are successors of the key. (4) All leaves are on the same level. ie. There is no empty subtree above the level of the leaves.
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B-Tree Insertion
(1) (2) (3) Search and find the position for insertion. Add the key to the node if the node can accommodate it. If not, ie. if a new key is to be inserted into a full node, the node is split into two and the key with median value is inserted in parent node. Continue splitting upward, if required, until the root is reached. If parent node is the root node, and has to be split, a new root is created and the tree grows taller by one level.
B-Tree Deletion
(1) Search and find the key to be deleted. (2) If the key is in a terminal node, the key along with appropriate pointer is deleted. (3) If the key is not in a terminal node, it is replaced by a copy of its successor(key with next higher value).
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(4) If on deleting the key, the new node size is lower than the minimum, an underflow occurs. (a) If either of adjacent siblings contains more than minimum number of keys, the central key is chosen from the collection:
contents of node with less than minimum number of keys, more than minimum number of keys, and the separating key from parent node.
This key is written back to parent; the left and right halves are written back to siblings.
(b) If none of the adjacent siblings contains more than minimum number of keys, concatenation is used. The node is merged with its adjacent sibling and the separating key from its parent.
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B-Tree of Order 5 Example

All internal nodes have at least ceil(5 / 2) = ceil(2.5) = 3 children (and hence at least 2 keys), other than the root node. The maximum number of children that a node can have is 5 (so that 4 is the maximum number of keys). All nodes other than the root must have a minimum of 2 keys.
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B-Tree Order 5 Insertion Insert C N G A H E K Q M F W L T Z DPRXYS

Originally we have an empty B-tree of order 5. The first 4 letters get inserted into the same node
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CN GAHEK Q M FWLTZ DPRXYS

When we try to insert the H, we find no room in this node, so we split it into 2 nodes, moving the median item G up into a new root node.
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Inserting E, K, and Q proceeds without requiring any splits.
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Inserting M requires a split.
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The letters F, W, L, and T are then added without any split.
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When Z is added, the rightmost leaf must be split. The median item T is moved up into the parent node.
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The insertion of D causes the leftmost leaf to be split. D happens to be the median key and so it is moved up into the parent node. The letters P, R, X, and Y are then added without any split.
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Finally, when S is added, the node with N, P, Q, and R splits, sending the median Q up to the parent. The parent node is full, so it splits, sending the median M up to form a new root node.
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B-Tree Order 5 Deletion

