Jamestown, the Truth Revealed

JAMES TOWN

THE TRUTH REVEALED

William M. Kelso

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA PRESS

Charlottesville and London

All illustrations unless otherwise noted appear courtesy of the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities.

University of Virginia Press

© 2017 William M. Kelso

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

First published 2017

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Names: Kelso, William M., author.

Title: Jamestown, the truth revealed / William M. Kelso.

Description: Charlottesville : University of Virginia Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017001103 | ISBN 9780813939933 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780813939940 (e-book)

Subjects: LCSH: Jamestown (Va.)—History. | Jamestown (Va.)—Antiquities. | Excavations (Archaeology)—Virginia—Jamestown. | Colonial National Historical Park (Va.)—Antiquities.

Classification: LCC F234.J3 K47 2017 | DDC 975.5/4251—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017001103

Cover art: Forensic sculpture reconstruction of Jane’s face on a digital resin copy of her skull (Studio EIS); John Smith’s map of Virginia (courtesy of the Library of Virginia)

For Ellen

and my mentors

Ivor Noël Hume

J. C. Harrington

Stanley South

John L. Cotter

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Introduction

PART I. BURIED TRUTH

1.Reimagining Jamestown

2.Rediscovering Jamestown

3.Recovering Jamestownians

4.Reanimating Jamestown

PART II. MORE BURIED TRUTH

5.Holy Ground

6.Jane

7.Company Town

Epilogue

Notes

Index

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The achievements of the Jamestown Rediscovery® project at Historic Jamestowne®, Virginia, are due in large measure to the many individuals and organizations who have provided leadership, generous financial support, scholarly advice, and expertise.

Among the hundreds who could be acknowledged, I highlight a few here for special recognition: The Jamestown Rediscovery National Advisory Board, especially chairman Dr. Warren M. Billings, Dennis B. Blanton, Dr. Edward Bond, Dr. Jeffrey P. Brain, Dr. Cary Carson, Dr. Kathleen Deagan, Dr. Rex M. Ellis, Dr. Alaric Faulkner, Frederick Faust, Dr. William W. Fitzhugh, Ms. Roxanne Gilmore, Ms. Camille Hedrick, Dr. James Horn, Dr. Carter L. Hudgins, Dr. Jon Kukla, Dr. Henry Miller, Dr. David Orr, Dr. Douglas Owsley, Mr. Oliver Perry, Dr. Carmel Schrire, Dr. George Stuart, Dr. Sandra Treadway, Dr. Edwin Randolph Turner, Mr. Robert Wharton; APVA Preservation Virginia’s Trustees, especially Presidents Peter I. C. Knowles II, Ivor Massey Jr., William B. Kerkam III, and John Guy IV; Executive Director Elizabeth S. Kostelny, and the staff and membership for the constant interest and support; and our special partner, the National Park Service. Many of the new discoveries happened during a collaborative program with the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, which had been artfully managed by Dr. James Horn, Colonial Williamsburg’s Vice President of Research and Interpretation. There have been numerous generous benefactors during the twenty-year (1994–2014) Rediscovery Project, including the U.S. Congress, the Commonwealth of Virginia, National Geographic Society, National Endowment for the Humanities, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, James City County, City of Williamsburg, the Mellon Foundation, the Mary Morton Parsons Foundation, Jessie Ball DuPont Fund, 1772 Foundation, the Morgan Foundation, an anonymous Richmond foundation, the Garden Club of Virginia, the William Byrd and Colonial Capital Branches of the APVA, the Beirne Carter Foundation, Anheuser-Busch, Dominion Resources, Universal Leaf Corporation, Wachovia, and Verizon. My most sincere gratitude to the Anonymous Donor, Roy Hock and Margaret Fowler, and Forrest Mars and the Mars Foundation, and also for the generosity of Don and Elaine Bogus for funding this publication, Mark and Loretta Roman, Martha R. Rittenhouse, the William M. Grover Jr. Family, Mr. Ivor Massey Jr., Mr. and Mrs. Peter I. C. Knowles II, Mr. and Mrs. John H. Guy IV, Mr. and Mrs. D. Anderson Williams, Mr. and Mrs. John A. Prince, the Alan M. Voorhees Family, Mrs. T. Eugene Worrell, the Edward Maria Wingfield Family Society, the Fontaine C. Stanton Estate, William G. Beville, Mr. and Mrs. John H. Van Landingham III, Mr. and Mrs. Martin Kirwan King, and Mr. and Mrs. William Garbee. I am especially grateful to Patricia Cornwell for her timely support and enthusiastic encouragement, and to many other generous individuals.

