Ireland's Animals

Aspects of the Folklore of Animals

We humans have always had a close relationship with the animals around us. They have provided us with food and clothing, helped hunt and herd other animals, carried goods and people, and ploughed our fields. Animals have provided for our emotional needs, too, by being companions and pets; so important is this function that pets are now regularly used to provide therapy for emotionally disturbed or disabled people. Quite apart from their many uses, however, animals are generally felt to have a certain bond with humans, sharing as we do so many characteristics. Animals feel emotions in the same way as humans, from fear and affection, to aggression and loyalty, and even love and hate. They have also the same basic physical needs and desires as people, whether it is for sex, food or the comfort of a warm fire. That they feel less inhibited about satisfying these appetites provokes both admiration and disgust. Animals, therefore, have been presented as role models for humans, in both positive and negative senses, from the earliest times. So it is that they have been bound up in our myths, legends and folk customs.

THEMES OF ANIMAL FOLKLORE

A central theme of animal folklore is the idea that animal behaviour was significant insofar as it provided moral examples (both good and bad) to humans. In Europe this notion began in the Classical world of Greece and Rome, and it has influenced Western thinking ever since. Probably the most influential and best known example of animals being used to provide a moral in this way is in the collection of animal stories known as Aesop’s Fables.¹ These were a collection of fables (or stories with a moral) based on animal stereotypes that were allegedly the work of Aesop, a Phrygian slave who lived sometime about 620–560 BC. (Phrygia is in modern-day Turkey and Armenia.) Aesop was reputedly tongue-tied but then miraculously acquired the power of speech, allowing him to proclaim his stories for the betterment of all. The fables rely on well-known stereotypes for their effect – the fox is sly, the lion brave, the rabbit cowardly, the peacock vain and so on; but occasionally the tables are turned and the stereotype subverted, so the fables never become too predictable. The fables were hugely influential and remain so today. For example, in the fable of ‘The Fox and the Grapes’, the fox who cannot reach the grapes eventually gives up and walks away saying: ‘Oh, but you aren’t even ripe yet! I don’t need any sour grapes.’ The expression ‘sour grapes’ is still used to mean someone who makes excuses to explain away their own failure and another’s success. Similarly, the fable of ‘The Tortoise and the Hare’, in which the two animals agree to have a race, is still quoted. The hare is so confident that he lies down and goes to sleep, only to find when he awakes and reaches the finish line that the tortoise has already crossed it. The fable stands both as a warning against complacency and arrogance and as a moral that dedicated effort can triumph over talent wasted through laziness.

There are many other fables, less well known but still entertaining and relevant. For example, the fable of ‘The Crane and the Peacock’ contains the moral that looks are not everything. In the fable the peacock makes fun of the crane’s boring grey feathers. The crane replies: ‘You may make fun of the colour of my wings, but I can rise on them high into the sky. You, on the other hand, can only flap those gilded feathers of yours down there on the ground!’ The Greek philosopher Socrates was traditionally credited with first committing Aesop’s fables to verse, but the stories have been found on Egyptian papyri dating to 1,000 years earlier, so there can be no doubt the fables are much older.

Another hugely influential work was the Natural History, or Naturalis Historia, written by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder in the first century AD. This massive text consisted of thirty-seven books written on various topics to do with the natural world, including geography, botany, herbal medicine, mineralogy and zoology. Pliny drew on many earlier writers for his material, and intended his work to be a definitive compilation of the available information. His descriptions of animals in the zoology chapters (books 8 to 11) were a mix of fact and fable, but were not intended to be moralising as such. Nevertheless, the Natural History was so widely read that it remained the standard text on these matters until the advent of modern science. The later spread of Christianity throughout the Classical world did not change the viewpoint that animals could provide a moral example to humans. On the contrary, it was believed by Christians that God had created the natural world to provide a book of instruction to mankind. This viewpoint found expression in a work of uncertain authorship called the Physiologus which appeared in Greek, in Alexandria in Egypt, in the second or third century AD.² The Physiologus, a collection of animal lore, drew an explicitly Christian message from the description of the nature of each animal. It became a ‘best-seller’ of its day, widely copied, translated into many different languages and second only to the Bible in distribution in the Classical world.

