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    Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle
    Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle
    Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle
    Ebook343 pages5 hours

    Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle

    By Aristotle

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    Nicomachean Ethics is the magnum opus of the eminent Greek philosopher Aristotle on Ethics. In it, he unveils his teleological conception of practical rationality, his vision of virtue, and his reflections on the role of habit and prudence. It is considered the most mature and representative work of Aristotelian thought. The title derives from the name of his son and also disciple, Nicomachus. It is believed that the work is the result of Nicomachus' lecture notes, published by Aristotle's disciples after Nicomachus' premature death in combat. It is an indispensable ebook in the field of philosophy and ethics.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherLebooks Editora
    Release dateMar 11, 2024
    ISBN9786558943358
    Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle
    Author

    Aristotle

    A friend to all is a friend to none.A likely impossibility is always preferable to an unconvincing possibility.All human actions have one or more of these seven causes: chance, nature, compulsions, habit, reason, passion, desire.All human beings, by nature, desire to know.All men by nature desire knowledge. - Aristotle, The Corpus Aristotelicum

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    Reviews for Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle

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    • 3/5
      I know I'm supposed to like this "foundational document of Western culture." I understand its importance, but I would feel perfectly fine if I never had to think about this book again. Give me poet-hating Plato over Aristotle; at least he is lively.
    • 4/5
      On a first read, while I was able to appreciate the harmony of Aristotle's writing, it made me feel that his Ethics were not well described "in practice". How can I achieve that mean?, how do I know I am doing well?, etc.
    • 5/5
      Anyone can get angry—that is easy—or give or spend money; but to do this to the right person,
      to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way,       that is not for everyone, nor is it easy; wherefore goodness is both rare and laudable and noble.

      The Oxford edition of The Nicomachean Ethics uses a revised version David Ross's truly readable translation. The notes are extremely helpful in elucidating Aristotle's sometimes tedious arguments around virtue, happiness, pleasure, and friendship. His conception of phronesis ("practical wisdom") is key in knowing the right thing to do and what leads happiness, which for Aristotle consists in excellence in activity directed by reason. In order to the right thing, we must know what the right thing is, choose it because it because it's the right thing, and act from a firm and unchanging good character. Easier said than done.

      Aristotle thinks it's difficult to find “what is intermediate in passions and in actions." He argues that grasping the mean course of action is not for everyone, making virtue "rare and laudable and noble." One must always aim for what is intermediate and away from the extremes of the passions if one hopes to be virtuous, but this intermediate is often hard to identify or attain precisely in all situations, so we have to “incline sometimes towards the excess, sometimes towards the deficiency; for so shall we most easily hit the intermediate and what is right" – no easy task, indeed. Additionally, because childhood is where much of virtuous behavior is formed, if one is raised poorly or wickedly, one is put at an even larger disadvantage. Aristotle argues that it makes all the difference whether a person is raised properly to form virtuous habits in their youth, thus increasing the difficulty for many to become good people.

      Anyone who's interested in ethical theory and how to live would do well to read Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, especially this helpful and easy to read edition.
    • 5/5
      The vagueries of textual survival have left us with few specimens of Aristotle's prose at its finest. It's equally possible that Aristotle was not as exquisite a writer as his teacher Plato. In either case, this is one of the more cohesive of Aristotle's works, and even so it's somewhat repetitive and tedious. But Aristotle's ethical system is more humane: I'd rather live in his world than in Plato's Republic.

      In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes about friendship, happiness, and virtue in terms that have had a seminal influence on all subsequent ethical discourse in European philosophy. It creates a parallel system to Biblical ethics in shaping Western ideals of the good. So, a dull but vitally important work.

      This particular translation is readable and well-annotated.
    • 5/5
      This is Aristotle's classic guide to ethics including the golden mean, the nature of friendship and other topics. While it is more a set of lecture notes than a polished philosophical treatise it still demonstrates the power of the mind of the man behind it.

      In the first part he focuses on defining the nature of the highest good for human beings. That is the good at which all things aim (1094a3). This highest good is "happiness" by which is meaqnt both "living well" and "doing well" (1095a18); that, more specifically, happiness is "an activitiy of the soul [which] consists in action performed in conjunction with the rational element" (1098a13), "in conformity with excellence or virtue" (1098a15), "in a complete life" 91098a16).

