Empty Logic: Madhyamika Buddhism from Chinese Sources

Empty Logic

Mādhyamika Buddhism from Chinese Sources

Hsueh-li Cheng

TO

THE MEMORY

OF

CHU HWANG-FANG

(1890-1941)

Contents

Preface

Chapter One General Introduction

I. The Origin of Buddhism

II. Mādhyamika in Indian Buddhist Thought

III. The Development of Mādhyamika Buddhism

Chapter Two Principle Mādhyamika Doctrines

I. The Middle Way

II. The Twofold Truth

III. The Refutation of Erroneous Views as the Illumination of Right Views

IV. Emptiness

Chapter Three Mādhyamika and Zen

I. Zen and Emptiness

II. Zen and the Middle Way

III. Zen and the Twofold Truth

IV. Zen and the Refutation of Erroneous Views as the Illumination of Right Views

Chapter Four The Mādhyamika Treatment of Philosophical Issues

I. The Problem of Reality

II. The Problem of God

III. The Problem of Knowledge

Chapter Five Nāgārjuna, Kant and Wittgenstein

I. Nāgārjuna and Kant’s Critique of Metaphysics

II. Nāgārjuna and Wittgenstein on Language

Notes

List of Chinese Terms

Glossary

Selected Bibliography

Index of Names

Index of Subjects

Preface

Recently many Westerners have studied Buddhist philosophy, especially the philosophical teachings of the Mādhyamika. Mādhyamika philosophy is considered to be the most important outcome of Buddha’s teaching¹ and to represent philosophical Buddhism par excellence.² The main message of Mādhyamika Buddhism is the doctrine of emptiness. Yet scholars as well as students of Buddhism have often been puzzled about this teaching and have misinterpreted it. The chief purpose of this book is to expound the Mādhyamika philosophy of emptiness as presented in Chinese sources and to clarify misconceptions about this important philosophy of Buddhism.

Mādhyamika Buddhism was founded by Nāgārjuna (c. 113-213) and introduced to China by Kumārajīva (344-413). This school of thought is known in China, Korea and Japan as the San-lun Tsung (Three Treatise School). It is also called the K’ung Tsung (the School of Emptiness). Its three main texts, namely, the Middle Treatise (Chung-lun), the Twelve Gate Treatise (Shih-erh-men-lun) and the Hundred Treatise (Pailun),³ were translated into Chinese by Kumārajīva and his Chinese disciples more than two hundred years before Candrakirti (600-650), the great Indian Mādhyamika, wrote the Prasannapadā. San-lun philosophy was well established in China by Seng-chao (374-414) and Chi-tsang (549-623) long before Indian Mādhyamika Buddhism was brought to Tibet in the eighth century. When contemporary Buddhist scholars discuss Mādhyamika Buddhism, they usually refer to the Sanskrit Prasannapadā or Tibetan sources in stating Nāgārjuna’s philosophy. The present book is an attempt to present the earlier Chinese San-lun exposition of Nāgārjuna’s thought.

Most contemporary Mādhyamika scholars regard the word empty or emptiness as a descriptive term referring to something, and the doctrine of emptiness as a metaphysical theory. Nāgārjuna is thought to argue for absolutism or nihilism. Actually, the word empty or emptiness, according to Chinese San-lun Buddhists, is not a descriptive term but a soteriological or tactical device. The doctrine of emptiness is not a metaphysical theory; rather it is essentially a way of salvation. This teaching is given not primarily to make a report about the world but to empty one of metaphysical speculation so that he can lose intellectual attachment.

Nāgārjuna investigated Buddhist as well as non-Buddhist metaphysical systems and rejected the metaphysical use of language. His critique of metaphysical views is often likened to Kantian or Wittgensteinian philosophy by contemporary scholars. In fact, Nāgārjuna’s thought is quite different from Kant’s and Wittgenstein’s philosophies. He had his own unique teaching.

It seems to me that one of the most significant outcomes of Nāgārjuna’s teaching was the creation of Zen (Ch’an) Buddhism in China. During the past few decades many Westerners have been fascinated by Zen teachings and practices. But few people know that Mādhyamika philosophy provides a major theoretical foundation for Zen as a practical, anti-intellectual, irrational, unconventional and dramatic religious movement. In this book I will explore the influence of Mādhyamika thought upon Zen to help readers toward a better understanding of Zen Buddhism.