These Classical teachings concerning animals found expression in later ages in the medieval bestiaries.³ The bestiaries evolved largely out of the Physiologus and the seventh-century Etymologiae by Isidore of Seville, which drew upon the work of Pliny and other classical authors. Isidore believed the true nature of animals could be explained by analysing their names. Accordingly, he stated that the cat got its name from the Latin catus (clever) because it can catch mice. The bestiary, or ‘book of beasts’, was therefore a combination of moralising allegories about animals, their etymologies and the often-fantastical ‘natural history’ of the ancient world. Imaginary animals such as the unicorn, griffin and manticore (usually described as living ‘in the East’ or in ‘Ethiopia’) were often included alongside fantastical descriptions of real animals. Especially popular between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, these books were lavishly illustrated so that the illiterate could be taught the character of each animal without having to understand the text. The authors of most bestiaries are unknown, but the names of a few survive, such as Philippe de Thaun, Guillaume le Clerc and Richard de Fornival whose bestiary, the satirical Bestiaire d’Amour, appeared about AD 1250. The bestiaries declined from the fourteenth century onwards as encyclopaedias began to appear, prefiguring the modern, more scientific approach. Tales that satirised contemporary life and events through the adventures of animals were another medieval example of animals being used to portray human habits. The most famous of these were the adventures of ‘Reynard the Fox’, a liar, thief and killer who always managed to win the day while others paid the price. So popular were the stories that the name Reynard remains a word for a fox to this day.⁴

Another central theme of animal folklore that was important in ancient Celtic culture is the notion of transformation into animal forms through shamanism or seer-ship. In early pagan Ireland there is evidence that poets and druids practised rituals that were essentially a form of shamanism, with the idea of gaining occult knowledge from contact with the otherworld.⁵ Armed with this knowledge the seer could understand the mysteries of the past, present and future. A central feature of this process was metamorphosis or transformation, whereby the seer mystically adopted the forms of different animals to acquire extra knowledge. There are many examples of this in Celtic myths. For example, the legendary seer Fionntan Mac Bóchna was said to have lived for thousands of years, giving him detailed knowledge of past events and Ireland’s lore. He achieved this feat by transforming himself into a one-eyed salmon, an eagle and a falcon before returning to his own shape. Similarly, another legendary seer called Tuan Mac Cairill was said to have owed his long life to various transformations. Originally the nephew of Parthalán, the first settler in Ireland after the Biblical flood, he survived by transforming himself in turn into a stag, boar, eagle and salmon. He was eventually eaten as a salmon by Caireall’s wife, who gave birth to him and allowed him to resume human form.

The most famous example of poetic seer-ship appears in the eleventh-century Book of Invasions or Lebor Gabála Érenn, which concerns the legendary invasions of Ireland. When the Milesians, the ancestors of the Gaels, first arrive to take Ireland, one of their leaders, the poet Amairgen, becomes the first person of the Irish race to set foot in Ireland. As he does so he recites a famous and extraordinary poem in which he proclaims, through the power of his poetry, the ability to take on different natural forms and exercise various powers. In line with other tales of transformation, Amairgen describes being a stag, a hawk, a boar and a salmon. He also speaks of becoming different elements of nature such as wind and water, of his knowledge of the movements of the sun and moon, and of exercising his poetic powers of inspiration and satire. Taken as a whole, the poem is a stirring invocation of the powers of the early Irish poet, with more than a hint of druidism and shamanic powers. In fact the poem appears largely pagan in origin, with little if any Christian veneer. There have been many differing translations into English as the Old Irish is difficult and obscure; the following translation, which is the author’s own, attempts to get to the original meaning as closely as possible.

THE LAY OF AMAIRGEN

I am wind on sea

I am ocean wave

I am sound of sea,

I am stag of seven fights

I am hawk on cliff

I am sundew

I am finest herb

I am boar in fury

I am salmon in pool

I am lake on plain

I am vision of promise

I am essence of skill

I am spear bringing trophies of manly deeds

I am god who composes for noble heads.

Who heeds the warning rumble of mountain stones?

Who is it tells of the ages of the moon?

Or knows the place where sets the sun?

Who brings cattle from the House of Tethra?

Who wins a choice measure of Tethra’s cattle?

Who is the god who composes,

to flay the corrupt kingdom?

Curses around a spear

Words of the wind.

Some lines needs explaining in greater detail. Tethra was the Fomorian god of death and the sea, and the cattle of Tethra (buar Tethrach) are the fish of the sea. In Gaelic mythology seafish were known as buar Maighe Teathra or ‘cattle of the Plain of Tethra’.⁶ The line ‘to flay the corrupt kingdom’ refers to the power of satire to bring unjust rulers to task. It was believed in Gaelic Ireland that the poet’s satire had the ability to bring a king to ruin and misfortune, so powerful were his words. In line six the mention of ‘sundew’ (literally ‘drop of the sun’) may be a reference to the sticky secretion of the sundew plant, known as ros solis in the ancient world, and believed to have invigorating and nourishing powers.

