American Revolution For Dummies

Introduction

John Adams once wrote that "the history of our Revolution will be one continued Lye [sic] from one end to the other. Adams, second president of the United States, courageous statesman — and often a world-class grump — went on to sarcastically note that historians would doubtless report Benjamin Franklin smote the Earth and out sprang George Washington. Then Franklin electrified Washington with a lightning rod and thence forward these two conducted all the Policy, Negotiations, Legislatures and War."

Over the past two centuries, historians have poured out millions of words about the American Revolution, although no one to my knowledge has recounted it quite like Adams predicted. Tempting as it is to take an entirely fresh and novel approach, I’m not going to, either. But in the pages that follow, I am going to try to tell the story of one of the more remarkable events in human history: The creation of a nation unlike any other before it, born from a handful of scraggly colonies clinging to the east coast of a raw and sprawling continent.

Conceived in a war of words, and born from a war of blood against what was then the world’s most powerful empire, America was then reborn with more words. They were written on documents that still resonate, for a country that Thomas Jefferson said represented the world’s best hope and Abraham Lincoln redefined as the last best hope of earth.

I don’t think the history of the American Revolution is over yet. Now, before you jump to the not-totally-unreasonable conclusion that you are reading the work of a drooling imbecile, hear me out. It just may be that you are confusing the American Revolution with the Revolutionary War. A lot of people do. In fact, they’ve been doing it since, well, the Revolutionary War.

There is nothing more common that to confound the terms of the American Revolution with those of the late war, wrote Dr. Benjamin Rush in 1786. That was just five years after the fighting between the American colonies and Great Britain had ceased, and three years after the two sides had signed a peace treaty in a second-floor room of a posh Paris hotel.

Rush had served with distinction as surgeon general of the colonials’ army (even though he favored bloodletting for almost every ailment and for stomach troubles prescribed his own brand of bilious pills that were at least 50 percent mercury). He was also one of 56 men who signed the Declaration of Independence. In pointing out the difference between the revolution and the war, he explained the latter was nothing but the first act of the great drama … it remains yet to establish and perfect our new forms of government.

Rush was right (about the revolution, not the bloodletting). The American Revolution can be properly viewed as an ongoing event. It was, and is, an idea, an expedition, a continual work-in-progress. It’s about devising the best way for human beings to get along with each other; to form social structures that allow us to govern ourselves with justice and fairness and compassion; and to respect the rights and freedoms of the individual while balancing them against the common good.

Establishing such a system — what George Washington called the last Great Experiment for promoting human happiness — is a tall order, and one that we continue to fine-tune with every presidential edict, congressional act, and Supreme Court decision. We’re not done yet, and may never be done.

So, this book is about just the beginning of the journey, how it got started, who started it and how the route changed over those first years and decades. It’s a bumpy and sometimes confusing trip, so buckle your seat belts and keep your eyes on the road.

About This Book

This book is not a textbook, nor is it an exhaustive encyclopedia covering everything that happened during those formative decades before and after America’s beginning. Instead, I’ve tried to focus on the key events of the time, the whys and hows behind the events, and most of all, the people who made them happen. The aim is to give a basic foundation of information about the American Revolution and maybe entertain, amuse, and even irk you a bit along the way.

A word or two about the irking. This is not a completely objective, totally dispassionate, right-down-the-middle history book. There is no such thing. I’ve tried to stick to facts — or at least the most widely accepted historical interpretations of the facts — but the bottom line is that my own thoughts, biases, and interpretations will inevitably intrude. Sorry.

If there are factual mistakes, please let me know, and I’ll fix them in the next edition. If you simply don’t agree, congratulations. The freedom to disagree is one of the things the American Revolution was all about. If you take a look at Chapter 19, you can find a short list of other books on this topic. I’ve included at least a few that were written from either decidedly conservative or definitely liberal perspectives, so you can compare this book with some you might find more comforting, or more confrontational.

Lastly, I’ve included some anecdotes, quotes, and personality portraits that are meant to liven up the proceedings a bit. Learning about the past is certainly an important undertaking. But it doesn’t have to be dull.

Conventions Used in This Book

To help you amble along the revolutionary trail, I use the following conventions:

Italics are used both to emphasize a word to make a sentence clearer and to highlight a new word that’s being defined.

