OKAFOR UDODIRI ud4okafor@yahoo.

com ABSTRACT LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) is a form of natural gas that evolved due to the pro blem of transporting natural gas over a long distance such as from one country t o another or one continent to another. It has specific properties which makes it a better form of natural gas and which also present problems in making handling of this gas difficult. Storage and transportation of LNG accounts for about 35 percent of the capex in the business of buying, processing and selling of natural gas. This paper examines the previous technology involved in the storage of liquefied natural gas; looks into some modifications made in the present storage methods, and also would examine problems faced in the storage of LNG. The transportation of these products would be examined, focusing mainly on diffe rent methods of transportation by sea and on the effective handling of these pro ducts on vessels and ships. The short transport of this gas from the storage ves sels to the point where it would be loaded to the ship would be also analyzed as it involves transportation through pipelines. Some problems associated with the storage and transportation of LNG would also b e evaluated and means of avoiding, reducing and converting it to useful process would be considered. The economics and commercial aspect of transporting LNG would be looked into mak ing the Nigerian- International market a point of reference.

INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND STUDY/ LITERATURE REVIEW A liquefied gas is the liquid form of a substance which, at ambient temperature and at atmospheric pressure, would be a gas. An alternative way of describing a liquefied gas is to give the temperature at which the saturated vapor pressure i s equal to atmospheric pressure in other words the liquid's atmospheric boiling point. OVERVIEW OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) is processed from natural gas found in Underground wells, which are mainly gas bearing (non-associated gas) Condensate reservoirs (pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons) Large oil fields (associated). The raw feed gas is first stripped of condensates. This is followed by the remov al of acid gases (carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide). Carbon dioxide must be removed as it freezes at a temperature above the atmospheric boiling point of LN G and the toxic compound hydrogen sulphide is removed as it causes atmospheric p ollution when being burnt in a fuel. Acid gas removal saturates the gas stream w ith water vapor and this is then removed by the dehydration unit. The gas then p asses to a fractionating unit where the NGLs are removed and further split into propane and butane. Finally, the main gas flow, now mostly methane is liquefied into the end product, liquefied natural gas (LNG). To lower the temperature of the methane gas to about -162C (its atmospheric boili ng point) there are three basic liquefaction processes in current use. These are outlined below: Pure refrigerant cascade process three stages are involved in this process, eac h having its own refrigerant, compressor and heat exchangers. The first cooling stage utilizes propane, the second is a condensation stage utilizing ethylene an d, finally, a sub-cooling stage utilizing methane is involved. The cascade proce ss is used in plants commissioned before 1970. Mixed refrigerant process whereas with pure refrigerant process (as described ab ove) a series of separate cycles are involved, with the mixed refrigerant proces s (usually methane, ethane, propane and nitrogen), the entire process is achieve d in one cycle. The equipment is less complex than the pure refrigerant cascade

process but power consumption is substantially greater and for this reason its u se is not widespread. Pre-cooled mixed refrigerant process this process is generally known as the MCR process (Multi-Component Refrigerant) and is a combination of the pure refrigera nt cascade and mixed refrigerant cycles. It is by far the most common process in use today.

BRIEF DIAGRAM SHOWING THE LNG PROCESS PROPERTIES OF LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS Colorless, odorless and non-corrosive liquid Atmospheric point -1600c to -163oc Density 458 463 kg/m3 1 m3 liquid equals some 600sm3 of gas Critical temperature -82.5 Critical pressure 44.7 bar absolute Cryogenic insulated storage Quickly vaporized Liquid not flammable but gas burns Liquid is cold: burns Heating value 21-24 MJ/L Flash point- 160oc Flammability range 5-15 Auto ignition 540 oc

IN SUMMARY THE LNG VALUE CHAIN INVOLVES 1. Natural gas production, the process of finding and producing natural gas for delivery to a processing facility. 2. Liquefaction, the conversion of natural gas into a liquid state so that it can be transported in ships. 3. Transportation, the shipment of LNG in special purpose ships for deliver y to markets. 4. Re-gasification, conversion of the LNG back to the gaseous phase by pass ing the cryogenic liquid through vaporizers. 5. Distribution and delivery of natural gas through the national natural ga s pipeline system and distribution to end users. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The effective handling of liquefied natural gas when stored or being transported is a very important issue in the value chain of production and sales. Inappropriate knowledge of the mechanisms governing the maintaining this gas at liquid state poses more risk to the personnels in charge and the environment .