      As he does for other subjects Aristotle approaches ethics in an organized and scientific manner with an initial emphasis on definitions such as: what is the good, virtue, justice and moral excellence? He does this with an expectation of only that level of precision that is appropriate for the subject at hand. Over the course of the middle section of the treatise the reader is introduced to the concept of the 'golden mean' by which virtues are discussed with regard to extremes (eg. courage vs. rashness) which allow for a middle ground or mean between the extremes. In book seven he discusses moral strength and weakness, and he follows this in book eight with an analysis of the nature and importance of friendship and the need for it. He makes the case that:
      "The perfect form of friendship is that between good men who are alike in excellence or virtue. For these friends wish alike for one an other's good because they are good men, and the are good per se, (that is, their goodness is something intrinsic, not incidental). Those who wish for their friends' good for their friends' sake are friends in the truest sense since their attitude is determined by what their friends are and not by incidental considerations."(1156b, 6-12)

      The ethics culminates in a argument for the supreme importance of contemplation. He says,
      "But a wise man is able to study even by himself, and the wiser he is the more is he able to do it. . . study (contemplation) seems to be the only activity which is loved for its own sake."(1177a, 33- 1177b, 1)
      The ethical principles, the method of demonstration and the sheer power of the ideas presented here make this a valuable guide even as we approach the twenty-first century.
    • 4/5
      Comprehensive and well reasoned. Except in those few spots where it strains to use the "golden mean" approach to virtue ethics or suffers from outdated views, this important work has largely stood the test of time.
    • 2/5
      Eh, at least its not Plato. I read this as context/ground for Aristotle's more socially-oriented works.
    • 4/5
      The metaphors and language of this were difficult and if I hadn't been assigned this, I probably would not have slogged through it, but I'm glad I did. After parsing through and re-reading this, it's really quite brilliant, and simple. Of course I can't blame Aristotle too harshly, this is a transcription of student lecture notes, and then probably several translations later, it's what we read in English class, so the message does get through, it just takes a labyrinthine path to get there.
    • 4/5
      One of the most accessible works of Aristotle or ancient philosophy in general, but also one of the most practical, because its subject is ethics, or how to live one's life.
    • 5/5
      Plato and Aristotle between them not only laid the foundations for Western philosophy, many would argue they divided it neatly between them: Plato the one who with his "Allegory of the Cave" gave birth to the idea of an existence beyond our senses, giving a rational gloss to mysticism. Aristotle, the father of logic and a scientist, with a this-world orientation. There's a famous fresco by Raphael, "The School of Athens," where that's illustrated, where the figure meant to be Plato points to the sky--the heavens--while Aristotle points to the ground--to this Earth. If you're going to ask me which school I belong to--at least as so categorized, Aristotle wins, hands down. Yet if you ask me which philosopher I found a joy to read, which a slog--well, Plato wins.

      Unfortunately, much of Aristotle's works were lost, and what remains I've seen described as not his polished material, but "lecture notes." Plato's dialogues are like little plays, and reading them often are, I daresay, fun. Yes, really. So it was disappointing not to find Aristotle as lively a read. This is dry stuff. But then there are the ideas, which fully earn the five stars. Back when I was introduced to ethics in school, about the only two choices we were given was Utilitarianism--the "greatest good for the greatest number" or Kant and his "categorical imperative" with examples contrasting them such as, under Utilitarianism, if torture leads to good for the greatest number, then by all means, let the water boarding begin! Under the categorical imperative, on the other hand, rules... well, rule. It doesn't matter if there's a ticking atomic bomb, you don't use torture. You're not supposed to care about practical consequences, to yourself or others. What's left out of both philosophies is the individual and his or her happiness. But that's not left out with Aristotle. For him ethics is practical and about the pursuit of happiness. It's for that and from that virtues flow. It's in our personal interest to be virtuous, to practice habits of character that lead to a good life for a human being. Those ethics that appeal and resonate to me come from this school of thought. It's philosophy for human beings, on a human level. So, Plato for style--Aristotle for substance. For me, anyway.
    • 3/5
      Aristotle vs. Plato

      Having just finished and enjoyed Plato's complete works, I find this book a bit annoying and uninspiring in comparison. Aristotle seems to take every opportunity to "correct" Plato, when in fact he is only attacking a strawman. His arguments, sometimes self-contradictory, often support and clarify Plato's ideas, albeit using his own terminology.

      Aristotle seems to have great difficulty appreciating or understanding Plato’s abstractions (from species to genus, from the individual instances to the common patterns, i.e. Idea or Form). This is the cause of the majority of his attacks against Plato, as “piety requires us to honour truth above our friends.” How very noble of him!