Initial B-Tree
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Delete H
Since H is in a leaf and the leaf has more than minimum number of keys, we just remove it.
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Delete T
Since T is not in a leaf, we find its successor (the next item in ascending order), which happens to be W. Move W up to replace the T. ie; What we really have to do is to delete W from the leaf .
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B+ Trees
Variant of the original B-tree in which all records are stored in the leaves and all leaves are linked sequentially. The B+ tree is used as an indexing method in relational database management systems. All keys are duplicated in the leaves. This has the advantage that all the leaves are linked together sequentially, and hence the entire tree may be scanned without visiting the higher nodes at all.
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The B + Tree consists of two types of nodes: (1) internal nodes and (2) leaf nodes Internal nodes point to other nodes in the tree. Leaf nodes point to data in the database using data pointers. Leaf nodes also contain an additional pointer, called the sibling pointer, which is used to improve the efficiency of certain types of search.
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The B + -Tree is a balanced tree because every path from the root node to a leaf node is the same length. A balanced tree is one in which all searches for individual values require the same number of nodes to be read from the disc. Order of a B + Tree The order of a B + Tree is the number of keys and pointers that an internal node can contain. An order size of m means that an internal node can contain m-1 keys and m pointers.
Insertion in B+ Tree
Insert sequence : 5, 8, 1, 7, 3, 12, 9, 6 Order: 3 Empty Tree The B+Tree starts as a single leaf node. A leaf node consists of one or more data pointers and a pointer to its right sibling. This leaf node is empty.
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Inserting Key Value 5 To insert a key, search for the location where the key has to be inserted. Here, the B+Tree consists of a single leaf node, L1, which is empty. Hence, the key value 5 must be placed in leaf node L1.
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Inserting Key Value 8 Again, search for the location where key value 8 is to be inserted. This is in leaf node L1. There is room in L1; so insert the new key.
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Inserting Key Value 1 Searching for where the key value 1 should appear also results in L1 but L1 is now full as it contains the maximum two records.
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L1 must be split into two nodes. The first node will contain the first half of the keys and the second node will contain the second half of the keys.
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We now require a new root node to point to each of these nodes. We create a new root node and promote the rightmost key from node L1.
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Insert Key Value 7 Search for the location where key 7 is to be inserted, that is, L2. Insert key 7 into L2.
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Insert Key Value 3 Search for the location where key 3 is to be inserted. That is L1. But, L1 is full and must be split.
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The rightmost key in L1, i.e. 3, must now be promoted up the tree.
L1 was pointing to key 5 in B1. Therefore, all the key values in B1 to the right of and including key 5 are moved one position to the right.
Insert Key Value 12 Search for the location where key 12 is to be inserted, L2. Try to insert 12 into L2 but L2 is full and it must be split.
As before, we must promote the rightmost value of L2 but B1 is full and so it must be split.
Now the tree requires a new root node, so we promote the rightmost value of B1 into a new node.
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Insert Key Value 9 Search for the location where key value 9 is to be inserted, L4. Insert key 9 into L4.
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Insert Key Value 6 Key value 6 should be inserted into L2 but it is full. Therefore, split it and promote the appropriate key value.
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Deletion in B+ Tree
Deletion sequence: 9, 8, 12.
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Delete Key Value 9 First, search for the location of key value 9, L4. Delete 9 from L4. L4 is not less than half full and the tree is correct.
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Delete Key Value 8 Search for key value 8, L5. Deleting 8 from L5 causes L5 to underflow, that is, it becomes less than half full.
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Redistribute some of the values from L2. This is possible because L2 is full and half its contents can be placed in L5.
As some entries have been removed from L2, its parent B2 must be adjusted to reflect the change.
Deleting Key Value 12 Deleting key value 12 from L4 causes L4 to underflow. However, because L5 is already half full we cannot redistribute keys between the nodes. L4 must be deleted from the index and B2 adjusted to reflect the change.
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B+ Trees
Reference: http://www.mec.ac.in/resources/notes/notes/ds/bplus .htm
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GRAPH
Graph G = (V,E) is a collection of vertices and edges. (1) Set of vertices - V (2) Set of Edges - E
where V ={ V1,V2,V3..} E ={ e1,e2,e3..}

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GRAPH TERMINOLOGIES
Directed Graph (Digraph) :A graph
where nodes are
connected with directed edges.

Arrow head is at vertex called head and other end is
called tail.
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LOOP: If an edge is incident from and into the same
vertex.
ADJACENT VERTICES :Two vertices are adjacent if
they are joined by an edge.

ISOLATED VERTEX : If there is no edge incident with
the vertex.
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ISOMORPHIC: Two graphs are said to be isomorphic if equal
number of vertices , edges and also corresponding images exist.

SUBGRAPH :Let G = (V,E) be a graph. Then, G1 = (V1,E1)
is a subgraph, if V1 is a subset of V and E1 is a subset of E.

SPANNING
/ INDUCED SUBGRAPH : A subgraph that
contains all vertices of G.

DEGREE: The number of edges incident on a vertex. WEIGHTED
GRAPH :A graph in which every edge is assigned some weight or value.
PATH: A sequence of vertices. SIMPLE PATH : Path in which first and last vertices
are
distinct.
CYCLE : Length of path must be minimum 1 and begins and
ends at same vertex.