PURPOSE OF STUDY This study presents a detailed and explanatory work on 1. The principles, types and processes involved in the storage of liquefied natural gas. 2. The principles, types and processes involved in the transportation of li quefied natural gas. 3. The hazards that have occurred in the storage of this gas and analyze t he reasons why such were experienced. 4. Commercial procedure in the transport of LNG

THEORY The subject matter of this work is how LNG is kept cold? Insulation, as efficient as it is, will not keep the temperature of LNG cold by itself.LNG is stored as a boiling cryogen -- a very cold liquid at its boiling p oint given the pressure at which it is being stored. Stored LNG is analogous to boiling water, only 472F colder. The temperature of boiling water (212F) does not change, even with increased heat, as it is cooled by evaporation (steam generati on). In much the same way, LNG will stay at near constant temperature if kept at constant pressure. This phenomenon is called auto refrigeration. As long as the steam (LNG boil off vapor) is allowed to leave the tea kettle (tank), the tempe rature will remain constant. As previously discussed the basis governing the storage and transport of liquefi ed gases is 1. Insulation 2. Autorefrigeration Autorefrigeration Auto-refrigeration is a phenomenon common to liquefied natural gases. Liquefied compressed gases exist in both the liquid and gaseous phases at ambient temperat ures with pressures ranging from 2 psig up to 2,500 psig. That is, there is a ga seous layer over the liquefied gas within vessel. The vapour produced above the surface of a boiling cargo due to evaporation is called Boil-off. It is caused b y heat ingress or a drop in pressure. The ability to adequately discharge this v apour at a concise rate solves the bulk problem. Insulation Insulation is a very important factor in preventing heat exchange between a syst em and surrounding, materials and inert gases mostly act insulators. The ability to determine the best material composition, layout and structure is the basis f or keeping liquefied gases close to its boiling point DISCUSSION STORAGE OF LNG LNG can be stored as a fully refrigerated liquid at atmospheric pressure and at low temperature equal to the cargo's boiling point in: Single containment-double-wall tanks Double-containment tanks In-ground tanks SINGLE CONTAINMENT-DOUBLE-WALL TANK Single containment tanks are most usually provided with an outer shell surroundi ng the primary tank. They are constructed so that only the primary containment i s required to meet the low-temperature of 1620C requirements for LNG storage. Th e outer shell is primarily for the retention and protection of loosely filled in sulation and to contain nitrogen purge-gas pressure. The outer shell is not desi gned to contain refrigerated liquid in the event of leakage from the primary con tainer.

The diagram below shows two complete tanks with an annular gap of about 0.5 mete rs in between. The annular space is filled with granular insulation ( perlite) and a nitrogen breather system is provided to accommodate volume changes in the inter-space, resulting from atmospheric pressure changes and inner tank expansio n or contraction. A suspended roof, inside the outer tank dome, fits inside the inner tank. The outside tank/ outer shell is made up of carbon, The inner tank, in contact w ith the LNG liquid, is made of materials suitable for cryogenic service. It has a flat metallic bottom and a cylindrical metal wall both built of materials suit able for cryogenic temperatures (usually nine percent nickel steel). The inner t ank bottom rests on a rigid insulation material, such as foam glass. The strengt h of the total tank must withstand the hydrostatic load of the LNG. This hydrost atic head determines the thickness of the inner tank side walls. The tanks also have an insulation layer with a flat suspended deck supported by an outside dome d roof vapor barrier or outer tank (often made of carbon steel). The bund wall contains any liquid leakage. Also, its position minimizes boil-off rate from any leakage by preventing liquid from spreading over a large area of warm ground. FIGURE 1. SINGLE CONTAINMENT-DOUBLE-WALL TANK

DOULE WALL-DOUBLE CONTAINMENT TANK Double containment storage tanks are a development of the single-wall tank. They provide increased safety margins against tank leakage by introducing an extra i nner tank. The outer shell acts in the same way as a bund and contains any liquid leakage f rom the inner shell but in this case it also avoids vapor release to atmosphere. The mini-bund, as shown below, is provided to contain minor leaks from pipeline s, valves and flanges. FIGURE 2. DOULE WALL-DOUBLE CONTAINMENT TANK

IN GROUND STORAGE In-ground tanks are a popular option for storing LNG which provides: High-integrity storage with virtually no risk of spillage High seismic protection against earthquakes, and Minimal visual impact on the environment The main features of one such in-ground LNG storage tank are illustrated in the Figure below. Primary containment is by a stainless steel membrane, supported (a s in ships' membrane type tanks) by rigid polyurethane foam insulation. This, in turn, is supported within a reinforced concrete caisson. The roof is a dome-sha ped carbon steel structure supporting a suspended deck with glass wool insulatio n FIGURE 3. IN GROUND STORAGE TANK

Example of a typical feature of a storage tank Tank Design Data Design Type Above ground, Membrane, Suspended Deck

Gross Liquid Capacity 200,000 m3 Normal Working Capacity 1,020 m3 Design Temperature of Product -170 0C Design Pressure 29kpa Operating Pressure 50 ~ 350 mbarg. Operating Level 5 ~ 8.81 m BOG rate 0.53 vol%/day LNG Pump 50 m3/h x 2, 15bar Inner Tank Features - Diameter 84.18 m - Shell Height 37.92 m Outer Tank Features - Diameter 86.71 m - Height 52.21 m - Wall Thickness 1.2 m

LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS TRANSPORT HISTORY OF THE MARINE TRANSPORT OF LNG 1912: First LNG plant built in West Virginia 1914: Godfrey Cabot patents a barge to carry liquid gas, waterborne transportati on technically feasible 1959: METHANE PIONEER, converted cargo ship, carries 5000m3 of LNG between Lake Charles and UK demonstrating feasibility of waterborne transportation. 1964: Methane Princes & Methane Progress, 27400m3, become first commercial LNG v essels, operating between Algeria and the UK 1969: Gas Transport membrane system vessels Polar Alaska & Arctic Tokyo, 71000m3 , begin service from Alaska to Tokyo 1971: Kvaerner develops 88000m3 Moss spherical containment system 1975: 100 km3 size exceeded with delivery of Frenchbuilt BEN FRANKLIN, 12000m3 1979: Formation of Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators (S IGTTO) to promote safe and reliable operation of gas tankers and terminals 1993: Polar Eagle and Arctic Sun, 83.5km3, with IHI prismatic containment system begin service from Alaska to Tokyo CLASSIFICATION OF LNG CARRIERS LNG carriers are classified by their cargo containment designs they are: 1. Kvaerner-moss spherical tank 2. Membrane system Gaz transport Technigaz membrane systems e.g. Mark iii, no96, cs1 3. IHI prismatic WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF LNG CARRIERS TECHNIGAZ GAZ TRANSPORT KVAERNER MOSS SPHERICAL TANK OTHERS 11% 37% 51% 1%

FIGURE 4. LNG VESSELS DISTRIBUTION

LNG VESSEL TYPES AND DESIGN STRUCTURE 1. KVAERNER-MOSS

FIGURE 6 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF KVAERNER- MOSS The Kvaerner moss design is a type B independent tank of the spherical type. A T ype 'B' tank requires only a partial secondary barrier in the form of a drip tra y. The hold space in this design is normally filled with dry inert gas. However, when adopting modern practice, it may be filled with dry air provided that iner ting of the space can be achieved if the vapor detection system shows cargo leak age. A protective steel dome covers the primary barrier above deck level and ins ulation is applied to the outside of the tank.

FIGURE 7. VESSEL OF THE KVAERNER MOSS TYPE GAZ TRANSPORT MEMBRANE SYSTEM Gaz Transport system comprises of a thin Invar primary barrier. Invar is a stai nless steel alloy containing about 36 per cent nickel and 0.2 per cent carbon. T his is attached to the inner (cold) surface of perlite-filled plywood boxes used as primary insulation. These boxes have thickness of between 200 and 300 millim eters. These, in turn, are attached to an identical inner layer of Invar (the se condary barrier) and, finally, a further set of similar perlite-filled boxes is used for secondary insulation. Invar is chosen for the membranes because of its very low coefficient of thermal expansion, thus making expansion joints, or corr ugation, in the barriers unnecessary. Newer designs of the Gaz Transport system utilize Invar membranes of 0.7 millimeters thickness in strakes of 0.5 meters wi dth and strengthened plywood boxes to hold the perlite insulation. The perlite i s processed with silicon to make it impervious to water or moisture. The thickne ss of the insulation boxes can be adjusted to obtain the required amount of boil -off. FIGURE 8. GAZ TRANSPORT MEMBRANES Technigaz membrane system The Technigaz system, features a primary barrier of stainless steel (1.2 millime ters in thickness) having raised corrugations, or waffles, to allow for expansio n and contraction. In the original Mark I design, the insulation that supports t he primary membrane consisted of laminated balsa wood panels held between two pl ywood layers; the face plywood formed the secondary barrier. The balsa wood pane ls were interconnected with specially designed joints comprising PVC foam wedges and plywood scabs and were supported on the inner hull of the ship by wooden gr ounds. In the latest design (Mark III) the balsa wood insulation is replaced by reinforced cellular foam. Within the foam there is a fiberglass cloth/aluminum l aminate acting as secondary barrier. FIGURE 9. TECHNIGAZ MEMBRANE SYSTEM IHI PRISMATIC IHI prismatic is a Type 'B' tank, of prismatic shape in LNG service. The prismat ic Type 'B' tank has the benefit of maximizing ship-hull volumetric efficiency a