The project has been very much a staff team effort from the start and is now very much an experienced team effort. With an open mind to ways of improving the process, over the twenty years of the project the staff has had an opportunity to fine-tune the way things have been done. I am especially grateful for their ability to decipher together the ever-widening archaeological story at Historic Jamestowne. I am indebted to senior curator Bly Straube for her unequaled and ever-expanding understanding of postmedieval material culture and for her disciplined and insightful reading of seventeenth-century Jamestown documents; curator of collections Merry Outlaw for her long-standing interest and knowledge of colonial material culture and collection organization skills; former senior staff archaeologist Eric Deetz for his growing mastery of fieldwork, insight into postmedieval vernacular architecture, and education of students and visitors; senior staff archaeologist Danny Schmidt for his insightful directing of the fieldwork, interpreting the fine signs in the earth, his visitor tours and reporting of field discoveries; senior archaeologist and graphic artist Jamie May for her skillful fieldwork, her exceptional artistic eye on the computer and extraordinary ability to research the Internet, and for organizing and creating the images for this publication; senior staff archaeologist and information technologist Dave Givens for creating our GIS archives, and for his vast field experience, for his insight into Virginia Indian archaeology, and for his many and varied mechanical skills; and staff archaeologists Mary Anna Richardson for her fine excavation and data organization skills and public interpretation; the late staff archaeologist Daniel Boyd Smith for his tenacious field, computer, and historical research work, and for his undivided love of Jamestown; Don Warmke for his tireless excavation and conservation ethic; and Dr. Carter C. Hudgins for his field skills, interpretive insight, and commitment to the archives and historical research; Dr. Douglas W. Owsley, Curator and Division Head of Physical Anthropology, Smith’sonian Institution, for teaching me about forensic science and its tremendous contribution to understanding the people of Jamestown and for the extraordinary scientific scholarship of his assistant, Kari Bruwelheide; Ashley McKeown for her dedication, insight, and ability to unravel the art and mystery of Historic Jamestowne’s skeletal biology; conservator/photographer Michael Lavin for his uniquely experienced conservation touches and photographic eye; Dan Gamble for his ever-diligent and talented conservation work; Caroline Taylor for her careful artifact processing; Catherine Correll-Walls for accumulating the insightful Early Jamestown Biographies database; and to the many, many skilled archaeologists along the way, for their diligent and talented fieldwork, especially Nick Luccketti, Luke Peccarero, Seth Mallios, Sarah Stroud, Heather Lapham, Elliott Jordan, and the very many others who served on the staff. The efforts of twenty seasons of University of Virginia annual field schools are especially recognized and appreciated, as are the public relations work of Paula Neely; the diligent administrative work of Bonnie Lent; the managerial talent of program coordinator Ann Berry; and Sheryl Mays for her multitude of administrative successes. I also want to acknowledge the talented and instructive editing of this volume by Kenny Marotta and my 2004 Virginia Foundation for the Humanities fellowship, which gave me some much-needed writing time in Charlottesville. I am especially grateful for the stalwart and always encouraging corps of Historic Jamestowne interpreters and the field and lab volunteers. Andrew Scott, James Halsall, and Edward and Joanna Martin made the Gosnold DNA study in England possible.

And I am forever indebted to Ivor Noël Hume for first revealing to me the rigorous process of historical archaeology, the thrill of archaeological discovery, and the archaeological possibilities at Jamestown. Without the original support of past APVA president Mary Douthat Higgins and Shirley Van Landingham, Jamestown Rediscovery archaeology at APVA Jamestown would never have happened. Deep appreciation, too, to Carter L. Hudgins and Henry Miller for unselfishly sharing their ever-helpful interpretations of seventeenth-century Chesapeake historical archaeology.

