Apocalyptic Literature in the New Testament

Half-Title Page

Core Biblical Studies editors and Other Books in the Core Biblical Studies Series

General Editors

Core Biblical Studies

Louis Stulman, Old Testament

Warren Carter, New Testament

Other Books in the Core Biblical Studies Series

The Apocrypha by David A. deSilva

The Dead Sea Scrolls by Peter Flint

Title Page

Copyright Page

Apocalyptic literature in the new testament

Copyright © 2016 by Abingdon Press

All rights reserved.

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright Act or in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission should be addressed to Permissions, Abingdon Press, 2222 Rosa L. Parks Blvd., PO Box 280988, Nashville, TN 37228-0988, or [email protected].

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Carey, Greg, 1965- author.

Title: Apocalyptic literature in the New Testament / Greg Carey.

Description: First [edition]. | Nashville, Tennessee : Abingdon Press, 2016.

| Series: Core biblical studies | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016009754 | ISBN 9781426771958 (pbk.)

Subjects: LCSH: Eschatology--Biblical teaching. | Apocalyptic literature. |

Bible. New Testament--Criticism, interpretation, etc.

Classification: LCC BS2545.E7 C36 2016 | DDC 225/.046--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc .gov/2016009754

Scripture quotations unless noted otherwise are from the Common English Bible. Copyright © 2011 by the Common English Bible. All rights reserved. Used by permission. www.CommonEnglishBible.com.

Scripture quotations marked NRSV are taken from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright 1989, Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations for the Gospel of Thomas are taken from Bart Ehrman and Zlatko Pleše, The Other Gospels: Accounts of Jesus from Outside the New Testament (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 161–73.

Dedication Page

for Erin Carey

They say you can jinx a poem

if you talk about it before it is done.

—Billy Collins, Madmen

Contents

Contents

Preface

General Preface

Abbreviations

Chapter One—A Thought Experiment

Chapter Two—Apocalyptic Literature in Context

Chapter Three—The Pauline Epistles

Chapter Four—The Synoptic Take(s) on Jesus

Chapter Five—Beyond the Synoptic Gospels: Q, Thomas, John—and Jesus

Chapter Six—The Big Show: Revelation

Chapter Seven—Epilogue

Glossary

Preface

Preface

This book aims to introduce readers to New Testament apocalyptic literature, but it has other goals as well. For one thing, I will argue that apocalyptic ideas were fundamental to the emergence of Christianity. One might characterize all of the New Testament as apocalyptic literature. Rather than single out the book of Revelation and a few key apocalyptic passages, this book calls attention to the apocalyptic dimension of most New Testament literature.

Second, this book provides guidance and resources for interpreting apocalyptic texts. As you read through this book, you will encounter mini-ature studies of key texts and themes from various books. The aim is not for readers to absorb my conclusions; instead, I am trying to model how apocalyptic discourse might have been meaningful for ancient audiences and how contemporary readers might find meaning in these texts. One basic theme of this book involves the adaptability of apocalyptic discourse. Early Jews and Christians built all sorts of arguments with apocalyptic logic, and they did so for many different reasons. With these helpful assumptions in mind, contemporary readers can engage these texts in meaningful ways.

A third aim is somewhat indirect: I hope this book enhances readers’ openness to and appreciation for the relevance of early Christian apoca-lyptic literature. Many people routinely dismiss this literature because it uses bizarre imagery (the moon turned to blood—really?), because it seems impossible to decipher, or because it reflects unrealistic fantasy rather than effective engagement with the real world. On the contrary, Jews and Christians turned to apocalyptic discourse precisely to address their very this-world problems—and they did so in remarkably creative ways. We will explore apocalyptic literature that fosters political resistance, promotes theological innovation, and addresses community strife, among other functions. We will also introduce frameworks that should prove helpful for appreciating this literature as something other than obscure speculation. If, for example, we think of those bizarre symbols as a kind of poetry, we may then explore how poetry empowers levels of communication inaccessible to ordinary discursive language.

