How Yiddish Changed America and How America Changed Yiddish

Contents

Preface: The Old in the New

Ilan Stavans and Josh Lambert

Time Line: Yiddish in America

Part I: Politics and Possibility

A Ghetto Wedding

Abraham Cahanfiction

The First Shock

Irving Howeessay

Letter to the Forverts Editor

Yeshaye Katovski, translated by Eddy Portnoyletter

Against Marriage as Private Possession

Emma Goldmanspeech

from Di goldene medine

William Groppercartoons

March of the Jobless Corps

Daniel Kahn, adapted by Mordechai Gebirtigpoem

Di Freiheit, A Personal Reflection

Paul Buhleessay

from The Jewish Unions in America

Bernard Weinstein, translated by Maurice Wolfthalessay

The Triangle Fire

Morris Rosenfeld, translated by Leon Steinpoem

from God of Vengeance

Sholem Asch, translated by Joachim Neugroschelplay

On Zuni Maud

Eddy Portnoyessay

The Bitter Drop

LOLAcartoon

Part II: The Mother Tongue Remixed

Is Hebrew Male and Yiddish Female?

Naomi Seidmanessay

The Maximalist’s Daughter

Aaron Lansky and Gitl Schaechter-Viswanathdialogue

Shopping for Yiddish in Boro Park

Jeffrey Shandleressay

O, R*O*S*T*E*N, My R*O*S*T*E*N!

Ilan Stavansessay

A Guide to Yiddish Sayings

Shirley Kumovewordplay

The Artificial Elephant

Stanley Siegelmanpoem

Part III: Eat, Enjoy, and Forget

Kosher Chinese?

Matthew Goodmanessay

A Little Taste

Aaron Lanskymemoir

Carp, Rugelach, Egg Creams

Arthur Klein, Alice Ahart, Lisa Newman, Albert Berkowitz, Daniel Okrentmemories

The Baker and the Beggar

Kadya Molodowsky, translated by Miriam Udelfiction

On Bagels, Gefilte Fish, and Cholent

Asya Vaisman Schulmanlexicon

Crisco Recipes for the Jewish Housewife

Procter & Gamblerecipes

Holy Mole and Kamish!

Alison Sparksrecipes

Hering mit pateytes

Isadore Lillian, translated by Jane Pepplersong

Part IV: American Commemoration

The Cafeteria

Isaac Bashevis Singer, translated by Dorothea Strausfiction

How Does It Feel to Be a Yiddish Writer in America?

Isaac Bashevis Singeressay

Literature, It’s Like Orgasm!

Janet Hadda, Kenneth Turan, Anita Norich, Aaron Lansky, Ilan Stavans, Rivka Galchenappreciation

Epitaph, My Home, Girls in Crotona Park, and Unhappy

Anna Margolin, translated by Maia Evrona and Shirley Kumovepoems

I Will Run Away, You Beam, I’m Beaming, and White as the Snow on the Alps

Celia Dropkin, translated by Gene Zeiger and Maia Evronapoems

Summoned Home

Jacob Glatstein, translated by Maier Deshellfiction

Madame

Moyshe-Leyb Halpern, translated by Aaron Rubinsteinpoem

from Across America

Peretz Hirschbein, translated by Jessica Kirzanememoir

Oedipus in Brooklyn

Blume Lempel, translated by Ellen Cassedy and Yermiyahu Ahron Taubfiction

The New House

Rokhl Korn, translated by Seymour Levitanfiction

Woe Is Me that My City Is Now Only a Memory

Chaim Grade, translated by Barnett Zumoffpoem

Coney Island

Victor Packer, translated by Henry Sapoznikpoem

from Messiah in America

Moyshe Nadir, translated by Michael Shapiroplay

Pour Out Thy Wrath

Lamed Shapiro, translated by Heather Valenciafiction

Mr. Friedkin and Shoshana

Joseph Opatoshu, translated by Shulamith Bergerfiction

God of Mercy

David Frischmann, translated by Binyomin Weinerparody

Torture

Malka Heifetz-Tussman, translated by Jack Hirschmanpoem

Part V: Oy, the Children!