Artist’s reconstruction of James Fort, 1607–17, showing, in the center: the storehouse, the cellar/well, the Jane kitchen, and the church; along the south wall: the barracks (right) and the president’s house (? left); along the west wall: the councilor’s house (left), the governor’s house and addition (background right); along the east wall: the quarter (right) and the metalworking shop/bakery (background) with the adjacent armorer’s shop; attached to the east extension: the factory (far right). (Jamie May)

1994–2014 James Fort site map, fort period (1607–19), archaeological features in red, burials in purple.

INTRODUCTION

The American dream was born on the banks of the James River. Lured by the promise of a better life, in 1607 a band of adventurers established the first enduring English settlement in the New World: Jamestown. By 1620—the year the Pilgrims reached Plymouth—much of the James River basin, from the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay to within twenty miles of the site of modern Richmond, had been settled by the English under the sponsorship of the Virginia Company. The year before, a governmental body composed of men elected from the scattered settlements of Virginia had met for the first time on Jamestown Island. This assembly was the first expression of English representative government in North America.

Important as these accomplishments were, the written records pertaining to them are scarce, ambiguous, and sometimes conflicting: maps of questionable accuracy; a few letters and official reports; published accounts written by interested parties (most famous among them John Smith, his account including the dubious tale of his own dramatic rescue by the Indian maiden Pocahontas). Still, certain facts can be gleaned from these records. The colony’s early history was evidently a troubled one, beginning with an alleged mutiny during the crossing from England (blamed on John Smith) and continuing through many struggles for power and incidents of civil unrest. The colony faced other trials and hardships as well, including a major battle with the local Indians within weeks of arrival, an unfamiliar semitropical climate, lack of freshwater, meager and spoiled food, drought, and accidents. The Virginia Company’s goals—to find a route to the Orient, convert the New World natives to Christianity, find gold, and export raw and manufactured goods—were at best only slightly fulfilled. The hoped-for precious minerals and short, all-water route to the riches of the Orient were never found; the native population was far from willing to embrace the Church of England; and initial manufacturing projects did not prove lucrative.

These early years also witnessed periods of renovation, repopulation, and restructuring of the colony. The introduction of Caribbean tobacco by John Rolfe in 1613 did at last establish a cash crop that helped ensure the survival of the Virginia colony, although the success of hinterland plantations depleted the Jamestown population. A 1622 Indian revolt and the resulting death of nearly 350 colonists led to the end of the Virginia Company’s rule, as Jamestown itself became a Royal Colony.

The documentary evidence of the precariousness of life in early Jamestown and of the gap between the founders’ intentions and the colony’s achievements led to a story of Jamestown that emphasized its shortcomings: The adventurers who ventured capital lost it. Most of the settlers who ventured their lives lost them. And so did most of the Indians who came near them. Measured by any of the objectives announced for it, the colony failed.¹ In this interpretation, the colony’s failure was ascribed to poor planning by the sponsoring Virginia Company, the incompetence or laziness of the colonists (qualities supposedly explained by the upper-class origin of half of the original settlers), and mistaken cultural assumptions about the Indians. This story, which continues to be told, has been held responsible for the diminished importance of Jamestown itself in American popular consciousness.² A comprehensive textbook survey concluded that textbooks downplay Jamestown because it was a disaster.³

To call Jamestown a failure, let alone a disaster, is to oversimplify. Even the scanty documents, with their record of the colony’s important firsts, its periods of thriving, and the energy and intelligence unceasingly invested in it, hint at a more complex story. The assertion of the textbook survey is correct to this extent, however: as the complex actuality of the early Jamestown experience faded with time, the importance of Jamestown to American history faded, too. Significant memories, significant truths were lost—seemingly forever.