nd having the entire cargo tank placed beneath the main deck. Where the prismati c shape is used, the maximum design vapor space pressure is, as for Type 'A' tan ks, limited to 0.7 barg. FIGURE 10. IHI PRISMATIC LNG TANK VESSEL DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT LAYOUT CARGO PIPELINE Pipelines carry liquid and vapor to and from the ship this lines are fitted to t he ship via the manifold the connection. The liquid loading line is led through the tank dome to the bottom of each cargo tank; the vapor connection is taken fr om the top of each cargo tank. Provision must be made in the design and fitting of cargo pipelines to allow for thermal expansion and contraction. This is best achieved by the fitting of expansion loops or, by using the natural geometry of the pipework. CARGO VALVES AND STRAINERS Isolating valves are provided, in LNG vessels having a MARVS( Maximum Allowable Relief Valve Setting)of 0.7 bar comprises of one manually operated globe valve a nd a remotely operated isolation valve fitted in series. Emergency shutdown valv es are also provided at the vapour and liquid line. CARGO PUMPS Cargo pumps fitted on board refrigerated gas carriers are normally of centrifuga l design and may be either of the deep well or submerged type. They may operate alone or in parallel with one another. Ice prevention at cargo pumps The formation of ice or hydrates may occur in ships carrying LNG . Furthermore, hydrates may be transferred from the terminal during loading operations. Hydrate s from the shore can be removed by cargo filters in the terminal loading lines. Hydrate formations may enter cargo pumps, block lubricating passages, unbalance impellers and seize bearings. To prevent such damage it is common practice to in ject a small quantity of freezing-point depressant into the cargo pump, especial ly submerged pumps. When deep well pumps are not in operation, it is recommended that manual rotatio n of the shafts be carried out during cool-down and loading to prevent freezing of the impellers. CARGO VAPORISERS A means of producing cargo vapor from liquid is often required on LNG gas carrie rs. For example, vapor may be needed to gas-up cargo tanks or to maintain cargo tank pressure during discharge. This latter need will be more obvious in the abs ence of a vapor return line from shore. Accordingly, a vaporiser is usually inst alled on board for these purposes. Cargo vaporizers may be either vertical or horizontal shell and tube heat exchan gers. They are used with either steam or sea water as the heating source. BOIL-OFF CONTROL There must be a means to control cargo vapour pressure in cargo tanks during car go loading and on passage. A reliquefaction plant is fitted for this purpose. T his equipment is designed to perform the following essential functions: To cool down the cargo tanks and associated pipelines before loading; To reliquefy the cargo vapour generated by flash evaporation, liquid displacemen t and boil-off during loading; and To maintain cargo temperature and pressure within prescribed limits while at sea by reliquefying the boil-off vapour. LNG boil-off and vapour-handling systems The older LNG ships use steam turbine-driven compressors to handle boil-off vapo rs. Newer designs incorporate electrically driven equipment. Boil-off vapors are produced during cool-down, loading and during the loaded and ballast voyages.A low-duty compressor handles the boil-off whilst on passage: a high-duty compress or handles cargo vapors produced during cool-down and loading, returning these v apors to shore.

When a ship is at sea, the low-duty compressor collects the boil-off gas from a header connected to each cargo tank. It then passes the boil-off through a steam heater and into the engine room . There are a number of automatic protective devices built into the system to ensu re safe operation and these must be regularly inspected and maintained. Protecti ve systems include continuous monitoring for leakage and automatic shut-down in the event of system malfunction or leak detection. The compressors are provided with surge controls and other protective devices. LNG is the only liquefied gas product allowed by the Gas Codes to be burnt in th e ship's boilers. The other gases, having densities heavier than air, are consid ered to be hazardous for this purpose.

INERT GAS AND NITROGEN SYSTEMS LNG ships were once provided with storage facilities for liquid nitrogen but new er designs include a nitrogen generation plant. However, up to now, the quantity of nitrogen produced on board has not been of sufficient volume for tank-inerti ng operations. It is fitted mainly for interbarrier space inerting. Where cargo tank inerting is required on LNG ships, nitrogen from the shore, or combustion-g enerated inert gas is used. Nitrogen production on ships The most common system utilized for the production of nitrogen on ships is an ai r separation process. This system works by separating air into its component gas es by passing compressed air over hollow fibre membranes. The membranes divide t he air into two streams one is essentially nitrogen and the other contains oxyge n, carbon dioxide plus some trace gases. This system can produce nitrogen of abo ut 95 to 97 per cent purity. The capacity of these systems depends on the number of membrane modules fitted and is dependent on inlet air pressure, temperature and the required nitrogen purity. FIGURE 11.NITROGEN PRODUCTION ON SHIP SEQUENCE OF OPERATION FOR LNG TRANSPORTATION FIGURE 12. TYPICAL SEQUENCE OF OPERATION FOR A VESSEL FROM THE SHIP BUILDER TO T HE POINT OF DISCHARGE OF CARGO (LNG) TANK INSPECTION Before any cargo operations are carried out it is essential that cargo tanks are thoroughly inspected for cleanliness; that all loose objects are removed; and t hat all fittings are properly secured. In addition, any free water must be remov ed. Once this inspection has been completed, the cargo tank should be securely c losed and air drying operations may start DRYING Drying the cargo handling system in any refrigerated ship is a necessary precurs or to loading. Water vapour and free water must all be removed from the system. If this is not done, the residual moisture can cause problems with icing and hyd rate formation within the cargo system. The reasons are clear when it is appreci ated that the quantity of water condensed when cooling down a 1000m3 tank contai ning air at atmospheric pressure, 30C and 100% humidity to 0C would be 25 liters. Whatever method is adopted for drying, care must be taken to achieve the correct dew point temperature. Malfunction of valves and pumps due to ice or hydrate fo rmation can often result from an inadequately dried system. While the addition o f antifreeze may be possible to allow freezing point depression at deep-well pum p suctions, such a procedure must not substitute for thorough drying. INERTING Inerting cargo tanks, cargo machinery and pipelines is undertaken primarily to e nsure a non-flammable condition during subsequent gassing-up with cargo. For thi s purpose, oxygen concentration must be reduced from 21 per cent to a maximum of