Goodbye and Good Luck

Grace Paleyfiction

Sholem Aleichem’s Revolution

Cynthia Ozickessay

Prisoner on the Hell Planet: A Case History

Art Spiegelmancartoon

To Aunt Rose

Allen Ginsbergpoem

On Maurice Sendak’s Vilde khayes!

Ilan Stavansessay

Mama Goes Where Papa Goes

Sophie Tucker, translated by Adah Hetkosong

On Being Indecent

Paula Vogel and Victoria Myersdialogue

Yiddish Hollywood

Fyvush Finkel, Walter Matthau, Alan Alda, Elliott Gould, Alan King, JERRY STILLER, Joan Micklin Silver, Leonard Nimoyoral history

from A Bintel Brief: Love and Longing in Old New York

Liana Finckcartoon

Singer: A Purim Parody

Anonymousparody

Dedications to Bashert

Irena Klepfiszpoem

from The Yiddish Policemen’s Union

Michael Chabonfiction

Between Vilna and Dixie

Steve Stern and Andrew Furmandialogue

Stan Mack’s Chronicles of Circumcision

Stan Mackcartoon

Part VI: The Other Americas

A Room Named Ruth

Ruth Beharmemoir

Flies and Little People (From a Trip to the West)

Joseph Goodman, translated by Hannah Berliner Fischthalessay

Popocatépetl

Isaac Berliner, translated by Ilan Stavanspoem

Bontshe Shvayg in Lethbridge

Goldie Morgentaleressay

The Yiddish Terrorist

Claudia Mirelstein, translated by Bernard Levinsonfiction

A Yidisher Bokher in Mexique

Ilan Stavansmemoir

Camacho’s Wedding Feast

Alberto Gerchunoff, translated by Prudencio de Peredavignette

Permissions

About the Editors

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Preface

The Old in the New

We have to believe in free will. We have no choice.

—Isaac Bashevis Singer

Celebrated and marginalized, lionized and trivialized, Yiddish is so deeply woven into the fabric of the United States that it can sometimes be difficult to recognize how much it has transformed the world we live in today. It’s a language and culture that’s as American as bagels and Rice Krispies, Hollywood and Broadway, Colin Powell and James Cagney (and connected to all of these, in one way or another). Yet many Americans think of Yiddish, when they think of it at all, as a collection of funny-sounding words. Oy gvald, indeed!

The aim of this book is to present a very different picture of Yiddish, true to its history, as a language and culture that is—like the Americans who spoke, read, and created in it—radical, dangerous, and sexy, if also sweet, generous, and full of life. Its inception is embedded in a radical shift. Some see Yiddish not only as a language but as a metaphor. They note that unlike most other tongues, it doesn’t have an actual address—a homeland, so to speak—or claim, as Isaac Bashevis Singer did when accepting the Nobel Prize in Literature, that it doesn’t have words for weapons. And because of its history, it awakens strong feelings of nostalgia. But others see this as an ongoing problem. In particular, it irritates Yiddishists that the language is fetishized, especially by people who don’t speak it.

Since the Second World War, many valuable anthologies have helped American audiences understand the gamut of Yiddish possibilities. Arguably the most influential has been A Treasury of Yiddish Stories (1954), edited by Irving Howe and Eliezer Greenberg. It concentrated on the Yiddish literary outpouring from figures like the three so-called classic Yiddish writers, Mendele Moykher Sforim, I. L. Peretz, and Sholem Aleichem, and served as a conduit to connect an American Jewish audience to the pre-Holocaust civilization. Its publication was certainly a watershed: the volume was the manifestation of a collective longing. That anthology looked at the shtetlekh, or small towns, in which Ashkenazi Jews lived for centuries through an American lens, as noble, even idyllic, and with a sense of homesickness, but also as a site of contradictions, violence, and unfaithfulness. Readers simultaneously idealized what Israel Joshua Singer called a world that is no more and sought to understand themselves as a continuation, as well as a departure, from it.