My own engagement with Jamestown began more than four decades ago, far from Virginia. An undergraduate at Ohio’s Baldwin-Wallace College, I decided to cheer myself up one gray March day by reading about Virginia, where I had heard that the sun usually shone and that American colonial history, second only to football as a passion in my life, was considered a serious subject. On a well-worn magazine cover, an aerial photo of Jamestown Island spread out before me. I was mesmerized. The color image showed a network of open archaeological trenches laying bare the foundations of the buried town. This gridwork was part of an effort in 1955 by the National Park Service to uncover remains of Jamestown for a 1957 exhibition celebrating the 350th anniversary of Jamestown’s founding. Inspecting the strict order of archaeological trenches crisscrossing the park-like expanse of hallowed ground between unspoiled woodland and the spacious James River, I was amazed that archaeology could happen so close to my own time and place in history. At that time, all my knowledge of archaeology had come from National Geographic photo-essays on the pyramids.

In 1611 Ralph Hamor reported that most of the citizens of Jamestown were found at their usual pursuits of bowling in the streets, much like the skittle players in this seventeenth-century Jan Steen painting. Such references led many historians to conclude that it was the lazy lifestyle of the gentlemen that turned the Jamestown settlement effort into a fiasco. (Skittle Players outside an Inn, ca. 1660–63; © National Gallery, London/Art Resource, NY)

Never much of a spectator, I could not help imagining digging with my own hands in that Jamestown soil. When I arrived at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, as a graduate student interested in early American history, I naturally sought out the ruins at nearby Jamestown Island. I was especially curious about the 1607 fort that must surely have been uncovered in the 1955 excavations, the fort that first defined the limits of colonial Jamestown. At the excavation site, owned by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (APVA), I saw the moss-covered church reconstructed by the APVA, statues of Pocahontas and Captain John Smith, and, in the side of the nearby earthen Civil War fort, a curious windowed exhibit. The glass protected some exposed layers of dirt in the fort bank, showing the actual soil surfaces that made up the bank: the Civil War zone, complete with lead bullets; beneath it the dark band of colonial trash; and the deepest deposit, a lighter soil containing arrow points and prehistoric Indian pottery. I was clearly seeing a layer cake of time, pre-Jamestown at the bottom, the colonial period in the middle, and the Civil War era on top. I took in the simple lessons. What is older is deeper; artifacts tell time; the earth can be an index of American history.

An aerial view of excavations at Jamestown conducted by the National Park Service in the mid-1950s. This grid of search trenches located a number of seventeenth-century brick building sites, ditches, trash pits, and wells in preparation for the 350th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown in 1957. (National Park Service, Colonial National Historical Park)

I asked a park ranger where the old fort site was. He pointed to a lone cypress tree growing way offshore and said, Unfortunately, you’re too late. It’s out there—and lost for good.

I was disappointed to hear that this historic site had been swallowed by the waters that eroded the riverbank. I was confused, too. Looking back at the dirt under glass that said colonial, I asked, But what about here?

He thought for a moment and replied with a shrug of his shoulders that I took as a could be.

I did not forget James Fort in the ensuing years when I became an archaeologist specializing in the British Colonial America period, learning with my colleagues about that often-forgotten American century, the 1600s. Most of our work focused on rescuing farm sites along the James River, which were being rediscovered by real estate developers and resettled by retirees. The more we learned from the earth about the seventeenth century, the more we thought that the colonial level under the glass exhibit at the Civil War fort might be a sign that the 1607 James Fort was there. The likelihood seemed greater when Nicholas Luccketti, Bly Straube, and I restudied the field notes from the 1955 National Park Service excavations, the artifacts those excavations had uncovered, and some disturbances in the soil nearby.⁴ Might those disturbances be vestiges of narrow slot trenches that had held seventeenth-century wooden palisade fort walls of the sort we had found elsewhere on the James? The bits of iron and pottery found with such trenches were old and military enough to have been part of James Fort.

A cross-sectional trench dug into the dirt bank of Jamestown’s Civil War earthwork fort showing (A) Civil War period, (B) colonial period, (C) pre-1607 Virginia Indian period (background), and an L-shaped excavated ditch of unknown origin (foreground right). This excavated cross-section was left visible to Jamestown visitors as an archaeological exhibit for some years after the 1955 digging. (National Park Service, Colonial National Historical Park)

The first Jamestown Rediscovery excavation season (1994), in which visiting professional historical archaeologists and University of Virginia field school students aided, uncovered the first sign of James Fort, the dark soil trace of a wall line.