Bold highlights keywords in bulleted lists.

I’ve also tried whenever possible to use the exact language, spelling, and punctuation when quoting from letters, newspapers, or other historical documents. I think it adds to the authenticity and flavor of the topic. The few times I modernized things was when I thought the actual wording was too archaic to be easily understood.

What Not to Read

As you meander around the book, you’ll encounter blocks of text in shaded boxes. They contain quotes; mini-profiles of both famous and semi-obscure people; the origins of things; factoids and numbers; and other historical debris.

You don’t need to read them to get what’s going on. They’re just there as little extras that I’ve thrown in at no additional charge. Feel free to read them as you find them, come back to them later, or save them for recitation at your next poker game.

Foolish Assumptions

I’m assuming you picked up this book because you have some interest in the American Revolution (thus the cleverly selected title). If your interest is deeper than some, great — feel free to plow through it from beginning to end. But if some interest is just about right for you, no problem. Feel free to skip around to the parts that catch your fancy most, be it Chapter 14, on the drafting of the U.S. Constitution, or even Chapter 19, which lists other good books on the subject. It won’t hurt my feelings. Much.

Beyond the Book

In addition to what you’re reading right now, this product also comes with a free access-anywhere Cheat Sheet that is a smorgasbord of information about how the American government was set up and functions, a couple of mini-bios of interesting folks, and a collection of factoids to amaze your friends and confound your foes. To get this Cheat Sheet, simply go to www.dummies.com and search for American Revolution For Dummies Cheat Sheet in the Search box.

Icons Used in This Book

Throughout the book, you’ll find icons in the margins or alongside boxed sidebars that alert you to particular aspects or features of the text. Here’s what they mean:

Technical stuff The names, numbers, and other stats behind the news are the focus of this icon.

Remember This icon alerts you to a fact or idea that you may want to stash in your memory bank.

Where to Go from Here

Hmmm, tough question. If you’re reading this introduction, I’m betting you’ll take a crack at what follows. I guess the best advice I can come up with is to consider that the American Revolution isn’t over. And when you read about, watch, or listen to the news, keep in mind that the way America started is a pretty important part of where it’s going — or should be.

Part 1

The Roots of Revolution

IN THIS PART …

Centuries before anyone whistles Yankee Doodle, religious and political ideas and events lay the foundation for the American Revolution.

The Old World meets the New, and it’s not always pretty.

The American colonies participate in world wars and begin to feel strains of alienation from the Mother Country.

Chapter 1

A Revolutionary Story

IN THIS CHAPTER

Bullet Laying a foundation

Bullet Fighting for independence

Bullet Crafting a new kind of government

Bullet Taking the first steps as a nation

One of the dictionary definitions of revolution is an overthrow or repudiation and the thorough replacement of an established government or political system by the people governed. Another is a radical, transformative change. Yet a third is a movement in a circular course, returning to its starting point.

The American Revolution, I think, fits parts of all three of those definitions. Americans certainly overthrew and repudiated the established government under which they had been living. The result was certainly a radical, transformative change for them — as well as much of the rest of the world for centuries to come. And as Americans have moved through the 240-plus years since the Declaration of Independence, we have often revisited our starting point, not only to give us a sense of direction, but to provide ourselves with reassurance we are still on the right track.

But I’d add a fourth definition when it comes to the American Revolution: The ongoing process of perfecting the best way of governing ourselves. So, think of this chapter as providing a map for the rest of the book, which shows you where that process has taken us so far.

Setting the Stage

Before there was a United States of America, there were colonies, and before there were colonies, there were continents unvisited by Europeans, and before they could visit, the Europeans had to come through a whole lot of changes.

The changes ran the gamut from new ways of looking at religion to different kinds of governing. The two issues rarely stayed out of each other’s way. Chapter 2 takes a look at how economics, politics, and varying methods of worship combined to push Europeans, particularly those from England, Spain, and France, into a fierce competition to dominate the New World.

Progressing with Pilgrims — and for profit

As England came to dominate the portion of the North American continent now recognized as the United States, settlers took different approaches to settling. Some came to escape religious persecution in the Old World and establish their own little pieces of heaven on earth. Others came for money — or at least the profits that might be made in the new land.