Amairgen demonstrates more aspects of his powers when reciting a second poem shortly after his arrival in Ireland. Not only does he claim the ability to draw on the strengths of various animals, he also declares the ability to summon them at his command. He does this by calling up the ‘cattle of Tethra’, or fish of the sea, invoking the fertility of the sea to draw them into the coastal inlets and so increase Ireland’s natural bounty.

THE LAY OF THE FISHES

Fish full sea

Fertile land

Upwelling fish.

Fish under waves

Flocking like birds.

Fair outpouring

Hundreds of salmon

Widespread whales.

Seaport song:

Upwelling fish

Fish full sea.

There are also numerous examples in Celtic legends of people turning into animals through magic, or being turned into animals against their will. Sometimes the changes are in the context of two individuals fighting or pursuing each other. The two great bulls that fight each other in the Irish saga Táin Bó Cuailnge, Donn and Finn, were originally pig-keepers who changed successively into birds of prey, fish, stags, warriors, phantoms, dragons and maggots before continuing their feud in the form of bulls. In Welsh myth the hag Ceridwen pursues the boy Gwion Bach after he tastes a drop from her magic cauldron, giving him knowledge of all the secrets of the past, present and future. Ceridwen is enraged and chases Gwion Bach. As pursuer and pursued, they take the form of greyhound and hare, otter and fish, hawk and bird. When at the last they take the form of a hen and a grain of wheat, Ceridwen swallows Gwion Bach. She later gives birth to the famous poet Taliesin, who is Gwion Bach reborn.⁷ In Irish folk beliefs one of the best known examples of animal transformation was the widely held notion that witches took the form of hares to steal their neighbour’s milk.

Some patterns emerge in the stories of transformation. People can turn into animals and back again, but ordinary animals cannot turn into people. Where humans have turned into animals and produced offspring, those offspring may in turn be able to transform into people (such as the Gaelic hero Oisín, whose mother gave birth to him while she was in the shape of a deer), but that is as close as it gets. Also, when people transform into animals, it is usually into wild animals such as deer or wild boar, and only occasionally into a domestic animal like a hound or a bull (most famously in the case of the Brown Bull of Cooley and his rival the Finbhennach or Fair-horned). There are three main reasons why people are transformed into animals in the legends. The first is the shamanic desire to harness the power of the animal concerned – achieving a longer life, for example, by transforming into various long-living creatures. The second is for the purpose of deception, such as witches turning into hares to practise witchcraft, or the story from Jocelyn’s Life of St Patrick where the saint’s power turns some of his followers into deer so that they may evade their enemies.⁸ The third reason is that of punishment, or banishment, where people are turned into animals against their will. The Children of Lir, where the children are turned into swans by their jealous stepmother, is a famous example from Irish mythology. Another well-known example occurs in the Welsh tale Math, son of Mathonwy, where two brothers guilty of rape are turned successively into a pair of deer, wild pigs and wolves, and mate with each other in those forms.⁹ An interesting example of transformation occurs in the story of the birth of the Gaelic hero Diarmuid Ó Duibhne, where the son of the steward of Aongus is transformed into a boar after being killed and has his life linked to that of Diarmuid.¹⁰ This is a variation on the theme of animal transformation with the souls of the dead taking up residence or being reborn in animal form. This belief can be seen in folk stories portraying seals as the souls of dead fishermen, or where wizards appear as black dogs after their death.

Another feature of animal lore to appear occasionally in an Irish context is totemism – the idea of a person or tribe being spiritually or magically bound to a type of animal. The most famous example occurs in the story of Cúchulainn, where the Gaelic hero takes the place of a guard dog he has killed until a replacement is reared. The result of this appears to be that Cúchulainn’s life is bound up with dogs, so that it is, for example, taboo for him to eat dog flesh. Another example appears in the story of the Munster king Tadhg Mac Céin.¹¹ The name Tadhg itself means ‘badger’ and the king appears to have a special relationship with badgers, including it being taboo for him to eat their flesh. In the story Tadhg’s son was preparing a feast for his father and invoked his father’s name to persuade badgers to come out of their setts, whereupon he killed them for their meat. On hearing of his son’s ignoble deed, Tadhg flew into a rage and banished him. Apart from myths, animal names appear on many Old Irish inscriptions in the ogham alphabet, which date from about the fifth and sixth centuries AD and may have some element of totemism.¹² The word con, meaning hound or wolf, appears in many names, such as CUNNAMAQQI (‘son of the hound/wolf’) and CUNAGUSSOS (‘hound/wolf of vigour’). Examples of other animals include BRANOGENI (‘born of raven’) and BROCAGNI (‘little badger’). On balance, however, there is no evidence of a formalised system of totemism in early Ireland like that which existed among Native Americans or Australian Aborigines.