five per cent by volume although lower values are often preferred . The two methods used are the Displacement Dilution GASSING UP Gassing up is done to remove inert gas from the cargo tank is. This is achieved by gassing-up, using vapour from the cargo to be loaded at ambient temperature and venting the incondensibles to atmosphere. Gassing up could also be done during a change of grade from one LNG to another, it may first be necessary to remove the vapour of the previous cargo with vapour of the cargo to be loaded. COOL DOWN Cooling down is necessary to avoid excessive tank pressures (due to flash evapor ation) during bulk loading. Cool-down consists of spraying cargo liquid into a t ank at a slow rate. The lower the cargo carriage temperature, the more important the cool down procedure becomes. Before loading an LNG cargo, ship's tanks must be cooled down slowly in order to minimize thermal stresses. The rate, at which a cargo tank can be cooled, witho ut creating high thermal stress, depends on the design of the containment system and is typically 10C per hour. The normal cool-down procedure takes the following form. Cargo liquid from shore (or from deck storage) is gradually introduced into the tanks either through sp ray lines, if fitted for this purpose, or via the cargo loading lines. The vapou rs produced by rapid evaporation may be taken ashore or handled in the ship's re liquefaction plant. Additional liquid is then introduced at a rate depending upo n tank pressures and temperatures. If the vapour boil-off is being handled in th e ship's reliquefaction plant, difficulties may be experienced with incondensibl es, such as nitrogen, remaining from the inert gas. LOADING When LNG is being loaded, it is necessary to consider the location, pressure, te mperature and volume of the shore tanks as well as the terminal's pumping proced ures. Fully refrigerated ships usually load from fully refrigerated storage wher e tanks typically operate at a pressure of approximately 60 millibars. This pres sure will allow the cargo at the bottom of a full shore tank to sustain a temper ature perhaps one degree Centrigrade warmer than its atmospheric boiling point. When this cargo is pumped to the jetty, the pumping energy required for transfer is dissipated in the liquid as heat, to which must be added the heat flow into the liquid through the pipelines. The cargo may, therefore, arrive on the ship a t an even warmer temperature. When loading without a vapour return line being us ed, the vapour which is displaced by the incoming liquid must be reliquefied on board. The power required for this, and to compensate for the pumping energy and the heat flux through the insulation, may leave little capacity for cooling the cargo during loading. The early stages of loading can be critical, particularly where significant dist ances exist between the storage tank and jetty. The ship's tank pressures must b e regularly checked . Loading rates should be reduced, and if necessary stopped, when difficulties are experienced in maintaining acceptable tank pressures. A r ise in ship's tank pressure in the early stages of loading can also be controlle d to some extent by loading limited quantities of liquid into the cargo tank via the top sprays, if fitted. This will help to condense some of the cargo vapours . BULK LOADING A close watch and monitoring should be kept on the ship's cargo tank pressures, temperatures, liquid levels and interbarrier space pressures, throughout the loa ding operation. Towards the end of loading, transfer rates should be reduced as. On completion o f loading, ship's pipelines should be drained back to the cargo tanks. Remaining

liquid residue can be cleared by blowing ashore with vapour, using the ship's c ompressor. Alternatively, this residue may be cleared by nitrogen injected into the loading arm to blow the liquid into the ship's tanks. Once liquid has been c leared and pipelines have been depressurized, manifold valves should be closed a nd the hose or loading arm disconnected from the manifold flange. In many ports it is a requirement, before disconnection takes place, for the har d arm, hose and pipelines at the manifold to be purged free from flammable vapou r. The maximum volume to which any tank may be filled is governed by the following formula: where: LL = loading limit expressed in per cent which means the maximum liquid volume r elative to the tank volume to which the tank may be loaded. FL = filling limit = 98 per cent unless certain exceptions apply. R = elative density of ca go at the efe ence tempe atu e. L = elative density of the ca go at the loading tempe atu e and p essu e. LOADED VOYAGE Ca go tempe atu e cont ol It is necessa y to maintain st ict cont ol of ca go tempe atu e and p essu e th oughout the loaded voyage. In LNG ships, the boil-off is bu ned as fuel in the ship's main boile . Boil off is the main natu al cont ol of LNG tempe atu e LNG boil-off as fuel Although it is feasible to eliquefy LNG boil-off vapou s, the equipment equi e d is complex and expensive and, to date, full-scale equipment has not been insta lled on boa d ships. As methane vapou s, at ambient tempe atu e, a e lighte tha n ai boil-off is used as fuel fo the ship's main p opulsion du ing sea passage s. LNG is the only ca go which is pe mitted to be used as fuel in this manne . Daily boil-off ates du ing the loaded voyage va y with changes in ba omet ic p essu e (unless absolute p essu e cont ol is adopted), ambient tempe atu e and se a conditions. Fo this eason, a close watch must be kept on tank p essu es and inte -ba ie space p essu es. On no account should ca go tank p essu es be allo wed to fall below atmosphe ic. Typical figu es fo LNG ca ie boil-off ates a e f om 0.10 to 0.15 pe cent of the ca go volume pe day du ing the loaded voyag e and 0.10 pe cent pe day fo the ballast voyage. It should be noted that LNG often contains a small pe centage of nit ogen, which will boil-off p efe entiall y, thus educing the calo ific value of the boil-off gas at the beginning of the loaded voyage. DISCHARGING Discha ging is done at the te minals o the egasification plant, this is done a t specific discha ge flow ate and vapou p essu e conside ation. BALLAST VOYAGE Ballast voyage is the voyage of the etu ning vessel f om dispo t back to loadin g. It is a f equent p actice in LNG t anspo t to etain a small quantity of ca g o on boa d afte discha ge and the amount etained is known as the heel. This p oduct is used to maintain the tanks at educed tempe atu e du ing the ballast vo yage but this p ocedu e only applies when the same g ade of ca go is to be loade d at the next loading te minal. In gene al, the quantity etained on boa d as a heel depends on: Comme cial ag eements The type of gas ca ie The du ation of the ballast voyage The next loading te minal's equi ements, and The next ca go g ade In the case of a la ge LNG ca ie , as much as 2,000 to 3,000 cubic mete s of li quid may be etained in the tanks on depa tu e f om the discha ge po t; the actu al volume, depending on the size and type of ca go containment, the length of th e voyage and fuel policy. These ships a e no mally fitted with sp ay cool-down p