LENGTH OF PATH: Number of edge arcs on the path. LABELED
DIGRAPH :A graph in which each arc or vertex has an associated label.
CONNECTED GRAPH : Graph in which there exists a
path from any vertex to any other vertex. Otherwise, it is said to be disconnected. {Disconnected graph contains components.}
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REPRESENTATION OF GRAPH
1) Sequential Representation
Adjacency matrix representation Incident matrix representation

2) Linked list representation
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ADJACENCY MATRIX REPRESENTATION

Order of Adjacency matrix = Number of vertices * number of vertices. For a directed and undirected graph, adjacency matrix conditions are: Aij = 1 { if there is an edge from Vi to Vj } = 0 { if there is no edge from Vi to Vj } For a weighted graph adjacency matrix conditions are: Aij = Wij { if there is an edge from Vi to Vj, where Wij is the weight. } = -1 { if there is no edge from Vi to Vj }
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INCIDENT MATRIX REPRESENTATION

Order of Incident matrix = Number of vertices * number of edges For an undirected graph, incident matrix conditions are: Aij = 1 { if an edge ej is incident on vertex Vi} = 0 {otherwise } For a directed graph, incident matrix conditions are: Aij = 1 {if an edge ej is going outward from vertex Vi} = -1{if an edge ej is incident on vertex Vi} = 0 {otherwise}
LINKED LIST REPRESENTATION

For a directed and undirected graph, store all the vertices of graph in a list and each adjacent vertex as linked list node. For a weighted graph, linked list node will contain an extra field - weight.
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Example
Suppose the adjacency matrix for a graph is:
1 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 1 4 1 0 1 0 1 2 3 4
The corresponding adjacency list representation is: 1 -> 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 2 -> 1 3 -> 2 -> 4 4 -> 2 -> 3
Operations on Graphs
FIRST (v) : returns the index for the first vertex adjacent to v. NEXT(v,i ) : returns the index after index i for the vertices adjacent to v. VERTEX ( v, i ) : returns the vertex with index i among the vertices adjacent to v.
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(1) FIRST (V) : Var A : array [1..n,1..n] of boolean Function FIRST (v: integer ):integer; Var i : integer ; Begin for i:= 1 to n do if A [v, i] then return (i); return (0); { if we reach here v has no adjacent vertex} End; {FIRST }
(2) NEXT(v,i ) : Function NEXT (v: integer , i : integer ):integer; Var j : integer ; Begin for j:= i+1 to n do if A [v, j] then return (j); return (0); End; {NEXT } (3) VERTEX ( v, i ) : returns the vertex with index i
among the vertices adjacent to v.