      I don't know whether the Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum charged their students fees. If not, there were no financial incentives in disparaging their rival. If it was purely intellectual rivalry, using straw man is often a sign of an inferior intellect or character. Since both Plato and Aristotle believed that the intellect was the best part of man or the true man, to attack and destroy another's ideas would be equivalent to murder (or Freudian parricide).

      However, it could also be true that Aristotle was formulating his own philosophy through engagement with Plato's ideas, and intellectual competitions and debates help facilitate the development of sound ideas. Since this is the first book by Aristotle that I've read, it's very likely that I'm not giving him his due here. It may take some time to switch from Plato to Aristotle's way of thinking.

      A Champion of Mediocrity

      Aristotle's definitions of good, virtue and happiness are unsatisfactory to me. Good is "that at which all things aim". All people aim at happiness (or pleasure), therefore happiness is the supreme good. But, what exactly is happiness or pleasure? How can one hit his aim if he can't discern what he is aiming at? If virtue is "the mean between deficiency and excess", what is the difference between virtue and mediocrity?

      "Pleasure perfects activity not as the formed state that issues in that activity perfects it, by being immanent in it, but as a sort of supervening [culminating] perfection, like the bloom that graces the flower of youth." How can a fleeting thing that lacks permanence be the object of a lifelong pursuit?

      In the end, Aristotle agrees with Plato, perhaps begrudgingly as it was dictated by reason, that happiness is contemplation of the divine, which is pleasant, self-sufficient and continuous. He insists on making a distinction between activity and state, but in this instance the distinction is unclear to me.

      An Acute Observer of Human Nature

      There are a few things I do appreciate in this book. Aristotle's joie de vivre (his delight in learning, being alive and active), his insights into human nature, his clear and penetrating psychological portrayal of various character traits and the dynamic relationships or transactions between human beings. He also introduced me to Pythagorean's fascinating mathematical representation of equality, A:B = B:C and A-M = M -C.
    • 3/5
      Bourgeois before the bourgeoisie.
    • 3/5
      Aristotle's Ethics by Penguin classics looks deceptively like a paperback novel. It is nothing of the kind, being a densely packed philosophical treatise on the nature of humankind and our relationships with others.

      The book, a translation of the Nichomachean Ethics and not Aristotle's earlier Eudemian Ethics, may seem slightly mistitled to a modern audience. It deals primarily with analysis of character and what good character is and is not. Discussion of ethical issues and moral judgments of right and wrong are largely missing. The reader is expected to develop their behaviour towards others by perfecting their own character. For example, courage in its various forms is discussed but the practical application of courage is not. Much of Aristotle's thesis appears obvious to our modern minds but it is important to remember that Aristotle was systematizing his description of human nature in an effort to understand it. Unfortunately this makes for a rather dry read.

      The book also contains a lengthy introduction by Jonathan Barnes. While it is accessible to the general audience, a background in philosophy would be useful to really understand the issues he addresses. There is also a preface by Hugh Tredennick who explains why this new translation is needed - primarily for readability. Between J.A.K. Thompson (the translator), Barnes and Treddennick we appear to have the crème de la crème of Cambridge and Oxford Aristotaleans involved in this little book. The introduction has a substantial bibliography in its own right and the book includes 10 brief appendices which provide background on the philosophical ideas in the text. These are critical to understanding the book if you aren't widely read in the early Greek philosophers. A glossary of Greek words and an index of names proceeds a general index. Footnotes are brief and unobtrusive but usually helpful.