Other anthologies of Yiddish literature in translation followed suit. Each concentrated on either a region (the USSR, for instance) or a particular literary genre (such as poetry). These volumes include Ashes Out of Hope: Fiction by Soviet-Yiddish Writers (1977), also edited by Howe and Greenberg; The Penguin Book of Modern Yiddish Verse (1987), edited by Howe, Ruth Wisse, and Khone Shmeruk; Benjamin and Barbara Harshav’s American Yiddish Poetry: A Bilingual Anthology (1986); and Yiddish South of the Border: An Anthology of Latin American Yiddish Writing (2003), edited by Alan Astro. To various degrees, the objectives of these anthologies remained the same.

But in the last few decades, the position of Yiddish in the zeitgeist has dramatically changed. The study of Yiddish thrives in America, among teenagers and senior citizens, the religious and the secular, and everyone in between. Technology has made the language and culture available in wider ways. Young people are studying it. Scholarship related to it is prolific. Its musical rhythms and motifs have been borrowed by other traditions. It is part of movies, television, and radio. And the internet serves up lexicons, memes, recipes, and all sorts of surprising artifacts. Assimilation in the United States has indeed presented Yiddish with challenges, and it has responded impressively, dynamically, demonstrating its flexibility, complexity, and strength.

So what is Yiddish, exactly? First and foremost, it’s a language, a Jewish one. Throughout the thousands of years of their history, Jewish people have spoken many languages, their own and the languages of the majority cultures in which they’ve lived. Hebrew, the language of the Torah (what Christians call the Old Testament) and an official language of the contemporary State of Israel, is one such Jewish language, and many others have arisen in other places and times as means of communications for Jewish communities. For example, Ladino, or Judeo-Spanish, has been spoken by the descendants of the expulsion from Spain in 1492, and Judeo-Arabic has been spoken by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Yiddish, meanwhile, was the primary Jewish language of Ashkenaz, which is what Jews called northern Europe.

During much of its existence, Yiddish was dismissed as a zhargon, not quite a language at all; this was the common fate of many vernaculars, which were seen as less prestigious than scholarly languages like Latin, and the major European languages like French, English, and German, which had state power behind them. But Yiddish was absolutely a language, one that originated somewhere in central Europe about a thousand years ago, with the oldest extant example of a printed Yiddish sentence dating all the way back to 1272. Written in the Hebrew alphabet, and drawing for its grammar and vocabulary on Germanic, Slavic, Romance, and Semitic languages, Yiddish soon became the vernacular spoken by the majority of the world’s Jews for more than seven centuries, and over those centuries, a language of increasingly popular books and prayers.

In the nineteenth century, around the same time that languages like Italian and Norwegian evolved into their modern forms, Yiddish hit its stride, flowering into a language not just of commerce and community but of modern theater, journalism, literature, and even national aspiration. At that time, speakers of the dialects of Yiddish—sometimes referred to as Lithuanian, Polish, and Ukrainian Yiddish—constituted large minorities or even majorities in many European cities and in hundreds of European small towns and villages, while many more Yiddish speakers had relocated from Europe to other parts of the globe. The world’s total Yiddish-speaking population just before the Second World War is estimated by scholars to have been about thirteen million people.

The language’s fate would be entangled with one of the world’s most brutal tragedies—millions of those Yiddish speakers were murdered by the Nazis and their collaborators in the Holocaust during the Second World War—but it also flowered almost everywhere that Jews settled, before and after the war: Yiddish newspapers and books were published in Montreal and Montevideo, Cairo and Melbourne, Paris and Cape Town (not to mention Warsaw and New York). While mostly the language has had to survive, unlike most major languages, without a government’s backing, Yiddish was briefly an official language of the Soviet Union and today it is one in Sweden. It has been recognized as an irreplaceable treasure by UNESCO, and it is currently spoken, at home and in the street, by more than 400,000 people around the world.