Both kinds of newcomers encountered and endured a host of hardships. That’s what Chapter 3 covers, along with a look at how specific religious groups branched out to form their own distinctive colonies.

Fighting the natives and the home folks

Given the fact that Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries were almost always fighting with each other, it was probably dismally inevitable they would end up at war with the people already in America when they arrived. Chapter 4 follows the clash of cultures in different regions of the new land between the Native Americans and the newcomers.

It also examines early efforts by the various colonies to form alliances — and early rebellions against authorities representing the home country.

Growing up fast

Britain’s American colonies exploded during the first half of the 18th century, in more ways than one. There were spurts in population, economic prosperity, and political clout, all of which were positive signs that things were going well for the colonists.

But negative growth occurred as well: The population of kidnapped and enslaved Africans soared. A series of world wars, some of them directly involving America, took place. When the final war ended, British America had rid itself of the threat posed by the French Empire and was ready to confront a new threat — posed by Britain. That’s all in Chapter 5.

Divorcing the Mother Country

The American colonies generally came out of the French and Indian War in great shape. Millions of acres of virgin land had been won from the French and were ripe for settling. The mother country, Great Britain, was the most powerful nation on earth.

But lurking below the façade of Britain’s greatness were enormous war debts that had to be paid. And since the colonies benefitted from Britain’s protective cloak, British officials thought it natural that the colonists help pick up part of the bills. As Chapter 6 shows, the colonists thought otherwise. A series of taxing efforts by Parliament resulted in a series of downright surly responses from Americans.

Warming up for war

For five-plus years, America and Britain had managed to confine their differences to rhetorical battles and bloodless economic boycotts. But the conflict takes a decided turn to the violent in Chapter 7. There’s a massacre in Boston, along with a tea party.

Then a group of Americans from 12 of the 13 colonies get together in Philadelphia to compare notes and ask the king to knock it off. But tensions grow, until on a crisp clear morning in April 1775, a shot is fired — and heard ’round the world.

Declaring independence

Even after the shooting began at Lexington and Concord, many Americans and Britons held out hope that some kind of reconciliation could be reached before too much more blood was shed. But as Chapter 8 reveals, the American leaders hedged their bets by setting up an army and picking the best general they could find to lead it — even if no one realized they were making such a good pick at the time.

More battles were fought, and the chances of accommodation dimmed. A scuffling writer newly arrived from England fanned the flames for a complete break from Britain. In July 1776, America declared its independence, in what is one of the most important political documents in human history.

Winning a war, the hard way

It certainly looked like a mismatch: the most powerful country on earth, with one of the most experienced and professional military organizations, versus a collection of 13 disorganized colonies that had to basically start from scratch to build an army and navy — and had very few raw materials to start with.

America did have at least one thing going for it, in the person of a military leader who had limited military skills but seemingly unlimited determination. As Chapter 9 shows, George Washington would need every bit of that determination to win a war against Great Britain. This chapter follows the course of battles; the hardships endured by the American forces; the British leaders’ uncanny knack for making blunders at critical times; and how things wound up after more than six years of fighting.

Making it a global affair

The American Revolutionary War didn’t just occur in America. In fact, it was actually a world war, involving at least a half-dozen nations fighting on several continents. Chapter 10 follows the action from India to the Caribbean, and explains how Britain having to fight on fronts all over the globe greatly hampered its efforts to hold on to its American colonies.

The chapter also takes a look at the American rebellion from the British perspective, as well as the leadership team King George III put together to fight the war and the flak he got from those in the British government who opposed it. That opposition, plus the timely and invaluable aid America received from France, led up to remarkably favorable peace treaty for the new United States.

Fighting among ourselves

While the Revolutionary War was a worldwide conflict, it was also a domestic civil war. Many Americans opposed independence from Britain, for a wide variety of reasons. Chapter 11 examines how the difference of opinions had tragic consequences, pitting neighbor against neighbor and even splitting families.

The chapter also looks at how the war and the struggle for independence affected various groups of Americans, including women, African Americans, and Native Americans, and what roles these groups played in the fight. Finally, it covers how the war effort was exploited for financial gain by some Americans, how neglect and exploitation nurtured resentment among the men fighting the war — and why they continued to fight.