      For couch philosophers and serious students looking for an inexpensive edition of the Nichomachean ethics, this is definitely the version for you. It has surprisingly good scholarly resources for such a slim volume. If, however, you had heard that Aristotle was Alexander the Great's tutor and are trying to conquer the business world this probably won't give you many pointers.
    • 4/5
      So simple, so straightforward, so much sense. Quoting the translator's comments [unfortunately, name or edition unknown]: "Happiness for Aristotle is the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. Virtue is shown in the deliberate choice of actions as part of a worked-out plan of life, a plan which takes a middle course between excess and deficiency. This is the famous doctrine of the golden mean -- courage, for example, is a mean between cowardice and rashness, and justice between a man's getting more or less than his due. The supreme happiness, according to Aristotle, is to be found in a life of philosophical contemplation; but this is only possible for the few, and a secondary kind of happiness is available in a virtuous life of political activity." From introduction: "One is that it is the life of pleasure; but the life which aims at pleasure, regardless of the source from which it is derived, is worthy of beasts rather than of men. The political life aims at honour, but honour depends more on him who gives it than on him who gets it. The life of money-making cannot be regarded as an end in itself. There remains a fourth life, the contemplative life; and here he sounds the note which resounds in the final book." It really is in the last part of the last Book X that he brings this point out, but the rest of the work is a logical build-up toward that.
    • 4/5
      I read the Nichomachean Ethics portion of the book
      I spent a long time with this book, and consulted the Masterpieces of World Philosophy, and another book by Johnathan Lear on the issue, to come to some understanding. The project of grounding ethics in a rational pursuit of the greatest happiness is much more attractive than obtaining moral authority from revelation. Aristotle advances the idea that the good is that at which all things aim, and for man the good is happiness. Happiness is defined as the realization of man's essential nature, that is, rational thought, since that is man's differentiating feature from animals. The good for man is the activity of the soul in accord with reason. To act in accord with reason is generally to choose the mean between extremes of conduct; to be courageous is neither to be rash or cowardly. Some acts, however, are absolutely bad, such as murder. The good life involves friendship, preferably of the kind that is the mutual association of free souls without regard to usefulness or pleasure. The highest good, however, because it needs the fewest external goods and most resembles the state of the gods, is contemplation

      Aristotle is difficult going in translation, and not all of the book, especially about continence and incontinence, made sense to me. I was pleased by the rational development of arguments, and the patient consideration of all alternatives.
    • 5/5
      A true revelation for me. I've never read anything from Aristotle before, and I spent quite a lot of time reading papers and websites about the book to better understand it. I guess in a way I always thought about virtues as something boring conservatives talk about, so Aristotles perspective was really new and exciting for me.

      Also interesting to read in the context of gender (what Aristotle thinks a real man (tm) should be like).
    • 4/5
      This is a hard slog but rewarding to the serious thinker.
    • 4/5
      Shows almost all types of human character.

    Book preview

    Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle - Aristotle

    cover.jpg

    Aristotle

    NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

    Original Title:

    Ēthika Nikomacheia

    First Edition

    img1.jpg

    Contents

    INTRODUCTION

    Book 1

    Book 2

    Book 3

    Book 4

    Book 5

    Book 6

    Book 7

    Book 8

    Book 9

    Book 10

    INTRODUCTION

    img2.jpg

    Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens, by Raphael Sanzio (1509)

    Aristotle (Stagira, 384 BC - Chalcis, 322 BC) was a philosopher, polymath, and scientist born in the city of Stagira, in northern Ancient Greece. Alongside Plato, he is considered the father of Western philosophy. His ideas have had an enormous influence on the intellectual history of the West for over two millennia.

    He was a disciple of Plato and other thinkers, such as Eudoxus of Cnidus, during the twenty years he spent at the Academy in Athens. Shortly after Plato's death, Aristotle left Athens to become the tutor of Alexander the Great in the Kingdom of Macedonia for nearly 5 years. In the last stage of his life, he founded the Lyceum in Athens, where he taught until a year before his death.

    Aristotle wrote about 200 works, of which only a few have been preserved (none of them intended for publication) in the Corpus Aristotelicum, covering a wide variety of topics including logic, metaphysics, philosophy of science, ethics, political philosophy, aesthetics, rhetoric, physics, astronomy, and biology. Aristotle transformed many, if not all, of the areas of knowledge he addressed. He is recognized as the founding father of logic and biology, as while there were previous reflections and writings on both subjects, it is in Aristotle's work that the first systematic investigations are found. Aristotle has also been called the father of political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, critique, individualism, teleology, and meteorology.

    Contrary to Platonism, Aristotle developed a philosophy where experience is the source of knowledge. According to his hylomorphic theory, each sensible entity is a substance composed of matter, that which constitutes things, and form, that which organizes matter, with the latter being its essence. Every substance tends towards a final cause directed by its nature (teleology). According to the philosopher, human beings are rational animals constituted by a body and soul, whose ultimate end is intellectual activity through the exercise of reason, a virtue (areté) proper to the soul, thus achieving well-being (eudaimonia). Ethical virtues, which are formed through habit, are the mean between two extremes or vices. Humans naturally live in communities, forming States (polis) in order to preserve the happiness of their citizens. He also defended the value of rhetoric, poetic art, and the superiority of the Greek male.