Another common theme of animal folklore is what might be called ‘folk zoology’, namely folk beliefs about animal behaviour. Some of these are derived from Classical sources, such as Pliny’s Natural History, while others appear to be based on the speculations of country people. Perhaps ‘folk zoology’ is a misleading term, as they are not based upon any real observation of animals. Instead, they are often rather fanciful stories and almost invariably wrong. For example, the Roman writer Plutarch stated that hedgehogs will roll around in orchards in order to impale apples on their spines so they can carry them off to eat them, a groundless idea which nevertheless remains current today. Another widely held belief with no basis is the idea that there are two different kinds of badgers, ‘pig-badgers’ and ‘dog-badgers’, each with quite distinct characteristics. A recurring theme of these folk beliefs is the anthropomorphic notion that animals behave in a fashion similar to humans. For example, hares and hedgehogs were universally believed to steal cows’ milk by suckling on their teats while they were lying down. So important was milk to the human diet that the idea that these animals would have no interest in it does not seem to have occurred. Another common story was that animals like stoats and cats gathered in groups or ‘parliaments’ to scheme and plot, or even to hold ‘funerals’ for their deceased relatives.

ANIMALS IN EARLY IRISH LAW

As befits an agricultural society, animals played a central role in the Brehon Laws of early Gaelic Ireland.¹³ Animals (especially cattle) were used as units of currency, and a person’s wealth could be measured by the amount of cattle they owned. Cattle had fixed values set down in law and were given in payment for goods and services and for settling fines. The basic unit of value under the Brehon Laws was the milch (or miking) cow, which was equivalent to one ounce of silver. The highest unit of value was the cumal, or female slave (in common with many early societies, including the Roman Empire, slavery was a feature of Gaelic Ireland). Over time it became more practical to use items of equivalent worth, so the cumal was later valued at either three milch cows, or a unit of land of about 13.85 hectares. Commonly used units of currency included the sét, worth half the value of a milch cow, and the screpul, or scruple, which was one twenty-fourth of an ounce of silver. The various categories of cattle were all given values, from young calves, worth only two scruples, to full-grown heifers expecting their first calf, worth sixteen scruples or two thirds of a milch cow. Male cattle were generally worth two thirds of their female equivalent, but bulls were only worth half a milch cow (twelve scruples), so they actually declined in value relative to females over time. Indeed, a well-trained ox (castrated male) capable of pulling a plough was more valuable than a bull, as it could attain a milch cow’s value if it was good enough.

Sheep could be also used as currency, usually as a method of payment for lesser offences. For example, while the honour price of a fer midboth, or youth living on his father’s land, was one yearling heifer, a youth of lower status, called a flescach, had an honour price of a lamb worth a bushel of grain. At the lowest rung of the ladder, an apprentice had to make do with a fleece of wool. A similar principle applied where a person removed stakes of wood from another’s fence. The fine for removing one stake was a wether (castrated male) lamb, the price for two stakes a female lamb, while the price for three or more stakes was in cattle. Other animals were not in general used as currency, although horses did play a specific role in certain circumstances. For example, if a person with a claim on a piece of property could graze his horses on the land in the question for three nights in a row without being challenged, he could stake a claim.

The notion of the honour price, or lóg n-enach (literally the price of the face), was central to the Brehon Laws.¹⁴ Unlike our modern legal system, there was no concept of equality before the law and so a person of high rank was entitled to a greater payment in compensation than someone of a lower rank. The most important payment that could be made was the honour price, which was the penalty for major offences. Some of these offences are obvious, including murder, theft and serious injury, while others appear strange to modern eyes, such as satire and refusal of hospitality. The honour price ranged from forty-two milch cows (or fourteen female slaves) for a provincial king, all the way down to the aforementioned apprentice who had to make do with his woollen fleece. Two of the most important ranks in Gaelic society were the ócaire and the bóaire, who were freemen but not nobles. The ócaire, or ‘small farmer’, was defined as having land worth seven cumals and (among other things) of possessing seven each of cows, pigs and sheep, and one bull and horse. His honour price was three séts, or one and a half milch cows. The bóaire, or ‘strong farmer’ (literally cow-freeman’), had an honour price of five séts, or two and a half milch cows. He was defined as having land worth fourteen cumals on which he could graze twelve cows.