War’s Over — Now Comes the Hard Part

Winning the war was only part of the American Revolution. Now a collection of 13 once-dependent colonies had to form some kind of independent nation. Chapter 12 covers the awkward period between the Battle of Yorktown, which ended the major fighting, and the gathering in Philadelphia to create a government system Americans could live with.

Sorting out the Founding Fathers

Before getting to Philadelphia and the Constitutional Convention, Chapter 13 examines the controversy among historians as to who deserves the title Founding Fathers or whether the term is meaningful. Then it gives you mini-profiles of ten, uh, significant contributors to the American Revolution.

Drafting new rules — and selling them

It was a long, hot summer of debating, arguing, writing, rewriting, and re-rewriting. The result, as Chapter 14 explains, was the U.S. Constitution, a blueprint for a new system of government. But coming up with the document was only half the battle. In Chapter 15, the other half is waged: selling the idea to the American people and then drafting a Bill of Rights to sweeten the deal.

Getting Government Off the Ground

The men who drafted the Constitution were reasonably thorough about establishing the legislative branch of the new government. But they left some sizeable blanks to fill in when it came to the executive and judicial branches. Chapter 16 fills in the blanks (or at least explains how they filled in the blanks), and covers getting the government financed. I also throw in the rise of party politics and say goodbye to George Washington.

Picking fights over presidents and parties

Choosing George Washington for president was easy; choosing his first two successors was pretty messy, mostly because of the convoluted process established by the Constitution. Chapter 17 covers the mess, along with the rise of political parties in America and a feud with France.

Sorting out the Revolution’s results

The American Revolution made an impact far beyond the new country’s borders. A very brief Chapter 18 summarizes some of the Revolution’s effects elsewhere, as well as the reverberations it has had on U.S. history, and what should be kept in mind about it as the 21st century moves on.

For further reading… .

Think of Chapter 19 as a mini-bibliography. I list some books on the American Revolution from various perspectives and on various parts of the topic. It’s designed to whet your reading appetite — after you memorize this book, of course.

The Good Stuff at the Back of the Book

If you like lists — and who doesn’t? — there are three of the For Dummies hallowed Parts of Tens chapters in the back of this tome. Chapters 20, 21, and 22 provide things you didn’t know about the Founding Fathers; some unsung heroes of the American Revolution; and pithy quotes from or about the struggle for independence.

As an added bonus, Part 6 contains The Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, and a timeline of 25 key events during the first half century of the American Revolution. Enjoy.

Chapter 2

Here Comes Europe

IN THIS CHAPTER

Bullet Understanding the state(s) of things in Europe

Bullet Charting changes in Church and State

Bullet Traveling West to go East

Bullet Figuring out colonization

Like a well-mixed salad, many great events are the result of seemingly disparate ingredients. The American Revolution was no exception. Combine greed, God, and government with self-absorbed kings, virgin queens, rebellious monks, and daring pirates. Add generous portions of sugar and tobacco. In a century or two, you’ve got the makings of a revolution.

In this chapter, the preceding ingredients are blended, more or less, into a recounting of institutional changes in post-Medieval Europe — particularly Spain, France, and England — that helped shape events down the road in America. I also touch on how European powers came to explore, exploit and tentatively settle in the New World.

If you don’t like salad, think of this chapter as sort of an inventory of ideas, issues, and actions that helped shape the character of the American colonies, which in turn laid the foundations of the American Revolution. And don’t worry if it all seems a bit disconnected. It will come together. Eventually.

Shaking Up the Old World

As Europe meandered from the Middle Ages, it began wrestling with some major changes in the way people worked, worshipped, and governed themselves.

Trading economies

The economy of Western Europe during much of the Middle Ages was basically a collection of small and generally self-sufficient systems. They revolved around lowly peasants producing just enough food and manufactured items to subsist on, and using the rest to pay powerful nobles for letting them use the land and for providing military protection from outside threats.

But the various religious-sparked Crusades into the Middle East introduced Europeans to all kinds of nifty new products, including silks, dyes, exotic fruits — and an entire condiment-shelf’s worth of spices that not only made food more palatable, but helped preserve it. To get this stuff, Europeans traded things like wool, timber, and metals.