    Among many other contributions, Aristotle formulated the theory of spontaneous generation, the principle of non-contradiction, and the notions of category, substance, unmoved mover, act, and potency. Some of his ideas, which were novel for the philosophy of his time, are now part of the common sense of many people. He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian scholasticism. His ethics, although always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.

    Early years

    Aristotle was born in 384 or 383 BC, during the first year of the XCIX Olympiad, in the city of Stagira, present-day Stavros (which is why he was nicknamed the Stagirite), not far from Mount Athos, in the Chalcidice peninsula, then part of the Kingdom of Macedonia (present-day region of Macedonia in Greece). His father, Nicomachus, belonged to the Asclepiad corporation, that is, he practiced medicine, and was the physician of King Amyntas III of Macedonia, a fact that explains his relationship with the royal court of Macedonia, which would have a significant influence on his life; and his mother, Phaestis, was from Chalcis and was also linked to the Asclepiads.

    During the reign of King Archelaus I of Macedonia, as his father was the physician of King Amyntas III of Macedonia, both resided in Pella, and Aristotle could not stay there for long, as his parents died when he was still very young, and he probably moved to Atarneus. In 367 BC, when Aristotle was 17 years old, his father died, and he was taken care of by his tutor Proxenus of Atarneus, who sent him to Athens, then an important intellectual center of the Greek world, to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for twenty years.

    Period at the Academy

    Low-relief of Plato teaching Aristotle, by Luca della Robbia (c. 1439).

    To complete Aristotle's education, Proxenus sent him to Athens to enroll him in the Academy, as his fame and that of Plato had already spread throughout the Greek world.

    Aristotle met Plato when he was 17 years old and remained at the Academy from 367 or 366 BC until 347 or 346 BC, coinciding with the moment when Plato made his second trip to Sicily. Because Aristotle attended the Academy during its period of greatest splendor, he was able to develop properly. Eudoxus exerted the first decisive influence on Aristotle since he was able to influence him in the requirement to save the phenomena, that is, to find a principle that would explain the facts while keeping intact their genuine way of presenting themselves. Plato himself called him the reader because of his desire to educate himself through writings rather than orally (as was done at the Academy).

    Because Eudoxus' philosophical ideas differed from Platonic philosophy and led to aporias, Aristotle ignored them, but he did associate with Speusippus, Philip of Opus, Heraclides Ponticus, and Eurylochus. Both Speusippus and Philip of Opus were scholarchs of the Academy, Heraclides Ponticus governed it when Plato made his third trip to Sicily, Philip published the work Laws, and Heraclides Ponticus and Eurylochus associated their names with Aristotle. During this period of youth, he wrote several dialogues and the Protrepticus, an exhortation to philosophy very popular among the general public. None of these works has been preserved.

    Aristotle probably participated in the Eleusinian Mysteries, writing about them: Experience is learning.

    Formation of his philosophy

    After Plato's death in 347 BC, Aristotle left Athens. Traditional history records that Aristotle left because he was disappointed that the direction of the Academy passed to Plato's nephew, Speusippus, although this is improbable, as a Macedonian could not inherit Athenian property. It is possible that he feared Athenian sentiments against Macedonians at that time and left before Plato's death.

    Aristotle moved to Atarneus and Assos, in Asia Minor, where he lived for about three years under the protection of his friend and former Academy colleague, Hermias, who was the governor of the city. When Hermias was murdered, Aristotle moved to the city of Mytilene, on the island of Lesbos, where he stayed for two years. There he continued his research with Theophrastus, a native of Lesbos, focusing on zoology and marine biology. Additionally, he married Pythias of Assos, Hermias's niece, with whom he had a daughter of the same name.

    Alexander the Great and the Lyceum

    Alexander the Great and Aristotle. The philosopher was his intellectual mentor and imparted his knowledge to him during his teenage years for over two years. It is considered that these teachings were decisive elements for the goals that Alexander set for himself. His nephew, Callisthenes, who was his biographer, accompanied him on the campaign against Persia. The letters between Alexander and Aristotle were recorded in the book by Pseudo-Callisthenes, Life and Deeds of Alexander the Great.

    In 343 BC, King Philip II of Macedonia summoned Aristotle to be the tutor of his 13-year-old son, who would later be known as Alexander the Great, in the town of Mieza. Aristotle then traveled to Pella, then the capital of the Macedonian empire, and taught Alexander for at least two years until he began his military career. During Aristotle's time at the Macedonian court, he also taught two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.