We might never know when the very first Yiddish speaker arrived on American shores, but it’s clear that a substantial number of speakers had already arrived by the middle of the nineteenth century, and that they quickly found their way to almost every corner of the developing nation. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, an enormous wave of European immigration brought hundreds of thousands and then millions of Yiddish speakers. Free from some of the strictures imposed by European governments, American Yiddish speakers created newspapers and theaters, and before long they had built one of the most vibrant centers for Yiddish culture in the world.

At the height of the language’s American popularity in the 1920s, a handful of different Yiddish newspapers circulated hundreds of thousands of copies every day, and Yiddish theaters on Second Avenue, in Manhattan, seated thousands of spectators every night. Also, as the primary language of a vast immigrant community of poor laborers and their upwardly mobile children, Yiddish became a crucial part of American politics—at a moment when socialism, anarchism, and communism competed for Americans’ votes with more familiar political orientations—and of American business, entertainment, cuisine, and speech.

In short, America, famously a nation of immigrants, was the site of many of Yiddish’s greatest triumphs—a Nobel prize, bestsellers, and theatrical smashes, as well as political movements that changed the way people everywhere work. As specific as its history might be, like any language, Yiddish is, for all intents and purposes, infinitely capacious: you can say anything in Yiddish that you want. And of course, in America, all kinds of people have done so: factory owners and Communists, Hasidic Jews and Christian missionaries, anarchists and political fixers, scientists and quacks. To dive into the diversity and complexity of American Yiddish culture, as this book invites you to do, is one wonderful way to appreciate the wild possibilities of life in the United States.

This anthology showcases the rich diversity of Yiddish voices in America, and of the American culture influenced and inspired by Yiddish. It is made of poems, stories, memoirs, essays, plays, letters, conversations, and oral history. Many of the authors represented here were immigrants themselves who remained loyal to Yiddish in the new land. Others are their offspring, the so-called kinder for whom the language was a link to ancestors and a source of inspiration and provocation, or people from a variety of backgrounds, Jewish and not, who learned the language and made it their own.

Much of the material included here comes from the publications and collections of the Yiddish Book Center, a nonprofit organization working to recover, celebrate, and regenerate Yiddish and modern Jewish literature and culture, which was founded in 1980 by Aaron Lansky, then a twenty-four-year-old graduate student of Yiddish literature (and now the Center’s president). In the course of his studies, Lansky realized that untold numbers of irreplaceable Yiddish books—the primary, tangible legacy of a thousand years of Jewish life in Eastern Europe—were being discarded by American-born Jews unable to read the language of their Yiddish-speaking parents and grandparents. So he organized a nationwide network of zamlers (volunteer book collectors) and launched a concerted campaign to save the world’s remaining Yiddish books before it was too late. Since its founding, the Center has recovered more than a million books, and published Pakn Treger (The Book Peddler), an English-language magazine that features articles, works in translation, profiles, and portfolios about Yiddish culture. Drawing on that rich archive and the Center’s other collections, this anthology offers landmarks and sidelights of American Yiddish culture to give readers a spirited introduction to what Yiddish America has been and can be.

The book does not attempt to present this material in chronological order or to make a single argument. Like many anthologies, this one wants to be a smorgasbord. We offer the nexus between American and Yiddish culture, in English translation—with full knowledge of how complex, and also generative, translation can be. This anthology’s animating hope is that its readers will make connections between its heterogeneous content, browsing and skipping and finding surprises everywhere.