umps in each ca go tank to p ovide liquid to sp ay lines fitted in the uppe pa t of each tank. This system is used f om time to time on the ballast voyage to m inimize tank the mal g adients. The f equency of this ope ation will depend on s hip size and type and the du ation of the ballast voyage. MEASURING THE AMOUNT OF CARGO LOADED Ca go measu ement is done majo ly by taking in to conside ation by the tank cali b ation. Ce tain co ections a e taken in to conside ation when taking the volum e of the tank. TRIM CORRECTION LIST CORRECTION FLOAT CORRECTION TAPE CORRECTION TANK SHELL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT IN LNG STORRAGE AND TRANSPORT Haza d facto s associated with LNG handling a e: Flammability Explosion Vapo clouds Low tempe atu e (f ostbite) Roll ove Rapid phase t ansition FLAMMABILITY The flammability ange is the ange between the minimum and maximum concent atio ns of vapo (pe cent by volume) in which ai and LNG vapo s fo m a flammable mix tu e that can be ignited and bu n. Figu e 13 below indicates that the uppe flammability limit and lowe flammabili ty limit of methane, the dominant component of LNG vapo , a e 5 pe cent and 15 p e cent by volume, espectively. When fuel concent ation exceeds its uppe flamma bility limit, it cannot bu n because too little oxygen is p esent. This situatio n exists, fo example, in a closed, secu e sto age tank whe e the vapo concent ation is app oximately 100 pe cent methane. When fuel concent ation is below the lowe flammability limit, it cannot bu n because too little methane is p esent. An example is leakage of small quantities of LNG in a well-ventilated a ea.

FIGURE 13. LNG FLAMMABILITY LIMIT A compa ison of the p ope ties of LNG to those of othe liquid fuels, indicates that the Lowe Flammability Limit of LNG is gene ally highe than othe fuels. T hat is, mo e LNG vapo s would be needed (in a given a ea) to ignite as compa ed to LPG o gasoline. EXPLOSION. An explosion happens when a substance apidly changes its chemical state i.e., is ignited o is uncont ollably eleased f om a p essu ized state. Fo an uncont olled elease to happen, the e must be a st uctu al failu e i.e., something mus t punctu e the containe o the containe must b eak f om the inside. LNG tanks sto e the liquid at an ext emely low tempe atu e, about -256F (-160C), so no p ess u e is equi ed to maintain its liquid state. Sophisticated containment systems p event ignition sou ces f om coming in contact with the liquid. Since LNG is st o ed at atmosphe ic p essu e i.e., not p essu ized a c ack o punctu e of the co ntaine will not c eate an immediate explosion. VAPOR CLOUDS. As LNG leaves a tempe atu e-cont olled containe , it begins to wa m up, etu nin g the liquid to a gas. Initially, the gas is colde and heavie than the su oun ding ai . It c eates a fog a vapo cloud above the eleased liquid.As the gas wa ms up, it mixes with the su ounding ai and begins to dispe se. The vapo clou