    In 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and founded his own school, the Lyceum (named for being located within a precinct dedicated to the god Apollo Lyceus).

    Unlike the Academy, the Lyceum was not a private school, and many of the classes were public and free. Throughout his life, Aristotle amassed a vast library and a number of followers and researchers, known as the peripatetics (itinerants), so called because of their habit of discussing while walking). Most of Aristotle's surviving works are from this period. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. The surviving works are in the form of treatises and were not intended, for the most part, for publication.

    During this period, his wife, Pythias, died, and Aristotle began a new relationship with Herpyllis, believed to be, like him, a native of Stagira. While some suppose she was nothing more than his slave, others deduce from Aristotle's final wishes that she was a free woman and probably his wife at the time of his death. In any case, they had children together, including a son, Nicomachus, whom Aristotle named as his father and to whom he dedicated his Nicomachean Ethics.

    Although little is known of his physical appearance, Aristotle was described as bald, with short legs, small eyes, and a stutter, elegant in dress, and based on his own opinions, lacking ascetic habits. He was a practical man and a careful observer. Of high mind and good heart, dedicated to his loved ones and fair to his rivals. Diogenes Laërtius stated that he had a tendency to sarcasm and cited some expressions that testify to his easy wit

    Death

    When Alexander died in 323 BC, Athens likely became an uncomfortable place for Macedonians, especially those with connections to Aristotle. It is said that he declared that he saw no reason to let Athens sin twice against philosophy (a clear allusion to the condemnation of Socrates). Aristotle left Athens and settled in Chalcis, on the island of Euboea, where he strangely died the following year at the age of 61 or 62, in 322 BC, from a disease of the digestive organs. His will was preserved by Diogenes Laërtius.

    In May 2016, during the international congress Aristotle, 2,400 years held at the University of Thessaloniki, Konstantinos Sismanidis, director of the excavations in the city of Stagira, announced the conclusions of his team of archaeologists regarding a building discovered in 1996 and now re-examined in light of two manuscripts that refer to the subsequent transfer of the philosopher's ashes, in a bronze urn, to his hometown. According to them, the building, found inside a later Byzantine fortress, cannot be anything other than Aristotle's mausoleum, although they clarified that we have no proof, but very strong indications that border on certainty.

    Thought

    Aristotle's thought encompasses virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle practiced philosophy broadly, which he would also describe as science. The use of the term science has a different meaning than what the term scientific method covers. He distinguishes three types of philosophies, sciences, or knowledge: practical knowledge, which includes ethics and politics; productive knowledge, which means the study of the arts, including poetics; and theoretical knowledge, purely contemplative as it does not intervene in the object of study, which encompasses physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. Logic and rhetoric do not constitute substantive knowledge for Aristotle.

    Nicomachean Ethics

    Aristotle expounded his most relevant ethical reflections in his work Nicomachean Ethics. This work is one of the most important treatises preserved in Western philosophy. It consists of 10 books, in which the philosopher reflects, among other things, on happiness and how it is possible to achieve it.

    According to Aristotle, what makes a man happy? How can an individual attain a full life?

    Let's explore the fundamental ideas of Aristotelian ethics.

    The work is divided into 10 books, each addressing a different theme. In them, he expounds his reflections on the good, happiness, virtue, temperance, or intellectual virtues, among other topics.

    Book I: Goodness and Happiness

    In this book, the philosopher addresses what the end of human actions is. He also investigates the nature of happiness and differentiates between ethical and intellectual virtues.

    Book II: Theory of Virtue

    This volume elaborates more extensively on the theory of virtues and their nature. Additionally, Aristotle compares virtue with other types of knowledge.

    Book III: Courage and Temperance

    This book consists of three parts. In the first, Aristotle analyzes voluntary and involuntary actions of man. In the second part, the philosopher examines the virtue of courage, which he asserts lies in the mean between fear and confidence. Finally, in the third part, he discusses temperance, a virtue found between pleasure and pain.

    Book IV: Various Virtues

    Here Aristotle analyzes virtues different from temperance and courage. Among them are generosity, magnificence, magnanimity, and equanimity.

    Book V: Justice

    In this book, Aristotle refers to one of the great virtues, justice. Here, he distinguishes between types of justice: universal justice and particular justice. For Aristotle, justice is the greatest virtue.