(4)TRAVERSAL OF ADJACENT VERTICES OF V i :=FIRST(v); while i <> NULL do begin w : = VERTEX (v,i); { some action on w } i:=NEXT(v,i); end; { while }
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(5)CREATING A GRAPH Steps (1) Input total number of vertices in a graph, say n. (2) Allocate memory dynamically for the vertices to store in list array. (3) Input the first vertex and vertices through which it has edge by linking node from list array through nodes. (4) Repeat the process incrementing the list array to add other vertices and edges. (5) Exit
(6)SEARCHING & DELETING FROM A GRAPH Steps (1) Input an edge to be searched. (2) Search for an initial vertex of edge in list arrays by incrementing the array index. (3) Once it is found, search through linked list for the terminal vertex of the edge. (4) If found, display The edge is present in the graph. (5) Then delete the node where the terminal vertex is found and rearrange the linked list. (6) Exit.
(7)TRAVERSING A GRAPH Breadth First Search (BFS ) (1) Input the vertices of the graph and its edges G=(V,E ) (2) Input the source vertex and mark it as visited. (3) Add the source vertex to queue . (4) Repeat step 5 and 6 until the queue is empty. ( i.e, front >rear ) (5) Pop the front element of queue and display it. (6) Add the vertices, which is neighbor to just popped element, if it is not in the queue . (7) Exit.
Breadth First Search (BFS ) ALGORITHM Procedure bfs (V) {bfs visits all vertices adjacent to V using BFS} Var Q : QUEUE of vertex ; x,y : vertex; begin mark[v] := visited; ENQUEUE(V,Q);
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while not EMPTY (Q) do begin x:= FRONT (Q); DEQUEUE(Q); for each vertex y adjacent to x do if mark[y] = unvisited then begin mark[y] := visited; ENQUEUE(y,Q); end {if} end;{while } End; {bfs}
Example
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Depth First Search (DFS ) ALGORITHM STEPS (1) Input the vertices and edges of graph G=(V,E). (2) Input the source vertex and assign it to the variable S. (3) Push the source vertex to the stack. (4) Repeat steps 5 and 6 until the stack is empty. (5) Pop the top element of stack & display it. (6) Push the vertices adjacent to just popped element if it is not in the stack & is displayed (i.e. not visited). (7) exit
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Depth First Search (DFS ) ALGORITHM ALGORITHM Procedure DFS(V: Vertex ); Var W : vertex; begin mark(V) := visited; for each vertex W on L(V) do if mark[w]=unvisited then DFS(W); end; {DFS} L(V) is the adjacency list.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
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Tree Searches
A B C
A tree search starts at the root and explores nodes from there, looking for a goal node (a node that satisfies certain conditions, depending on the problem)
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Depth First Search

A B C
A depth-first search (DFS) explores a path all the way to a leaf before backtracking and exploring another path. For example, after searching A, then B, then D, the search backtracks and tries another path from B. Node are explored in the order ABDEHLMNIOPCFG JKQ N will be found before J
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Breadth First Search

A
A breadth-first search (BFS) explores nodes nearest the root before exploring nodes further away. For example, after searching A, then B, then C, the search proceeds with D, E, F, G. Node are explored in the order ABCDEFGHIJKLMN OPQ J will be found before N
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How to do DFS?
Put the root node on a stack; while (stack is not empty) do begin remove a node from the stack; if (node is a goal node) return success; put all children of node onto the stack; end return failure; At each step, the stack contains a path of nodes from the root. The stack must be large enough to hold the longest possible path, that is, the maximum depth of search.
How to do BFS?
Put the root node on a queue; while (queue is not empty) do begin remove a node from the queue; if (node is a goal node) return success; put all children of node onto the queue; end return failure; Just before starting to explore level n, the queue holds all the nodes at level n-1. In a typical tree, the number of nodes at each level increases exponentially with the depth.
Greedy Algorithms
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Minimum Spanning Tree/Minimum Cost Spanning Tree (MST)

Spanning Tree for a graph G = (V,E) is a subgraph G 1= (V 1 ,E1 ) of G that contains all the vertices of G.