Technical Stuff This trading, in turn, led to the rise of city-states, particularly in Italy. Instead of vast-but-isolated agriculture-based tracts ruled by almost-omnipotent families, the city-states were urban areas whose economies often centered on producing particular goods or served as trading centers. Although powerful dynastic families often ruled them, the power might be shared by guilds of people who specialized in producing goods or trading them. Business ability and market skills made this merchant class less dependent on the whims of barons or dukes. Trade with other parts of the world intensified, and so did the quest for new markets and more products.

Another factor in this economic shift — and keep in mind it was gradual and uneven in its geography and timespan — was a morbidly drastic change in Europe’s labor market. The various Black Death plagues — bubonic, pneumonic, septicemic — of the 14th century killed as many as 25 million people, about one-third of the continent’s entire population. That meant fewer workers, which meant that labor was more valuable. Life got marginally better for some people who could parlay their skills into jobs instead of virtual slavery.

Rocking religion

At about the same time, religion and the role it played in people’s lives was facing big-time convulsions. For centuries, the Rome-based Catholic Church had dominated most of Europe, and the church’s popes felt free to interfere in the politics and policies of kingdoms, duchies, and just about anywhere else they felt like interfering.

But in the early 14th century, French kings, who were tired of papal intrusions into secular affairs, began to pick their own popes. Over the next century, it wasn’t unheard of for Europe to have three or four popes at the same time. It took until the early 15th century for the various factions to sort it out and agree to return to a system of one pope at a time.

By then, however, the squabbling between the very tops of the secular and religious food chains had emboldened some scholars from within the Catholic Church itself. Several of these Protestants began to publicly protest financial corruption among the clergy, as well as other sleazy practices and procedures that were either ignored, or even approved, by the Church hierarchy.

The critics included John Wycliffe, an English scholar who argued, among other things, that instead of Latin, Catholic mass should be conducted in languages that church-goers actually understood. Another was Jan Huss, a Czech theologian who openly preached dissent and was burned at the stake for his troubles.

They were followed by Martin Luther, a German monk, and John Calvin, a French theologian. Luther particularly objected to the Church’s practice of granting indulgences, which basically amounted to get-out-of-Hell-free passes for people who paid clergy to have their sins forgiven. In 1517, Luther posted a list of 95 theses on the door of a church in Wittenberg Germany. His central arguments were that the Bible, not the pope, was the key to figuring out what God wanted, and that faith was the key to salvation, not necessarily performing good works or adhering to Church-sanctioned rituals.

Calvin set up shop in the Swiss town of Geneva and sketched out an entire vision for Protestant Society, which viewed activities such as drinking and dancing as immoral. Calvin preached that man was essentially depraved and unworthy of salvation; that only a select few were predestined by God to be saved, and there wasn’t really any need for a clergy.

Remember Both Calvinism and Lutheranism would become key elements in the role religion would play in the formation of governments in the New World. In the meantime, this religious Reformation, as it came to be called, helped trigger a fierce backlash by supporters of the Catholic Church that kept Europe well-drenched in the blood of wars waged in the name of God.

Consolidating secular power

All this religious protesting came in handy for various European monarchs, who were looking for ways to throw off the heavy hand of the popes when it came to running their countries. The kings were also looking to merge their countries’ feudal fiefdoms into more centralized governments. They were tired of constant battles and feuds among, and with, nobles who enjoyed absolute power in their own regions and either paid little attention to royal wishes or schemed against the monarchies.

Technical Stuff As kings began using force, diplomacy, bribery, and whatever else worked to weaken the nobility, they also fostered the concept of the nation-state. In essence, the idea was that people should feel they shared both political and cultural ties. For example, a farmer from York and a fishmonger from London should think of themselves first as Englishmen rather than Yorkshiremen or Londoners because they both lived on the same island, spoke more or less the same language, and might even have common ancestors.

The advantages of a nation-state, if you were a king, included making it easier to raise taxes, wage wars, and justify expansion into other territory, all in the name of being good for the entire nation. Of course, it helped maintain the system if the country was at war or faced with the threat of it because a common enemy united the home folks. So Europe hosted what seemed like continuous warfare between and among various nations. There was a Thirty Years War, an Eighty Years War, and even a Hundred Years War — which dragged on for 116 years.