    Book VI: Intellectual Virtues

    Here he delves into intellectual virtues and their nature. This book is one of the most important for understanding Aristotelian ethics. He refers to virtues such as art, science, wisdom, understanding, and prudence.

    Book VII: Intemperance and Pleasure

    In this book, the philosopher discusses continence and incontinence.

    Book VIII: Friendship

    This book represents a thorough study of friendship and its different types, as well as the relationship between friendship and politics.

    Book IX: Friendship (Continuation)

    In this volume, the philosopher continues to reflect on friendship. This time he emphasizes its characteristics and reciprocity. He also discusses the differences between friendship and goodness and refers to the relationship between friendship and happiness.

    Book X: Pleasure and True Happiness

    This is the final part of the Nicomachean Ethics. Here, Aristotle revisits the topic of happiness and pleasure. He expounds on what he believes true happiness signifies.

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    NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

    Book 1

    1

    Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim. But a certain difference is found among ends; some are activities, others are products apart from the activities that produce them. Where there are ends apart from the actions, it is the nature of the products to be better than the activities. Now, as there are many actions, arts, and sciences, their ends also are many; the end of the medical art is health, that of shipbuilding a vessel, that of strategy victory, that of economics wealth. But where such arts fall under a single capacity- as bridle-making and the other arts concerned with the equipment of horses fall under the art of riding, and this and every military action under strategy, in the same way other arts fall under yet others- in all of these the ends of the master arts are to be preferred to all the subordinate ends; for it is for the sake of the former that the latter are pursued. It makes no difference whether the activities themselves are the ends of the actions, or something else apart from the activities, as in the case of the sciences just mentioned.

    2

    If, then, there is some end of the things we do, which we desire for its own sake (everything else being desired for the sake of this), and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something else (for at that rate the process would go on to infinity, so that our desire would be empty and vain), clearly this must be the good and the chief good. Will not the knowledge of it, then, have a great influence on life? Shall we not, like archers who have a mark to aim at, be more likely to hit upon what is right? If so, we must try, in outline at least, to determine what it is, and of which of the sciences or capacities it is the object. It would seem to belong to the most authoritative art and that which is most truly the master art. And politics appears to be of this nature; for it is this that ordains which of the sciences should be studied in a state, and which each class of citizens should learn and up to what point they should learn them; and we see even the most highly esteemed of capacities to fall under this, e.g. strategy, economics, rhetoric; now, since politics uses the rest of the sciences, and since, again, it legislates as to what we are to do and what we are to abstain from, the end of this science must include those of the others, so that this end must be the good for man.

    For even if the end is the same for a single man and for a state, that of the state seems at all events something greater and more complete whether to attain or to preserve; though it is worthwhile to attain the end merely for one man, it is finer and more godlike to attain it for a nation or for city-states. These, then, are the ends at which our inquiry aims, since it is political science, in one sense of that term.

    3

    Our discussion will be adequate if it has as much clearness as the subject-matter admits of, for precision is not to be sought for alike in all discussions, any more than in all the products of the crafts. Now fine and just actions, which political science investigates, admit of much variety and fluctuation of opinion, so that they may be thought to exist only by convention, and not by nature. And goods also give rise to a similar fluctuation because they bring harm to many people; for before now men have been undone by reason of their wealth, and others by reason of their courage. We must be content, then, in speaking of such subjects and with such premises to indicate the truth roughly and in outline, and in speaking about things which are only for the most part true and with premises of the same kind to reach conclusions that are no better. In the same spirit, therefore, should each type of statement be received; for it is the mark of an educated man to look for precision in each class of things just so far as the nature of the subject admits; it is evidently equally foolish to accept probable reasoning from a mathematician and to demand from a rhetorician scientific proof.

    Now each man judges well the things he knows, and of these he is a good judge. And so the man who has been educated in a subject is a good judge of that subject, and the man who has received an all-round education is a good judge in general. Hence a young man is not a proper hearer of lectures on political science; for he is inexperienced in the actions that occur in life, but its discussions start from these and are about these; and, further, since he tends to follow his passions, his study will be vain and unprofitable, because the end aimed at is not knowledge but action. And it makes no difference whether he is young in years or youthful in character; the defect does not depend on time, but on his living, and pursuing each successive object, as passion directs. For to such persons, as to the incontinent, knowledge brings no profit; but to those who desire and act in accordance with a rational principle knowledge about such matters will be of great benefit.

    These remarks about the student, the sort of treatment to be expected, and the purpose of the inquiry, may be taken as our preface.

