A Concise Dictionary of Correct English

Preface

This book is intended for those who would like to brush up their English grammar and be guided round some of the more common pitfalls in the use of English. It is hoped that those who find the book useful may be led on to a study of those much greater works to which all students of English usage are indebted, and from which I have often and gratefully drawn: Eric Partridge’s Usage and Abusage, Fowler’s Modern English Usage, and Gowers’ Complete Plain Words (revised by Fraser) which, though initially commissioned to improve Civil Service English, remains perhaps the best guide to correct English for the general reader. I gladly record also my debt to The Concise Oxford Dictionary, from which I have taken most of the definitions I have quoted, by permission of Oxford University Press.

Many of the entries in the following pages require the reader to have a working knowledge of the principal parts of speech. Victims of the regrettable failure of English schools, during the past fifteen years or so, to supply this knowledge are invited to begin their perusal of this book by studying the entries under verb, noun, adverb, adjective, pronoun, preposition and conjunction, together with those under sentence and clause.

If any entry contains a word in bold print, that word has an entry to itself at the appropriate place alphabetically.

The following abbreviations are used:

C.O.D The Concise Oxford Dictionary (The

Clarendon Press, Oxford)

Gowers The Complete Plain Words , by Sir Ernest

Gowers, revised by Sir Bruce Fraser (H.M.S.O.)

Fowler A Dictionary of Modern English Usage , by

H. W. Fowler (The Clarendon Press, Oxford)

Partridge Usage and Abusage , by Eric Partridge

(Hamish Hamilton Ltd)

I am grateful to my wife for checking the typescript, to Mrs Stella Lister for typing it, and to all the journalists, broadcasters and writers (notably the authors of the stunningly illiterate Cambridge Students’ Prospectus, 1978) who have supplied the examples of English I have cited. None has been invented.

Keston, KentB. A. P.

1979

A

a and an are called the indefinite articles in English. In general, a is used before words beginning with a consonant (a pole) and an before a vowel (an aperture). There are a few exceptions: the consonant h is sometimes silent (as in honest, hour, etc.); an is used before words beginning with a silent h (an honourable action) but not before a sounded h (a house). The vowel u and the vowel-sound eu are sometimes pronounced like a consonant, with a y sound (as in union and European, etc.); a is used before words with this initial sound (a useless article), but not otherwise (an unusual event).

See definite article, hotel.

abbreviation. The normal rule is to put full stops after abbreviations, e.g. a.m. Full stops are not necessary after Mr, Mrs and Dr, nor with abbreviations that have become words in their own right (e.g. phone, fridge, pub, etc.). It is becoming increasingly common to omit full stops from abbreviations, especially when an abbreviation is used more frequently than the full version and is beginning to assume the status of a word: TUC, BBC, MP, RAF, VAT, USA. If in doubt, use full stops.

Note the punctuation of the abbreviations don’t, isn’t, I’m, he’s, they’re, etc., where the apostrophe indicates an omitted letter. See apostrophe 2.

If an abbreviation concludes a sentence, it is common (but not obligatory) to put two full stops, one to punctuate the abbreviation, the second to indicate the end of the sentence. Two stops, however, are never found in print.

See it’s, St.

abdicate. See arrogate.

abdomen may be pronounced with the stress on the second syllable (to rhyme with toe), or on the first.

abrogate: See arrogate.

absolute construction. See verb 5(b).

abstract noun. See noun.

academic means scholarly. It has also come to mean unimportant, or of interest to very few, as in

The result of today’s match is academic, because

Manchester United already have enough points to assure them of the championship.

The development of the word has been academic = scholarly = unpractical = irrelevant. This last meaning of academic is worth resisting, if only because it is confusing that a word should be both a compliment (scholarly) and a term of mild abuse (irrelevant).

accent. When a word with more than one syllable is pronounced, one of the syllables is emphasised more strongly than the others, e.g. the first syllable in flippant, the second in monotony, the third in interfere. This stress is known as accent.

Words which are written identically may be pronounced differently: object as a noun has the accent on the first syllable; as a verb it has the accent on the second.

accessary means helper in or one privy to an act, usually criminal. Accessory is found usually as a noun meaning small object or part contributing or subordinate to a greater whole, as in car accessories (e.g. seat-covers), costume accessories (e.g. jewellery). The two spellings should not be confused.

accommodate is one of the most frequently mis-spelt words in English. Double c, double m.

accompanied by is correct when referring to persons:

He was accompanied by his daughter.