The book is divided into five chapters. Chapter one provides a general background of Buddhism to enable readers to perceive the place of Mādhyamika thought in Indian Buddhism and to know the development of the Mādhyamika movement in various parts of Asia. In chapter two, essential Mādhyamika doctrines are expounded. The chapter seeks to exhibit that the term empty or emptiness, which has no meaning by itself, obtains various meanings and uses in the process of salvation, and that the so-called middle way, the twofold truth and the refutation of erroneous views as the illumination of right views are just substitutes for emptiness. Chapter three examines the relation between Mādhyamika and Zen Buddhism and shows that central Mādhyamika doctrines have been assimilated into Zen teachings and practices. Chapter four is a presentation of the Mādhyamika approach to philosophical issues. It investigates how the Mādhyamikas treat the problems of reality, God and knowledge, why they refute metaphysical speculation and what their criticisms are with respect to certain philosophical viewpoints. Chapter five offers a brief comparison between Nāgārjuna’s, Kant’s and Wittgenstein’s philosophies to suggest the unique nature of Nāgārjuna’s teaching and explain why his philosophy cannot be identified with Kant or Wittgenstein. I describe why and how Nāgārjuna rejected conceptualization and argued for the emptiness of words.

The abbreviation T is given to represent the Taishō Shinsū Daizōkyō (the Taishō edition of the Chinese Tripițaka) throughout the book. There is a list of Chinese terms at the end, also a glossary which defines important Sanskrit, Pali, Chinese, Japanese and English words that are used. A selected bibliography is provided for those who want to know principal works on the main issues examined in this book.

I am indebted to a great number of persons who in one way or other have helped me in bringing this book to completion. To name them all would be impossible. But I wish to thank the late Dr. Richard Robinson, Dr. Minuro Kiyota and Dr. Martin Huntley for assisting me in the study of Mādhyamika thought. Thanks are due also to Dr. Timothy Woo, Dr. Kenneth K. Inada, Dr. Barry Curtis, Mr. John Paxson, Mrs. Jane Hoes, Miss Judy Graham and Mr. Marc Cohen who have helped by their valuable criticism of the early drafts of the manuscript. I am grateful to my former colleagues at Ohio University, Dr. Troy Organ and Dr. Gene Blocker, for their constant encouragement. The gentle advice of present colleagues at the University of Hawaii at Hilo, Dr. Evyn Adams, Dr. Donald Wells and the late Dr. Hideo Aoki, has greatly helped me in revising the manuscript. A special word of appreciation is also due to Dean David C. Purcell, Jr., who has offered secretarial assistance. I owe a debt of gratitude to the following publishers for permission to use certain passages: Religious Studies, Cambridge University Press; Journal of Chinese Philosophy, D. Reidel Publishing Company; Dialogue Publishing Company; International Philosophical Quarterly, Fordham University Press; The Theosophist, the Theosophical Society; D. Van Nostrand Company; University of Wisconsin Press; and Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.

A special thanks is extended to the Chu Cultural Foundation for grants toward the publication of this book. The foundation was established in honor of Mr. Chu Hwang-fang, who was born at Ch’ao-chou, China, 1890 and went to nirvāņa at Medan, Indonesia, 1941. Its chief goal is to promote the dharma of wisdom and brotherly love among mankind.

Finally and above all I want to express my deepest appreciation to my wife, Alice Chiong-huei Cheng, without whose loving support this work would not have been completed.

Chapter One

General Introduction

I. The Origin of Buddhism

Buddhism was founded by Śākyamuni,¹ whose personal name was Siddhārtha,² and family name Gautama, about 2,500 years ago. He was born in the village of Lumbini,³ northern India, where his father was ruler of the Śākya clan. When young, Siddhārtha lived a luxurious life in his father’s palace, but it is said that curiosity and a restless search for new pleasures led him to encounter the realities of life and sufferings of old age, sickness and death. These experiences invited him to quest for their solution.

Siddhārtha is alleged to have renounced his home at the age of twenty-nine and wandered the Ganges River Valley for six years. He studied traditional religious teachings with famous masters and joined some ascetics in their rigorous lifestyle, but his dissatisfaction continued. He then discounted traditional religions and their practices and went his own way. This eventuated in the moment which he later termed his enlightenment, and thenceforth he was known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One).