I extend gratitude to Professor Warren Carter of Brite Divinity School at Texas Christian University, who invited me to take on this project and whose wise advice has strengthened it immeasurably. David C. Teel of Abingdon Press has offered collegial encouragement and demonstrated patience above and beyond the call of duty. Abingdon’s production editor Katie Johnston has ably guided me through the production process. My graduate instructors at Vanderbilt University have fundamentally shaped this project. My advisor Fernando Segovia challenged me to take account of real, flesh and blood readers and to attend to the ethical implications of interpretation. Daniel Patte modeled appreciation for diverse, even conflicting points of view and provided a framework for voicing my own opinion in conversation with others. Mary Tolbert introduced me to resources from the study of literature and rhetoric that shape all of my work; it was she who first suggested I might study apocalyptic literature. And Amy-Jill Levine fostered my study of the primary texts of ancient Judaism and Christianity, especially noncanonical literature, in forming my basic approach to apocalyptic discourse. Countless other colleagues have shaped my basic approach, especially (and in alphabetical order) L. Gregory Bloomquist of Saint Paul University (Ottawa), John J. Collins of Yale Divinity School, David A. deSilva of Ashland Theological Seminary, Lorenzo DiTomasso of Concordia University (Montreal), Lynn R. Huber of Elon University, Carol A. Newsom of Emory University’s Candler School of Theology, Stephen D. O’Leary of the University of Southern California, Tina Pippin of Agnes Scott College, Anathea Portier-Young of the Duke University Divinity School, Vernon K. Robbins of Emory University, and David A. Sánchez of Loyola Marymount University. I am grateful to Lancaster Theological Seminary, particularly President Carol Lytch, Dean David Mellott, and the Board of Trustees, who provided a sabbatical leave that made it possible for me to complete this project. Lancaster Seminary students have already tested and improved most of the ideas in this book, and my conversations with colleagues Julia M. O’Brien and Charles F. Melchert continually inform my understanding of this subject matter.

Apocalyptic literature frequently tells the story of justice and peace overcoming chaos and violence, of hope in the midst of conflict. My older daughter, Erin Summers Carey, knows that story better than most and has grown into an adult woman whom I admire. I dedicate this book to her in anticipation of the first birthday of her son, Matthew Bennett Fries-Carey.

General Preface

General Preface

This book, part of the Core Biblical Studies series, is designed as a starting point for New Testament study.

The volumes that constitute this series function as gateways. They provide entry points into the topics, methods, and contexts that are central to New Testament studies. They open up these areas for inquiry and understanding.

In addition, they are guidebooks for the resulting journey. Each book seeks to introduce its readers to key concepts and information that assist readers in the process of making meaning of New Testament texts. The series takes very seriously the importance of these New Testament texts, recognizing that they have played and continue to play a vital role in the life of faith communities and indeed in the larger society. Accordingly, the series recognizes that important writings need to be understood and wrestled with, and that the task of meaning making is complicated. These volumes seek to be worthy guides for these efforts.

The volumes also map pathways. Previous readers in various contexts and circumstances have created numerous pathways for engaging the New Testament texts. Pathways are methods or sets of questions or perspectives that highlight dimensions of the texts. Some methods focus on the worlds behind the texts, the contexts from which they emerge and especially the circumstances of the faith communities to which they were addressed. Other methods focus on the text itself and the world that the text constructs. And some methods are especially oriented to the locations and interests of readers, the circumstances and commitments that readers bring to the text in interacting with it. The books in this series cannot engage every dimension of the complex mean-making task, but they can lead readers along some of these pathways. And they can point to newer pathways that encourage further explorations relevant to this cultural moment. This difficult and complex task of interpretation is always an unfolding path as readers in different contexts and with diverse concerns and questions interact with the New Testament texts.

A series that can be a gateway, provide a guide, and map pathways provides important resources for readers of the New Testament. This is what these volumes seek to accomplish.

Warren Carter

General Editor

Abbreviations

Abbreviations

AYB Anchor Yale Bible

BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium

ESEC Emory Studies in Early Christianity

FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament

JSPS Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplemental Series

NIDB New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible

NovTSup Supplements to Novum Testamentum

OTP Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. James H. Charlesworth

SBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series

StABH Studies in American Biblical Hermeneutics

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

Chapter One—A Thought Experiment

Chapter One

A Thought Experiment

This first chapter introduces several concepts that prepare us to study early Christian apocalyptic literature—terms like apocalypse and apocalypticism, among others; the emergence of apocalyptic discourse in ancient Judaism, including its presence among the Dead Sea Scrolls; and modern responses to apocalyptic thought among theologians and public thinkers.

But this chapter also aims to persuade you. Many readers assign ap-ocalyptic literature a marginal space within the Bible. Finding apocalyptic ideas to be bizarre, judgmental, or violent, they assume that those ideas stand far removed from Jesus and his ministry. I once had a pastor invite me to lunch to ask, What’s the problem with Revelation? Revelation surely represents the Bible’s most intense expression of apocalyptic discourse; perhaps Revelation is so different from the rest of the New Testament that we should basically ignore it. Alternatively, some might question the relevance of apocalyptic literature: Does its focus on future deliverance encourage devotees to ignore injustice and violence in the present age? The hip-hop group Arrested Development offered this critique of popular religion: The word ‘cope’ and the word ‘change,’ is directly opposite, not the same.¹

What if apocalyptic discourse stood not at the periphery of early Christianity but near its center? By reflecting on a thought experiment, an imaginary reader who works her way through the entire (Protestant) Bible from cover to cover, we will argue that apocalyptic topics provided essential resources for early Christian reflection. Moreover, these ideas and literary devices represented fairly new developments within ancient Judaism. They took recognizable shape not in the Jewish Scriptures, or Old Testament, but in the apocalyptic literature some Jews began to produce in the two or three centuries prior to Jesus’s birth and career. Finally, these apocalyptic concepts were fluid: people were still debating their value and meaning throughout the New Testament period—even within the New Testament itself. For that reason, early Christians could adapt apocalyptic discourse in diverse settings, and they could apply it to attain diverse ends.