Of things, accompanied with is correct.

He accompanied his speech with blows on the table.

accusative. A noun or pronoun is said to be in the accusative when it is the object of a verb or preposition. See preposition 2, pronoun, verb 4. Since only pronouns have different forms in the accusative and the nominative in English, the word accusative has little importance except with regard to pronouns.

acetic pertains to vinegar, and the ce is pronounced see. Ascetic = austere, severely abstinent; an ascetic is a person who practises severe self-discipline, often retiring into solitude for this purpose. The scet is pronounced set.

activate means make active. It is best reserved to define physical or chemical action. Actuate has the advantage of meaning both move to action and serve as motive to, as in

It appears to have been malice that actuated him.

active and passive. A verb is said to be in the active voice when its subject is performing the action of the verb:

The mob broke the windows.

When the subject is being acted on, the verb is said to be passive:

The windows were broken by the mob.

It is sometimes said that use of the active and avoidance of the passive help to create a good strong style.

The infinitive has active and passive forms, in both the present (to strike, to be struck) and the past tense (to have struck, to have been struck).

For an explanation of infinitive see verb 5 (a).

actual and actually. It is worth noting how often these words are used unnecessarily, especially the former in the common phrase in actual fact. All facts are actual, and there is therefore no need to refer to any particular one as being actual. The word actually is usually used to give the speaker a moment in which to think.

actuate. See activate.

acumen ( = keen discernment) should be pronounced with the emphasis on the second syllable, which is as in queue.

acute. See chronic.

adapt and adopt. The former means alter, make suitable for a purpose. The latter means accept, take (an idea, etc.) from someone else. One may make an extra bedroom by adopting one’s neighbour’s plan and adapting the garage.

adaptor, an electrical fitment, not to be confused with adapter, a person who adapts books (e.g. turns them into plays).

adequate. See tautology.

adjectival clause. See clause 2.

adjective. A word that describes a noun (an attractive possibility; seventy-six trombones).

1. When an adjective is used in comparing two things, its form may change:

This route is quick.

but This route is quicker than that one.

Quicker is called the comparative or comparative degree of the adjective quick. The comparative may be formed by adding -er to the adjective, but adjectives of more than one syllable usually form the comparative by using the word more, to avoid ugliness of sound:

Lunch was expensive.

but Lunch was more expensive than I expected.

2. When an adjective is used in comparing more than two persons or things, the superlative or superlative degree is used, either by adding -est to the adjective or by using most:

That is the strangest story I have ever heard.

He is the most experienced player in the team.

3, A few adjectives form the comparative and superlative irregularly:

4. It is a common fault of grammar to use the comparative degree instead of the superlative when more than two items are being compared:

Which do you like most (not more) — wine, women or song?

It is also wrong to use the superlative instead of the comparative when only two items are being compared:

Which is the better (not best) bargain - this or that?

The rules should be strictly observed. Use the comparative form (fast, faster, fastest; spacious, more spacious, most spacious) when comparing two people or things, and use the superlative form (big, bigger, biggest; extravagant, more extravagant, most extravagant) when comparing more than two:

the taller of the two; the largest of the four; the more attractive of the two; the most attractive of the four.

5. When used as adjectives, this and that have plural forms, these and those. In accordance with the normal rules of agreement the singular form should be used with a singular noun, and the plural form with a plural noun:

those kind of people should be that kind (or those kinds)

these sort of shops should be this sort (or these sorts)

Avoid similarly those class, these type, etc.

6. Care should be taken when placing the adjective. Note the difference between women’s second-hand clothing and second-hand women’s clothing.

See also pronoun 5.

adopt. See adapt.

adverb. A word that describes a verb, an adjective or another adverb:

The band played loudly and inaccurately (describing the verb played).

On occasions the noise was unbearably loud (describing the adjective loud).

We left very early (describing the adverb early).

1. An adverb normally indicates how, when, where or in what degree the action of a verb takes place:

Think carefully. Come tomorrow.

Look up. It was partially destroyed.

An adverb describing ah adjective or another adverb normally describes degree, extent or intensity:

You ate too much. They were exceptionally kind.

That’s quite a good idea.

An adverb which describes a verb describes the action of that verb. Some verbs which do not denote action are followed by adjectives, not adverbs:

She is tall. He looks ill. The results are good.

It appears strange. It seems wrong. It feels smooth.

2. Some adverbs, like adjectives, change their form when comparisons are being used.

(a)How long will the journey last?

It will take longer than you expect.