When the APVA decided to investigate its property on Jamestown Island archaeologically—this time in preparation for the 400th anniversary of Jamestown in 2007—I enthusiastically volunteered for the job. There was not much of a line ahead of me. Most archaeologists discounted any chance of finding traces of the early James Fort. At best there would only be signs that it had long since dissolved as the shoreline retreated before nearly four centuries of waves. So it happened that, thirty years to the day after I had first set foot on Jamestown Island, I found myself putting shovel to ground one hundred feet from the glassed-in cross-section that had originally inspired my curiosity. I did not have to miss out on digging at Jamestown after all.

An archaeologist must often practice more than one kind of patience. One September day in 1994, my digging was interrupted by a pair of tourists.

What are you doing?

I had been lost in the act of scraping loose dirt from a dark streak in the yellow clay. The accent of the speaker left no doubt that he was British.

Archaeology, I answered, hoping to end the conversation so that I could get on with my digging. No luck.

Have you found anything?

He spoke so earnestly that I felt compelled to give a serious answer.

Absolutely. See this black stain in the clay? Well, that’s what’s left of a 1607 fort wall… maybe from James Fort.

Really?

Silence for a moment. Then the man’s companion said, You mean that’s it? That’s all there is? America, the last of the world’s superpowers, began as … just dirt?

I never thought about it quite like that, I said, but yes, I guess it was just dirt.

But, she continued, shouldn’t there have been a ruined castle or some marble columns or … something real?

No, there was just dirt, I answered. But you know what else? I guess plenty of, well, just hope.

Oh, brilliant! they said in unison. Brilliant indeed!

The British visitors moved on, having grasped the concept that national stature was not necessarily synonymous with highly visible architectural ruins. The archaeologist exploring the beginnings of the United States discovers no medieval castles, classical temples, or Egyptian pyramids. Just dirt held out hope for the landless English immigrant, offering a way to break into an otherwise closed society based on the inheritance of family estates. Just dirt holds out hope to the archaeologist as well. Marks in the soil of Jamestown Island are the traces of a native people and English immigrants, evidence that has survived the ground-disturbing activities of succeeding generations and the eroding effects of the adjacent river. So we dig, in the faith that these traces bear America’s richest heritage.

Discovery of aligned pockets of dark soil formed by rotting upright logs in narrow trenches revealed the architectural footprint of James Fort.

This hope and faith have now been justified. The excavations at Jamestown have turned up more evidence than anyone had expected—most important, the site of James Fort, so long thought unrecoverable. Nor are these physical remains the only treasure to be discovered. The soil has yielded a new understanding of the early years of Jamestown; a new picture of its settlers, of their abilities, their lives, and their accomplishments; and a new story of the interdependence between the English settlers and the Virginia Indians.

This volume is divided into two parts covering my efforts over the space of twenty years (1994–2014) to unearth this once-lost treasure by the methods of historical archaeology. Part 1, chapters 1–4, which I call Buried Truth, is an abridged version of my earlier book Jamestown, the Buried Truth. It covers the discovery of the location of James Fort and initial related archaeological discoveries made in 1994–2005 that revealed fresh perspective on the early years of life at Jamestown, some of its people, their circumstances, and their activities. In chapter 1, I review what can be learned about the nature and extent of the first Jamestown settlement and its settlers from documentary evidence alone. Chapter 2 recounts the exciting and painstaking discovery of James Fort and rereads the documents in the light of this archaeological discovery. In chapter 3, the recovery of early Jamestown burials becomes a means to understand more about the people of James Fort, the Jamestownians. Through an examination of the James Fort artifacts, chapter 4 addresses earlier and simpler notions of the nature and causes of what has been called Jamestown’s failure, showing how the people of James Fort both acted out their preconceptions of Virginia and adapted to the realities of the New World. These uncovered artifacts illustrate the process by which Englishmen and -women began to be transformed into Americans.