Just Imagine . . .

Let’s imagine a first-time reader of the Bible. She is an unusual reader: she pays close attention, and she is especially smart. This reader remembers everything she reads, and she understands almost everything. Every once in a while she might perform an internet search or consult a reference dictionary—what’s a Philistine, after all?—but let’s imagine that she reads through the Bible from Genesis to Revelation, understanding and remembering everything.

For the sake of our thought experiment we’ll have to say a little more. She is reading a Protestant Bible. It doesn’t matter much which translation she uses. Let’s say she’s reading the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV), which is the most widely adopted for classroom use. It’s far more important that she is using a Protestant Bible. It includes all the books that occur in the Jewish Bible, but in a different order. This Protestant Bible does not include the books we often identify as the Apocrypha: those books appear in Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Russian Orthodox Bibles. Different Christian communions have different Bibles.

So our reader finishes what we call the Old Testament. The NRSV called it The Hebrew Scriptures Commonly Called the Old Testament. When she turns from Malachi, the last book of the Protestant Old Testament, she encounters a page, The New Covenant Commonly Called the New Testament of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Then she turns to Matthew.

Now we dwell on that transition to Matthew. Moving from Malachi to Matthew will confront our imaginary reader with several challenges. Matthew begins by introducing Jesus the Messiah, the son of David, the son of Abraham (Matt 1:1 NRSV). Our reader recalls David and Abraham as major figures from earlier in the Bible, but what is a messiah?

It’s common among some Christians to claim that the Hebrew prophets predicted a messiah, specifically that they predicted Jesus. But our reader finds herself surprised. She looks up messiah in a Bible dictionary and finds a fairly lengthy article. According to the article, messiah basically means one who is anointed, often kings and sometimes priests or prophets who receive anointing as a sign that one is favored by God for a particular role. She might learn that "the Messiah (with the definite article) occurs in the New Testament but not in the Old Testament. She may also learn that the Greek word we translate messiah", christos, is sometimes translated messiah and sometimes Christ.

In other words, Matthew calls Jesus "the Messiah," a concept that is never fully developed in the Jewish Scriptures. We might offer similar observations regarding other concepts our reader encounters in Matthew. In each case we find that a concept that appears scarcely or not at all in the Old Testament appears with far more definition in the New Testament. And in each case, our best evidence for that process of refinement and definition comes from outside the Bible—in the apocalyptic literature of ancient Judaism. Some of the most basic concepts in early Christian discourse are thoroughly grounded in apocalyptic literature. Messianic speculation emerged from Israel’s hopes for a king like David, one who would inaugurate an age of righteousness and peace. Prominent passages include 2 Samuel 7:4-29; 1 Kings 3:6; 8:23-26; Psalms 2; 89; Isaiah 9; 11; 42; and 61.² Later authors picked up on the depiction of one like a Son of Man in Daniel 7, an apocalypse, and we see the concept developing among some of the Dead Sea Scrolls and in apocalypses like 1 Enoch (especially chaps. 37–71), 2 Baruch, and 4 Ezra.³

On several occasions Matthew mentions Jesus’s resurrection. But Matthew also includes a debate between Jesus and a group called the Sadducees concerning a general resurrection (Matt 22:23-33; see Mark 12:18-27). The first-century Jewish chronicler Josephus includes rejection of a resurrection and an afterlife among the Sadducees’ defining characteristics,⁴ as does Acts 23:8. We rarely stop to think about it, but this debate reveals something significant: in Jesus’s day the resurrection remained a fairly new and controversial idea.

A modern Bible reader might wonder: How can it be that an authoritative group within first-century Judaism rejected the idea of a resurrection? The answer is fairly simple. The Sadducees revered the Torah, the five books attributed to Moses, but not the other books that came to form the Hebrew Bible. The Torah never mentions resurrection. Nor do any of the other biblical books, at least not explicitly, with the exception of Daniel (though see Isa 26:19). Daniel 12:1-3 discusses a resurrection and a judgment. This is significant for two reasons. First, Daniel 7–12 constitutes one of