The Buddha spent the remaining forty-five years of his life preaching his Dharma⁴ (truth) and establishing the Saǹgha⁵ (the Buddhist organization). He died at the age of eighty, having lived from approximately 563 B.C. to 483 B.C., which may be looked upon as the conjectural dates of the origin of the religious movement of Buddhism.⁶

The Buddhist religion was a reaction to traditional Indian Brāhmanism. It has occasionally been misinterpreted as something entirely new and different, yet it is a further growth of that ancient Indian religion and philosophy. The Buddha is reported to have said, I have seen the ancient way, the Old Road that was taken by the formerly All-Awakened, and that is the path I follow.⁷ Both Buddhism and Brāhmanism assert that our mundane existence is suffering and agree that ignorance and desire are the main sources of difficulty in life. They both claim that through right knowledge and good conduct we can secure release from the world of sorrow. In Buddhist as well as Brāhman scriptures, the doctrine of karma is accepted. The present existence of an individual is, according to this doctrine, the effect of the past, and the future will be the effect of the present existence. All beings are born again and again in different spheres of life driven by their karmic forces.⁸ Because of this belief, both Buddhists and Brāhmans try to control karmic forces. They generally believe that liberation from the cycle of birth and death can only be attained after one develops certain physical and mental disciplines, such as meditation and other yogic practices, which often culminate in asceticism.

However, the Buddha disdained ritual and sacrifices, and his teaching was a protest against the over-elaborate ceremonialism of the traditional religion. He attacked the caste society of his time and refuted the inspiration and authority of the Vedas, the scriptures of orthodox Hinduism. He also repudiated the extreme ascetic life of traditional religious men and established the middle way. Perhaps the most important doctrinal difference between Buddhism and Brāhmanism is this: Brāhmans assert the existence of ātman (I, self or ego), and consider the self as the innermost essence of man, essentially identical with Brāhman, the supreme reality of the universe, but Buddhists deny the substantive view of the world and the soul,⁹ and hold that everything in the universe, including the gods and the souls of all living beings, is in a constant state of flux.¹⁰

Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna Buddhism

After the death of the Buddha, Buddhism became popular and developed from early Buddhism into Hīnayāna (Small Vehicle) and then Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) Buddhism.¹¹ The division between Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna Buddhism was established sometime between the first century B.C. and the first century A.D. Hīnayāna is the conservative Buddhist school which tries to preserve the orthodox teachings and practices of traditional Buddhism. It accepts the Pali canon as the main scriptures.¹² For Hīnayānists, there is only one Buddha, who is the founder of Buddhism, and the highest goal or level one can achieve in life is to become an arhat, a good disciple of the Buddha who attains salvation for himself by his own effort.¹³

Mahāyāna Buddhism is the later liberal Buddhist school which has a new interpretation of Buddhism. It does not accept the Pali canon as the sole scriptural source, but has many new scriptures written in Sanskrit.¹⁴ According to Mahāyānists there is not just one Buddha, but many. In principle, everyone has buddha-nature and can become a buddha. The ideal one seeks to achieve is to become not merely an arhat, but a bodhisattva, a buddha-to-be, who has a great compassion for the world of mortals, and, after attaining salvation for himself, helps others to attain salvation.¹⁵ The chief philosophical difference between Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna is that while Hīnayānists assert the reality of dharmas (elements or entities), Mahāyānists declare that all things are empty.

Conservative Buddhism has been popular in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos. The people of these nations prefer the description Theravāda, which means the system or school of the Elders,¹⁶ instead of Hīnayāna, which was given by the Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna Buddhism has been popular in China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal and Vietnam. Buddhism was the only religious and philosophical teaching of India to disseminate far beyond the borders of its homeland, and its spread north and east contributed to the development of other Eastern civilizations.

The Buddha as a Pragmatic Teacher

Modern scholars have differed in their reconstruction of the true or original teaching of the Buddha, but all seem to agree that the main issue the Buddha dealt with was how to expurgate suffering and evil from our lives. The aim of his teaching is to obtain nirvāņa or salvation in a sorrowful world. He is said to have avoided the discussion of purely theoretical or metaphysical issues. When asked whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, whether finite or infinite, whether the soul is identical with the body and whether the saint exists after death, he maintained silence.¹⁷ It seems that the answers to such metaphysical questions were, for the Buddha, intellectually uncertain, as illustrated in his famous parable of blind men describing an elephant. Metaphysicians can present only different partial views of metaphysical problems, like the conflicting one-sided accounts given by blind men who each touch only a part of the elephant.¹⁸

Many metaphysical