For lesser offences, such as minor injury or damage to property, a range of different penalties applied. The fine for permanent leg injury, for example, was one cumal (or three milch cows) and the provision of a horse. A blemish to the face was regarded as particularly serious as it exposed the victim to public ridicule. A fine of one cumal was therefore levied for every public assembly which the victim had to endure. The fine for an illegal injury to a person’s shins was three séts, or a milch cow and her calf. The penalty for theft was generally the honour price of the owner of the object and the owner of the property from where the object was stolen (if they were not the same). However, the Laws also state that the penalty for stealing a cow or an ox was to give back five cows or five oxen. The same rule applied to sheep, but not for pigs or horses, where only twice the value of the animal was due. The Brehon Laws also contained penalties for offences such as injury or theft carried out on domestic animals, from cats and dogs to cattle, pigs, horses and even bees. The Laws also dealt with injuries carried out by these same animals, such as injury to people or other animals and damage to property. These will be examined in greater detail in the discussion of each individual species of animal.

Apart from fines and penalties, the Brehon Laws also laid down other kinds of fixed payments including the value of land.¹⁵ The basic unit of land in early Ireland was the cumal (about 13.85 hectares) which could range in price from twenty-four milch cows a cumal for good arable land down to eight dry cows for bogland. The Laws also lay down the obligations that a client (or tenant) had to fulfil for his lord in return for the use of the lord’s land and livestock. For example, the ócaire had to pay his lord an annual food rent of a two-year-old bullock, while the bóaire had to pay a milch cow. In addition, each client had to pay a fixed amount of bread, wheat, bacon, butter, milk, onions and candles per year.

ANIMALS IN PLACE NAMES

Animals, both wild and domestic, appear in many Irish place names, with the cow and horse the most common.¹⁶ Given its importance in Irish farming, it is hardly surprising there are numerous place names involving the cow and its various forms, such as bull, calf and heifer. The cow features in names such as Aghaboe (Achadh Bó – field of the cows), County Laois, Annamoe (Áth na mbó – ford of the cows), County Wicklow, Drumshanbo (Droim Sean-bhó – ridge of the old cow), County Leitrim, and Inishbofin (Inis Bó Finne – island of the white cow) in Counties Donegal and Galway. Regarding male cattle, it is interesting to note that oxen feature more often than bulls. The only prominent place name involving the bull appears to be Clontarf (Cluain Tarbh – meadow of the bull) in County Dublin. Other examples, such as Letternadarriv (Leitir na dTarbh – hillside of the bulls), County Kerry, are quite rare. The ox, on the other hand, occurs in quite a few place names, including Aghadaugh (Achadh Damh – field of the oxen), County Westmeath, and Dunaff (Dún Damh – fort of the ox), County Donegal. However, it should be noted that the word damh means stag as well as ox and that some of the place names suggest stag is meant rather than the ox. Calves also feature in a lot of names, such as Ballinalea (Buaile na Laoi – milking place of the calves), County Wicklow, Cloneygowen (Cluain na nGamhan – meadow of the calves), County Offaly, and Rathlee (Ráth Lao – fort of the calf), County Sligo. Heifers occasionally appear in names such as Ballyvary (Béal Átha Bhearaigh – mouth of the ford of the heifers), County Mayo.

The horse, too, appears in a great many Irish place names. The older Irish name for horse (each) features in names like Aghleam (Eachléim – horseleap), County Mayo, Aughinish (Each Inis – horse island), Counties Limerick and Galway, and Ballinagh (Béal Átha na nEach – mouth of the ford of the horses), County Cavan. The later Irish name capall appears in Crocknagapple (Croc na gCapaill – hill of the horses), County Donegal, and Gortnagappul (Gort na gCapall – field of the horses), Counties Cavan and Kerry. Geldings feature in names like Cashelgarran (Caiseal an Ghearráin – stone fort of the gelding), County Sligo, and Garron Point (Pointe an Ghearráin – point of the gelding), County Antrim, while mares appear in such names as Cloonlara (Cluain Lára – meadow of the mare), County Clare, and Leamlara (Léim Lára – mare’s leap), County Cork.

Another common animal in place names is the pig, though it may be that some of the names refer to the wild as opposed to domesticated pig. The pig gives its name to such places as Rosmuck (Ros Muc – headland of pigs), County Galway, Muckross (Muc Ros – grove of the pigs), County Kerry, and Ballinamuck (Béal Átha na Muc – mouth of the ford of the pigs), County Longford. Many place names are also based on the Irish word torc, meaning boar, and some of these may refer to wild pigs. These include Kanturk (Ceann Toirc