The vertex set V1 is same as that of graph G. The edge set E1 is a subset of G. There is no cycle. A graph can have many different spanning trees.
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A weighted tree is one in which each edge is assigned a weight. Weight or cost of a spanning tree is the sum of weights of its edges. A Minimum Spanning Tree or Minimum-Weight Spanning Tree is a spanning tree with weight less than or equal to the weight of every other spanning tree.
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MST Algorithms
Kruskals Algorithm Finds an MST for a connected weighted undirected graph. If the graph is not connected, then it finds a minimum spanning forest (a minimum spanning tree for each connected component). Prims Algorithm Finds an MST for a connected weighted undirected graph. Prim's algorithm requires the graph to be connected.
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KRUSKALs ALGORITHM
Kruskals algorithm works by growing the minimum spanning tree one edge at a time, adding the lowest cost edge that does not create a cycle.
It starts with each vertex as a separate tree and merges these trees together by repeatedly adding the lowest cost edge that merges two distinct subtrees (i.e. does not create a cycle).
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KRUSKALs ALGORITHM
- It builds the MST in forest (A forest is a disjoint union of trees.). Initially, each vertex is in its own tree in forest. Then, the algorithm considers each edge in order by increasing weight. If an edge (u, v) connects two different trees, then (u, v) is added to the set of edges of the MST, and the two trees connected by the edge (u, v) are merged into a single tree. On the other hand, if the edge (u, v) connects two vertices in the same tree, then edge (u, v) is discarded.
Kruskal(G) - Informal Algorithm Sort the edges in order of increasing weight count = 0 while (count < n-1) do get next edge (u,v) if (component (u) <> component(v)) add edge to T component(u) = component(v) end end end
KRUSKALs ALGORITHM:OPERATIONS REQUIRED
DELETEMIN : deletes edge of minimum cost from a PRIORITY QUEUE . MERGE (A,B,C ): merge components A and B in C and call the result A or B arbitrarily. FIND (v, C) : returns the name of the component of C of which vertex v is a member. This operation will be used to determine whether the two vertices of an edge are in the same or in different components. INITIAL (A, v, C ) : makes A the name of the component in C containing only one vertex, namely v.
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Procedure Kruskal (V : Set of vertex; E : Set of edge ) :Var T : Set of edge ) ;
Var
ncomp : integer ; { current number of components } edges : PRIORITYQUEUE ;{ the set of edges } components :MFSET ; {the set V grouped into a MERGE- FIND set of components} u,v : vertex; e : edge ; nextcomp : integer ; {name for new component } ucomp, vcomp :integer ;{component names }
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Begin MAKENULL(T); MAKENULL(edges); nextcomp := 0; ncomp := number of members of V; for v in V do begin { initialize a component to contain one vertex of V } nextcomp:= nextcomp+1; INITIAL(nextcomp, v, components ); end; {for} for e in E do {initialize priority queue of edges } INSERT(e, edges);
while ncomp > 1 do begin e:= DELETEMIN(edges); let e = (u,v); ucomp := FIND(u, components); vcomp:= FIND(v, components); if ucomp <> vcomp then begin {e connects two different components} MERGE (ucomp , vcomp, components ); ncomp := ncomp -1; INSERT (e ,T); end ;{if ] end; {while } End; {kuruskal }
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PRIMs ALGORITHM for MST

Prim's algorithm starts with an arbitrary vertex v and ``grows'' a tree from it, repeatedly finding the lowest-cost edge that will link some new vertex into this tree.
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Algorithm (Informal)
Start with a tree which contains only one node. Identify a node (outside the tree) which is closest to the tree and add the minimum weight edge from that node to some node in the tree and incorporate the additional node as a part of the tree. If there are less than n 1 edges in the tree, go to 2.
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PRIMS ALGORITHM
Procedure Prim (G: graph; var T: set of edges); {Prim constructs a minimum-cost spanning tree T for G}. Var U: set of vertices; u, v : vertex; Begin T:= ; U:= {1};
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while U<>V do begin let (u,v) be a lowest cost edge such that u is in U and v is in V-U;
end End; {Prim}
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PRIMs ALGORITHM FOR MST