d will only ignite if it encounte s an ignition sou ce while concent ated within its flammability ange. Safety devices and ope ational p ocedu es a e intended to minimize the p obability of a elease and subsequent vapo cloud having an af fect outside the facility bounda y. FREEZING LIQUID/FROST BITE If LNG is eleased, di ect human contact with the c yogenic liquid will f eeze t he point of contact. Containment systems su ounding an LNG sto age tank, thus, a e designed to contain up to 110 pe cent of the tanks contents. Containment syst ems also separate the tank from other equipment. Moreover, all facility personne l must wear gloves, face masks and other protective clothing as a protection fro m the freezing liquid when entering potentially hazardous areas. ROLLOVER. When LNG supplies of multiple densities are loaded into a tank one at a time, t hey do not mix at first. Instead, they layer themselves in unstable strata withi n the tank. After a period of time, these strata may spontaneously rollover to s tabilize the liquid in the tank. As the lower LNG layer is heated by normal heat leak, it changes density until it finally becomes lighter than the upper layer. At that point, a liquid rollover would occur with a sudden vaporization of LNG that may be too large to be released through the normal tank pressure release va lves. At some point, the excess pressure can result in cracks or other structura l failures in the tank. To prevent stratification, operators unloading an LNG sh ip measure the density of the cargo and, if necessary, adjust their unloading pr ocedures accordingly. LNG tanks have rollover protection systems, which include distributed temperature sensors and pump-around mixing systems. RAPID PHASE TRANSITION. When released on water, LNG floats being less dense than water and vaporizes. If large volumes of LNG are released on water, it may vaporize too quickly causing a rapid phase transition (RPT).7 Water temperature and the presence of substanc es other than methane also affect the likelihood of an RPT. An RPT can only occu r if there is mixing between the LNG and water. RPTs range from small pops to bl asts large enough to potentially damage to lightweightstructures. Other liquids with widely differing temperatures and boiling points can create similar inciden ts when they come in contact with each other. EARTHQUAKE AND TERRORISM MAJOR LNG INCIDENTS 1. Cleveland, Ohio, 1944 In 1939, the first commercial LNG peakshaving facility(storage facility built du ring winter period when demand is high and supply low) was built in West Virgini a.In 1941, the East Ohio Gas Company built a second facility in Cleveland. Thepe akshaving facility operated without incident until 1944, when the facility was e xpanded to include a larger tank. A shortage of stainless steel alloys during Wo rld War II led to compromises in the design of the new tank. The tank failed sho rtly after it was placed in service. The LNG that escaped formed a vapor cloud t hat filled the surrounding streets and storm sewer system. Natural gas vapor in the storm sewer system was ignited. The Cleveland event resulted in the deaths o f 128 people in the adjoining residential area. 2. Staten Island, New York, February 1973 3. Cove Point, Maryland, October 1979 In October 1979, an explosion occurred within an electrical substation at the Co vePoint, MD receiving terminal. LNG leaked through an inadequately tightened LNG pump electrical penetration seal, vaporized, passed through 200 feet ofundergro und electrical conduit, and entered the substation. Since natural gas was never expected in this building, there were no gas detectors installed. The normal arc ing contacts of a circuit breaker ignited the natural gas-air mixture, resulting in an explosion. The explosion killed one operator in the building, seriously i njured a second and caused about $3 million in damages.

LNG Regulations The following regulations provide guidelines for the design, construction and op eration of LNG facilities. 49CFR Part 193 Liquefied Natural Gas Facilities: Federal Safety Standards- This section covers siting requirements, design, construction, equipment, operations, maintenance, personnel qualifications and training, fire protection, and securi ty. 33CFR Part 127 Waterfront Facilities Handling Liquefied Natural Gas and Liquefie d Hazardous Gas - This federal regulation governs import and export LNG facilities or other waterfront facilities handling LNG. Its jurisdiction runs from the unl oading arms to the first valve outside the LNG tank. NFPA 59A Standard for the Production, Storage, and Handling of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) This is an industry standard issued by the National Fire Protection A ssociation (NFPA).41 NFPA 59A covers general LNG facility considerations, proces s systems, stationary LNG storage containers, vaporization facilities, piping sy stems and components, instrumentation and electrical services, transfers of natu ral gas and refrigerants, fire protection, safety and security. It also mandates alternative requirements for vehicle fueling for industrial and commercial faci lities using American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) pressure vessel con tainers. This standard includes requirements for LNG facilities to withstand sub stantial earthquakes. The NFPA standard for level of design means that the LNG f acilities are strongly fortified for other events such as wind, flood, earthquak es and blasts.The latest update of NFPA 59A was published in 2001. NFPA 57 Standard for Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Vehicular Fuel Systems This sta ndard covers vehicle fuel systems, LNG fueling facilities, installation requirem ents for ASME tanks, fire protection, safety and security for systems onboard ve hicles and infrastructure storing 70,000 gallons of LNG or less. EUROPEAN STANDARDS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING. EN 1473 - The European Norm standard EN 1473 Installation and equipment for Liqu efied Natural Gas - Design of onshore installations evolved out of the British S tandard, BS 777742 in 1996. It is a standard for the design of onshore LNG termi nals. This standard is not prescriptive but promotes a risk-based approachfor th e design. EN 1160 Installation and equipment for Liquefied Natural Gas General Characteris tics of Liquefied Natural Gas contains guidance on properties of materials commo nly found in LNG facility that may come into contact with LNG. EEMUA 14743 - Recommendations for the design and construction of refrigerated li quefied gas storage tanks. This document contains basic recommendations for the design and construction of single, double and full containment tanks for the bul k storage of refrigerated liquefied gases (RLGs) down to -165C, covering the use of both metal and concrete materials.