Remember The rise of international commerce, the schism between Catholic and anti-Catholic forces, and the quest by monarchs to accumulate and monopolize political power all played important parts in how the New World would be perceived and dealt with by the major European nations that explored and conquered it, and how those who eventually settled in the New World would perceive and deal with life there.

MAGNA CARTA

It has been described as the greatest constitutional document of all times, and a copy of it once sold at auction for more than $20 million. Yet in 1215, when a villainous English king affixed his seal to it to make it official, it wasn’t worth the parchment it was written on.

In essence, the Magna Carta (Latin for Great Charter) was a peace treaty agreed to between John of England and a rebellious group of about 100 barons, whose chief beef with the king was having to pay for a lot of bad military decisions he had made. Drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the 3,500-word document listed 63 rights, rules, and stipulations that ranged from a guarantee widows could not be forced to remarry, to exempting minors from having to pay interest on inherited debts, if the money was owed to a Jew.

King John reneged on the deal as soon as he could. He induced Pope Innocent III to annul the document because it was illegal, unjust, harmful to royal rights and shameful to the English people. Then the king died of dysentery 16 months later, seemingly making the whole issue moot. In addition, all but three of the original measures were eventually amended or dropped.

But the document’s overall importance far outweighed its specifics, or even the circumstances of its creation. Many legal scholars and historians see the Magna Carta as the first example in Western history of a monarch agreeing to abide by legal rules written by others. The eminent British jurist Alfred Thompson Denning called it the greatest constitutional document of all times — the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot. While variations of the document were reaffirmed 33 times by other English monarchs, its most important statement remained: We will sell to no man, we will deny or delay to no man either justice or right.

The Magna Carta was often cited by America’s Founding Fathers as a buttressing argument for their assertion of the rights to challenge an oppressive ruler, to spell out the conditions of governance, and the liberties of the governed that could not be restrained. In fact, when the First Continental Congress met in 1774 to draft a Declaration of Rights and Grievances against King George III, delegates decorated the title page with a column. At the top was a cap symbolizing Liberty. At the base were the words "Magna Carta."

Moreover, the venerable document has been cited numerous times in U.S. federal court cases. The issues ranged from a sexual harassment suit against President Bill Clinton to challenges of the detention and treatment of suspected terrorists by the administration of President George W, Bush. The judicial citations generally reinforced the idea that no person is above the law.

So venerated has the Magna Carta become in the American consciousness that in 1957 the American Bar Association paid for the construction of a memorial at the site of its signing in Runnymede England. Fifty years later, the financier and philanthropist David M. Rubenstein paid $21.3 million for a Magna Carta copy issued in 1297. He subsequently permanently loaned it to the National Archives in Washington, D.C. There it resides by two documents it helped shape: The Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution.

P.S.: The reluctant regent who agreed to the Magna Carta is the same Prince John who is the bad guy in all the Robin Hood movies. He became king on the death of his brother, Richard I — the Lion-Hearted. John was succeeded by his 9-year-old son, Henry III, who reigned for an impressive 56 years. The story is that Henry had to make do with a bracelet to mark his coronation because his dad either lost or sold the crown.

Scoping Out the New World

One thing you could say with conviction about Christopher Columbus was that he was persistent — and also arrogant, egotistical, charming, stubborn, dictatorial, and physically striking, with reddish-blonde hair that turned white by the time he was 30, and standing 6 feet tall in an age where the average European male barely reached 5 foot 6 inches.

Born a weaver’s son in Genoa Italy in 1461, Columbus ran a map-making business with his brother Bartholomew and developed himself into a first-class sailor. In the 1470s, he began shopping the idea of finding a western route to the riches of South and Southeast Asia, which was popularly known in Europe as the Indies. The idea was to replace the eastern overland routes that had been closed or greatly restricted when the Ottoman Turkish Empire conquered the trading center of Constantinople in 1453.