Procedure Prim (C :array [1..n ,1..n] of real ); {Prim prints the edges of MST for a graph with vertices {1,2,3.n} and cost matrix C on edges } Var LOWCOST :array[1..n] of real; CLOSEST :array[1..n] of integer; i, j, k, min :integer; {i and j are indices .During a scan of the LOWCOST array, k is the index of the CLOSEST vetex found so far and min := LOWCOST[k] }
begin for i:= 2 to n do begin {initialize with only vertex 1 in the set U } LOWCOST[i] :=C [1,i] ; CLOSEST[i]:=1; end;{for }
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For i:= 2 to n do begin {find the CLOSEST vertex k outside of U to some vertex in U} Min:= LOWCOST[2]; k:= 2; For j:=3 to n do If LOWCOST[i] < min then begin Min := LOWCOST[j]; k := j; end; Writeln(k, CLOSEST[k]); {print edge } LOWCOST[k] := infinity; {k is added to U }
For j:=2 to n do { adjust costs to U } If (C[k,j] < LOWCOST[j] ) and (LOWCOST[j] < infinity ) then begin LOWCOST[j] := C[k,j]; CLOSEST[j]:= k; End; {if } End {for } End ;{Prim} Where CLOSEST[i] Gives vertex in U that is currently closest to vertex i in V-U. LOWCOST[i] Cost of the edge (i,CLOSEST[i])
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Start with the tree < { v1 }, { } >. Vertex v4 is closest to tree . . .
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v3 is closest to tree . . .
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v2 and v5 are closest to tree, pick v5, say . .
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v6 is closest to tree . . .
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v2 is closest (and only remaining) vertex . . .
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This figure shows there may be more than one minimum spanning tree in a graph. In the figure, the two trees below the graph are two possibilities of minimum spanning tree of the given graph.
SHORTEST PATH Algorithms for Directed Graphs

Single Source Shortest Paths Algorithm to determine the cost of the shortest path from the source to every other vertex in V.
Dijkstras Algorithm
All-Pairs Shortest Paths Algorithm to find for each ordered pair of vertices (v,w), the shortest path from v to w.
Floyds Algorithm
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Dijkstras Algorithm
The algorithm works by maintaining a set S of vertices whose shortest distance from the source is already known. Initially, S contains only the source vertex. At each step, we add to S a remaining vertex v whose distance from the source is as short as possible. Assuming that all arcs have nonnegative costs, we can always find a shortest path from the source to v that passes only through vertices in S.
At each step of the algorithm, we use an array D to record the length of the shortest path to each vertex. Once S includes all vertices, all paths are shortest paths, so D will hold the shortest distance from the source to each vertex.
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Procedure Dijikstra {Dijikstra computes the cost of shortest paths from vertex 1 to every vertex of a directed graph} Begin S := {1}; For i :=2 to n do D[i] :=C[1,i]; {Initialize D } For i:=1 to n-1 do begin Choose a vertex w in V-S such that D[w] is minimum ; add w to S; For each vertex v in V-S do D[v]:= min( D[v], D[w] + C[w,v]); end;{for} End;{Dijikstra}
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FLOYDS ALGORITHM
Procedure Floyd(Var A :array[1..n ,1..n] of real; C :array[1..n,1..n] of real ); {Floyd computes shortest path matrix A given arc cost matrix C} Var i, j, k : integer; Begin For i := 1 to n do For j := 1 to n do A[i, j] := C[i, j]; For i:=1 to n do A[i, i] := 0;
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For k := 1 to n do For i:=1 to n do For j:=1 to n do If A[i, k] + A[k, j] < A[i,j] then A[i,j] := A[i, k] + A[k, j]; End; {Floyd }
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Thank You
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Data Structures and Algorithms

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Resmi N.G. Reference: Data Structures and Algorithms: Alfred V. Aho, John E. Hopcroft, Jeffrey D.

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

Problem Solving Process

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

Properties of Abstract Data Types

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

Data Structure Encapsulation

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

ADT and DATA ABSTRACTION

Data Types, Data Structures and ADTs

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

DATA TYPES IN PASCAL

Different Data Types

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

Primitive Data types

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

USER DEFINED TYPES

Enumerated data Type

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

ENUMERATED DATA TYPES

Used as array bounds

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

Kinds Of Record Declaration

type complex = record re,im:real; end;

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

File operators: {rewrite, put, reset, get}

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

type recordtype = record cursor:integer; ptr: recordtype end;

More important is runtime

Measuring runtime of a program(Factors)

Quality of code generated by the compiler

Nature and speed of the instructions on the machine

Time complexity of the algorithm

Running time of a program

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1

Views of running time

T(n) is measured not in seconds but by growth functions.

Generally worst case running time is calculated .

CS09 303 Data Structures - Module 1