COMMERCIAL DOCUMENTATION AND THIRD PARTY ADMINISTRATION Before any cargo undergoes transport certain documents are to be cleared and sig ned. Some of them are: 1. Bill of lading It contains the vessel name, name of captain, destination, spa reference, cargo quantity and dates. It is the most important document 2. Certificate of quantity It contains the quantity of cargo loaded in different units 3. Certificate of quality It contains the quality of cargo loaded in terms of its chemical composition 4. Certificate of origin It contains mainly the name of the vessels originating port 5. Receipt of document It contains all the documents issued by the shore to the ship 6. Certificate of loading It states mainly when cargo was loaded, the name of the buyer and the quantity l oaded 7. Cargo manifest It gives a brief summary of the loaded cargo and the vessel

THIRD OFFICIALS IN DOCUMENTATION 1. DPR (Department Petroleum Resources) is the regulator of the oil and gas industry. They are provide; Approvals and clearance of load Approve custody transfer methods adopted Safeguards government interest; accurate report of export, compliance with regul ations Certifies each FOB loadings; issues COL 2. INDEPENDENT INSPECTOR(SURVEYORS) Independently verifies/ validate custody transfer process Opinion binding on parties in case of dispute Represents parties at disports 3. Boarding officials Includes NPA, customs, immigration, port health, NDLEA, Navy Visits/inspects each vessels before giving clearance to load 4. Agents Ensure payment of port dues Convey port officials to/from vessels

CONCLUSION From the study of liquefied natural gas storage and transportation I have arrive d at an agreed fact that The main principle governing the ability of liquefied natural gas to remain at i ts boiling point of about 1620c in storage tanks and ship vessels is the ability to effectively control heat ingress into the system and effectively control the vapor from the liquid(boil off gas) The various choice of storage tank for LNG containment depend on the location(ge ological and seismic activity), ambient conditions and materials The transport of LNG through vessels is the cost effective as compared to pipeli ne. The choice of cargo containment and ship facility layout is dependent on the dis port and loading terminal loading configurations Major LNG disasters are caused mainly by negligence and poor safety conditions a

nd not because of inadequate technology to check the problem.

NOMENCLATURE Autoignition temperature The lowest temperature at which a gas will ignite after an extended time of expo sure(e.g., several minutes). British Thermal Unit (BTU) A BTU is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of one pound of w ater by one degree Fahrenheit. Cryogenics The study of the behaviour of matter at very low temperatures. Critical Pressure The pressure at which a substance exists in the liquid state at its critical tem perature. (In other words it is the saturation pressure at the critical temperat ure). Density A description of oil by measurement of its volume to weight ratio. Explosion The sudden release or creation of pressure and generation of high temperature a s a result of a rapid change in chemical state (usually burning), or a mechanica l failure. Flammability limit Is the concentration of fuel (by volume) that must be present in air for an igni tion to occur when an ignition source is present. Frost Heave The pressure exerted by the earth when expanding as a result of ice formations. It is a situation which can arise as a result of the low temperature effects fro m a storage tank being transmitted to the ground beneath. Heel The amount of liquid cargo retained in a cargo tank at the end of discharge. It is used to maintain the cargo tanks cooled down during ballast voyages by recirc ulating through the sprayers. MTPA (Million Tonnes per Annum). Tonnes or Metric Ton is approximately 2.47 cubic meter of LNG. Hydrates The compounds formed by the interaction of water and hydrocarbons at certain pre ssures and temperatures. They are crystalline substances Inert Gas A gas, such as nitrogen, or a mixture of non-flammable gases containing insuffic ient oxygen to support combustion ISGOTT International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals Vapour Density The density of a gas or vapour under specified conditions of temperature and pre ssure Peakshaving LNG Facility A facility for both storing and vaporizing LNG intended to operate on an intermi ttent basis to meet relatively short term peak gas demands.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere gratitude goes out to the staff of Nigeria LNG who impacted some know ledge in me and lit up the urge to write this paper. I thank my friends for their constructive criticism I also give a deep gratitude to my parents and siblings for their support

CONVERSION TABLES 1 billion cubic meter NG 1 billion cubic feet NG 1 million tones oil equivalent 1 million tones LNG 1 trillion British thermal unit 1 millio n barrels oil equivalent thermal units 1 billion cubic meter NG 1 35.3 0.90 0.73 36 6.29 1 billion cubic feet NG 0.028 1 0.026 0.021 1.03 0.18 1 million tones oil equivalent 1.111 39.2 1 0.805 40.4 7.33 1 million tones LNG 1.38 48.7 1.23 1 52.0 8.68 1 trillion British thermal unit 0.028 0.98 0.025 0.02 1 0.17 1 million barrels oil equivalent thermal units 0.16 5.61 0.14 0.12 5.8 1 Energy Units 1 metric tonne=2204.62 1kilo joule=0.948Btu 1Btu=1.055kj 1 kilowatt-hour(kwh)=3412Btu REFERENCE American Petroleum Institute (API) http://api-ec.api.org Bob Curt, Marine Transportation of LNG, Presentation at the Qatar LNG Intertanko Conference, Qatar, (29 March, 2004) International Maritime Organization (IMO) http://www.imo.org. McGUIRE and WHITE. 2000. Liquefied Gas Handling Principles on Ships and in Termi nals, 3rd Edition, London Witerbry publishers Phil Bainbridge, VP BP Global LNG, LNG in North America and the Global Context, IELE/AIPN Meeting University of Houston, October 2002.

Stowe Dagogo, Storage Facility Overview of NLNG, Presentation at the NLNG intern ship seminar, Bonny Nigeria, (31 December, 2010)