Part 2, More Buried Truth, reports the results of further excavation during the period 2000–2014 that led to a fuller view of the evolving design of the fort and a clearer understanding of Jamestown life. Chapter 5 recounts the discovery of Jamestown’s first church (1608–16) and the chain of historical and forensic evidence leading to the identification of four Jamestown leaders buried in the early church chancel. Chapter 6 is an account of the excavation of a cellar bakery filled with debris from Jamestown’s starving time, including the mutilated skull and severed leg bone of a cannibalized young teenage English girl. Chapter 7 discusses the excavation of five fort building sites: (1) the fort’s storehouse complex, its deep storage cellar and well, from which was recovered cellar fill containing more than a half million objects discarded during the 1609–10 starving time; (2) an underground 1607 metalworking shop that was later turned into a substantial bakery; (3) a timber-lined replacement well filled with a rich collection of military and domestic garbage and trash that had accumulated in the well structure during a more prosperous post–starving time period, and a related armorer’s shop or guardhouse; (4) traces of the first president’s house, ca. 1609; and (5) an elaborate upscale reconfiguring of the governor’s rowhouse during the term of Samuel Argall, 1617–18.

Throughout these chapters, readers will become acquainted with the tools of the archaeologist: the arts of computer manipulation, dendrochronology, forensic sculpting, and X-ray, chemical, and DNA analysis; a knowledge of soil and water ecology and of the history of technology, architecture, and fashion; and, above all, the tireless practice of deductive reasoning. Put simply, my hope is that this book will give readers an opportunity to glimpse, from an archaeological perspective, the genesis of the American dream.

Admittedly, the dream will, at times, be a nightmare even more vivid than the one earlier historians have portrayed. On the whole, however, the new archaeology offers a more balanced account of Jamestown’s beginning. Jamestown’s precarious attempt to plant English roots in the New World was a tale of trial and error. It was a story, too, of individual success and endurance by our nation’s founding grandfathers. Modern America took root for good at Jamestown. The pages that follow trace the story of the search and recovery of those telltale roots.

The buried truth lies ahead. Like any search for something buried, this search requires a map. So the quest begins not in the earth but in the library.

PART I

BURIED TRUTH

ONE

REIMAGINING JAMESTOWN

The soil was good and fruitful, with excellent good timber. There are also great store of vines in bigness of a man’s thigh, running up to the tops of the trees, in great abundance … many squirrels, conies, blackbirds with crimson wings and divers other fowls and birds of divers and sundry colors of crimson, watchet, yellow, green, murrey and of divers other hues naturally without any art using. ¹

The exuberant eyewitness description given above of the Virginia wonderland came from the pen of George Percy, one of the first Jamestown settlers, who was to become governor of the colony almost by default when the dreamland turned into a nightmare two and one-half years later. Percy’s account of the voyage to the New World is the most complete of the firsthand descriptions of the founding of Jamestown and the fate of the colonists during the first spring and summer in Virginia.

Eyewitness testimonies carry great weight in any search for the truth. A reading of the documents pertaining to early Jamestown is essential if we are to discover its buried secrets. But documents must be read carefully: the testimony even of eyewitnesses must be scrutinized, keeping in mind that the authors were not immune to dreams of gold and glory that might distort their accounts. It is important to ask, for instance, how much of the fruitful abundance Percy describes in his first sighting might have been merely an expression of the hopes of a new settler rather than reality.

An examination of the documents contemporary with Jamestown’s founding offers hints of the precise location, configuration, and artifacts of James Fort. In all, only a half dozen first-hand descriptions and three maps survive from the earliest years of the colony to guide an archaeologist’s shovels and trowels. Here are the salient facts about the writers of these documents:

George Percy, highest-ranking original settler and lieutenant governor during the starving time winter of 1609–10. By Herbert Luther Smith. (Virginia Historical Society, Richmond)

Bottom: Captain John Smith, by Simon de Passe. (Courtesy of the Library of Virginia)

John Smith: Arrived in Jamestown 1607. Yeoman farmer’s son, mariner, and soldier, often at odds with his less-experienced and higher-born colleagues. From 1608 to 1631 he published varying accounts of his twenty-nine months in Virginia, as well as heavily edited reports written by other settlers who stayed on. His sometimes-inconsistent accounts sought to justify his actions at Jamestown as well as promote colonization.

Gabriel Archer: Arrived in Jamestown 1607. Mariner and explorer, trained in the law. As recording secretary for the Virginia governing council, he described the earliest days of Jamestown in what appear to be official reports sent back to