Longer is the comparative degree of the adverb long. The comparative is used when two items are being compared. Most adverbs form the comparative by using more:

Time passes more quickly when one is occupied (i.e. more quickly than it does when one is idle).

(b)The car goes fast, the train goes faster, but the aeroplane goes fastest of all.

Fastest is the superlative degree of the adverb fast (of which faster is the comparative). The superlative is used when more than two things are being compared, as in the example quoted. Most adverbs form the superlative by using most:

Of all the performers, she danced most gracefully.

(c) Some adverbs form the comparative and superlative irregularly:

3. It is important to place the adverb as close as possible to the word it describes. Whoever penned the sentence

The Chief Constable ordered the rioters to be arrested indignantly

may have intended to report that the Chief Constable ordered his men to experience indignation while arresting the rioters; it is more likely that it was the Chief Constable who experienced indignation, so the adverb indignantly should have been placed adjacent to ordered (i.e. before it), not adjacent to arrested. For a more subtle illustration of the same point, see only.

4. The word real is an adjective. Its adverbial form is really.

The team played real well.

They’ve had a real good time.

are incorrect, because the adverbial really is required to describe the adverb well and the adjective good.

adverbial clause. See clause 2.

adversary is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable.

adverse. See averse.

advice, advise. One can understand confusion between practice and practise which are pronounced alike, but there is less excuse for confusion between advice (noun) and advise (verb) since their spelling is in accordance with familiar rules of pronunciation, i.e. the final syllable of the noun is pronounced ice, and the final syllable of the verb is pronounced ize.

advisedly does not mean having taken advice, but carefully, after consideration.

affect is often confused with effect. The words have a number of meanings, but those which are most often confused are the verbs:

affect: have an effect on.

effect: bring about, accomplish.

It is perhaps helpful to remember that affect is always a verb (except in the specialised language of psychology) but that effect can be both noun and verb:

Smoking may have an effect on your health. (noun)

To give up smoking may effect an improvement in your health. (verb)

Smoking may affect your health.

Affect is sometimes used loosely. The sports journalist who wrote, of a player in a tennis match,

In the third set, he was much affected by the crowd.

failed to say how the player was affected: was he hindered, distracted, angered, or helped in some way? Avoid affect if a more precise word is available.

afflict. See inflict.

after. See behind, following.

again is unnecessary in renew again, repeat again, recur again, revive again and with any other verb which contains the notion of again within itself (consult the dictionary under re-) and which therefore needs no assistance from the superfluous adverb again. See tautology.

aggravate means increase the gravity of a condition already serious or, often, unpleasant: His accident aggravated his limp. Opinions on the very common use of the word to mean annoy or irritate vary from ‘colloquial’ (C.O.D.) to ‘uneducated’ (Fowler); it is probably best to avoid this usage, despite its antiquity (1611), if only because uncontroversial synonyms are readily available.

aggravation, in the sense of bother, trouble, irritation, is slangy and should be avoided because it derives from a definition of aggravate that is still regarded as dubious. Use aggravation to mean worsening.

ago must not be confused with previously. Ago=past, gone by (ten years ago), since (long ago). Previously = before. Note the differences in I saw ‘Hamlet’ a year ago; I had last seen it three years previously (i.e. three years before the performance a year ago).

ago that, not ago since, when ago is followed by a clause describing the event which is being dated:

It is twenty-five years ago that they emigrated.

or It is twenty-five years since they emigrated.

but not

It is twenty-five years ago since they emigrated.

because ago and since have the same meaning, and ago requires that.

agreement. As a simple general rule, words or groups of words that go together should be placed close together.

For sale: chair suitable for lady with wide seat.

This makes sense, but it is courteous to assume that the advertiser intended to suggest that the wide seat belonged to chair, not lady. The phrase with wide seat should have been placed after chair.

As a boy, his mother had neglected him.

is a less immediately obvious example of the same error. As a boy leads the reader to expect that the sentence will continue to say something about him: instead the direction of the grammar changes, and his mother is introduced in a way which implies that she had had an irregular childhood. The sentence should be corrected by placing as a boy after him, which it describes. Alternatively,

As a boy, he had been neglected by his mother.

Other examples: from a recent newspaper

The explosives were found by a security man in a plastic bag.

The phrase in a plastic bag belongs to found and should be placed after it. From a mother’s letter to school:

Being cold, I kept Ian at home today.

The grammar implies that I was being cold; this is not the intended meaning.

See everybody, like 5, only, or, sort.

akin to, not akin