    4

    Let us resume our inquiry and state, in view of the fact that all knowledge and every pursuit aims at some good, what it is that we say political science aims at and what is the highest of all goods achievable by action. Verbally there is very general agreement; for both the general run of men and people of superior refinement say that it is happiness, and identify living well and doing well with being happy; but with regard to what happiness is they differ, and the many do not give the same account as the wise. For the former think it is some plain and obvious thing, like pleasure, wealth, or honor; they differ, however, from one another- and often even the same man identifies it with different things, with health when he is ill, with wealth when he is poor; but, conscious of their ignorance, they admire those who proclaim some great ideal that is above their comprehension. Now some thought that apart from these many goods there is another which is self-subsistent and causes the goodness of all these as well. To examine all the opinions that have been held were perhaps somewhat fruitless; enough to examine those that are most prevalent or that seem to be arguable.

    Let us not fail to notice, however, that there is a difference between arguments from and those to the first principles. For Plato, too, was right in raising this question and asking, as he used to do, 'are we on the way from or to the first principles?' There is a difference, as there is in a racecourse between the course from the judges to the turning-point and the way back. For, while we must begin with what is known, things are objects of knowledge in two senses- some to us, some without qualification. Presumably, then, we must begin with things known to us. Hence anyone who is to listen intelligently to lectures about what is noble and just, and generally, about the subjects of political science must have been brought up in good habits. For the fact is the starting-point, and if this is sufficiently plain to him, he will not at the start need the reason as well; and the man who has been well brought up has or can easily get starting points. And as for him who neither has nor can get them, let him hear the words of Hesiod:

    Far best is he who knows all things himself;

    Good, he that hearkens when men counsel right;

    But he who neither knows, nor lays to heart

    Another's wisdom, is a useless wight.

    5

    Let us, however, resume our discussion from the point at which we digressed. To judge from the lives that men lead, most men, and men of the most vulgar type, seem (not without some ground) to identify the good, or happiness, with pleasure, which is the reason why they love the life of enjoyment. For there are, we may say, three prominent types of life- that just mentioned, the political, and thirdly the contemplative life. Now the mass of mankind are evidently quite slavish in their tastes, preferring a life suitable to beasts, but they get some ground for their view from the fact that many of those in high places share the tastes of Sardanapallus.

    A consideration of the prominent types of life shows that people of superior refinement and of active disposition identify happiness with honor; for this is, roughly speaking, the end of the political life. But it seems too superficial to be what we are looking for, since it is thought to depend on those who bestow honor rather than on him who receives it, but the good we divine to be something proper to a man and not easily taken from him. Further, men seem to pursue honor in order that they may be assured of their goodness; at least it is by men of practical wisdom that they seek to be honored and among those who know them, and on the ground of their virtue; clearly, then, according to them, at any rate, virtue is better. And perhaps one might even suppose this to be, rather than honor, the end of the political life. But even this appears somewhat incomplete; for possession of virtue seems actually compatible with being asleep, or with lifelong inactivity, and, further, with the greatest sufferings and misfortunes; but a man who was living so no one would call happy, unless he were maintaining a thesis at all costs. But enough of this; for the subject has been sufficiently treated even in the current discussions. Third comes the contemplative life, which we shall consider later.

    The life of money-making is one undertaken under compulsion, and wealth is evidently not the good we are seeking; for it is merely useful and for the sake of something else. And so one might rather take the aforenamed objects to be ends; for they are loved for themselves. But it is evident that not even these are ends; yet many arguments have been thrown away in support of them. Let us leave this subject, then.

    6

    We had perhaps better consider the universal good and discuss thoroughly what is meant by it, although such an inquiry is made an uphill one by the fact that the Forms have been introduced by friends of our own. Yet it would perhaps be thought to be better, indeed to be our duty, for the sake of maintaining the truth even to destroy what touches us closely, especially as we are philosophers or lovers of wisdom; for, while both are dear, piety requires us to honor truth above our friends.

    The men who introduced this doctrine did not posit Ideas of classes within which they recognized priority and posteriority (which is the reason why they did not maintain the existence of an Idea embracing all numbers); but the term 'good' is used both in the category of substance and in that of quality and in that of relation, and that which is per se, i.e. substance, is prior in nature to the relative (for the latter is like an off shoot and accident of being); so that there could not be a common Idea set over all these goods. Further, since 'good' has as many senses as 'being' (for it is predicated both in the category of substance, as of God and of

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