With his brother, Columbus began making the rounds of European capitals, searching for royal sponsorship of his idea. In return for 10 percent of all the loot he found, the title of Admiral of the Oceans, and a guarantee that his heirs would become governors of all the countries he discovered, Columbus promised to make some lucky nation very rich and powerful.

Monarchs in France and England weren’t interested. The king of Portugal was much keener on the news that his own guy, Bartolomeu Dias, had made it down the west coast of Africa and around the southern tip into the Indian Ocean. Going that way seemed a lot better than going west to get east. But in Spain, Columbus piqued the interest of Queen Isabella, who agreed in 1486 to ponder the idea. Six years later, she finished pondering, and Columbus embarked with three small ships called caravels and a crew of 90 men.

Contrary to popular belief, scholars and competent seamen already knew the earth was round, and there was no concern about sailing off the edge of the world. What they didn’t know was just how big the world was. Columbus figured it would be roughly 2,500 miles to the Indies, sailing west. He was off by about 7,500 miles. But after 10 weeks, and just as the mutinous mutterings of his crew were getting pretty loud, an island in what is now the Bahamas was sighted around 2 a.m. on Oct. 12, 1492.

Moving on to what is now Cuba and then an island Columbus called Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), the Europeans encountered friendly natives they called Indians. They must be good servants and very intelligent, Columbus noted in his journal, because I see that they repeat very quickly what I tell them, and it is my conviction they would easily become Christians, for they seem to not have any sect … with fifty men all can be kept in subjection, and made to do whatever you desire.

His calculations in this regard were as off as much as his calculations of the earth’s circumference. After leaving 39 men behind at a nascent trading post called La Navidad, Columbus sailed back to Spain. He returned the following year with a fleet of 17 ships and 1,200 men, only to find the trading post had been wiped out by the natives. There was also very little gold or precious spices to be found in the region.

Two more voyages ended similarly, and Columbus died disappointed, but not unbowed, in 1506. By the Divine will, he wrote shortly before his death, I have placed under the sovereignty of the king and queen an other world, whereby Spain, which was considered poor is to become the richest of countries.

Following Columbus

Despite the shattering implications of Columbus’s discoveries, the truth was that most folks weren’t lining up to be on the next ship to the Americas. The trip meant sailing across unknown seas in cramped, leaky vessels no longer than a tennis court, subsisting on provisions that would gag a cockroach, and coping with comrades who just might turn murderous at the first sign of trouble. Those who did follow in Columbus’s path were often avaricious and cruel. But they were also undeniably brave and determined.

Among Spain, France, and England — the Big Three European nations as far as the future of North America was concerned — Spain was in the best position to follow up on the Columbus trips, and not just because it had sponsored him in the first place. In 1469, 17-year-old Ferdinand II of Aragon married his 18-year-old second cousin, Isabella I of Castile. The marriage greatly hastened the unification of Spain’s major city-states.

Remember By 1492, the couple had finished driving the Moors out of Spain after centuries of trying. The fighting made the Spanish military well-seasoned for overseas scraps. In addition, Spain was undivided when it came to religion (especially after Spanish Jews were compelled to convert to Catholicism or get out, and Ferdinand and Isabella were formally dubbed Catholic King and Queen by the pope). That meant a more unified home front than some of Spain’s rival nations. Finally, the country’s rulers after Ferdinand and Isabella were part of the Habsburg Empire, the powerful dynasty that controlled much of the rest of Europe. All that added up to putting Spain in a very nice position to invest in further exploring the New World.

Dividing things up

Of course, other countries, particularly Portugal, also wanted in on the action. With the possible exception of the Polynesians, the Portuguese were the world’s best navigators in the 15th and 16th centuries. They had been the first Europeans to sail around the tip of Africa and into the Indian Ocean. In an effort to keep things peaceful between the two countries, Pope Alexander IV drafted the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1493. The pact divided the New World between Portugal and Spain.

But the treaty reserved the around-the-tip-of-Africa route for the Portuguese. So Spain, which by this time was aware that Columbus had discovered a whole new land and not bumped into India, began looking for a western route that would get to the east. In 1513, Spanish explorer Vasco de Balboa reached the Pacific Ocean after crossing the Isthmus of Panama.

And in 1521, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese mariner working for Spain, finally realized Columbus’s dream of reaching the East Indies by