To that end, the sixty-two entries have been organized into six distinct parts. The first, Politics and Possibility, explores immigrants’ initial encounters with America. It features scenes of ritual and tradition in the Jewish ghetto of the Lower East Side and explores the ways children of immigrants ventured out into Harlem, the Bronx, and well beyond. The selections reflect how, around the turn of the twentieth century, Yiddish culture in New York emanated from a community whose first concern was survival, and who had to decide what that struggle for survival implied about politics, ethics, and culture. For example, a watershed moment in the history of Yiddish in the United States took place in 1923 when Sholem Asch’s play God of Vengeance (written in Yiddish in 1906) opened, in English, on Broadway. The play represents a setting that was as shocking to audience members then as it would be today: a brothel operated by a Jewish pimp and offering the services of Jewish prostitutes.

The realities of Jewish participation in sex work in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are complex and tragic, and what Asch’s play captures, with stark symbolism, is the tension between the noble aspirations of Jews of that time to holiness and purity, and the degradations imposed on them by the struggle to earn a living under discriminatory regimes. The play included much that shocked its audiences, including a scene in which a young, supposedly innocent girl is seduced by an older, female prostitute—posing the question of what would happen and what would change when the old authority structures, derived from the rabbis and from Christianity, crumbled away. The second act of God of Vengeance appears in this part. So does a letter written in 1936 about a female athlete who successfully transitioned to male, written to the editor of Forverts, arguably the most important immigrant publication in the United States, in which readers looked for answers to daily questions about becoming American: In what way is this nation also mine? How much tradition am I ready to sacrifice on the road to gaining new rights?

A central question for Yiddish speakers in America, as for most immigrants, was precisely a question about language. Each one had to answer for herself how much she should depend upon and defend the language of her childhood and tradition, and how much she should embrace a new language—English—with its strange possibilities. Such questions had especially large stakes for writers, artists, and politicians. "The Mother Tongue Remixed," the second part of this anthology, concentrates on the vicissitudes of the Yiddish language as it adapted to the new territory. It features reflections on what happens in the classroom to make Yiddish survive, and the role dictionaries and other authoritative entities play in the continuation of life for the language.

Part two also includes appreciations of figures like Leo Rosten, a humorist who became famous for his efforts to codify Yinglish—the blend of Yiddish and English that became common in midcentury America—and some concrete examples of the playfulness with which Yiddish can be deployed, as in the case of Stanley Siegelman’s poem The Artificial Elephant. People often get defensive—or prescriptive—about the right ways and wrong ways to speak a language (and of course that kind of attitude has its value), but very often the story of Yiddish in America, even linguistically, has been a story of playfulness and irreverence.

The third part of this volume, Eat, Enjoy, and Forget, focuses on one of the avenues through which the culture of Yiddish-speaking Jews has had the broadest impact in America: food. In an immigrant culture, assimilation in the culinary dimension is about experimenting with flavors and ingredients in order to satisfy evolving palates. Those experiments quickly moved from Jewish homes out into restaurants. In the twentieth century, delicatessens became staples of every major American city, and bagels triumphed across the country. American companies like Maxwell House and Crisco understood that they could profit by serving a hungry Jewish market. More recently, as nostalgia for Jewish cooking has found its way into haute cuisine, dishes such as latkes have fused with other ethnic flavors (say, chocolate-based Mexican mole) to create new tastes that reflect the complex families and histories of Jews in America. Over the decades, classic Ashkenazi dishes have undergone changes in the way they are cooked, in how they are presented, and in what they are accompanied with during a meal. In a 1988, 14-minute short film by Karen Silverstein called Gefilte Fish, three Jewish women of the same family, an immigrant grandmother and her American daughter and granddaughter, explain how each prepares the dish. The first describes the labor-intensive process of cooking it, which she learned from her own mother, starting with the purchase of a living fish—to make sure it is fresh. The last just acquires a bottle of the Manischewitz brand before serving it on the table.

The fourth part, American Commemoration, focuses on the wide array of Yiddish literary voices in America. It includes translations from the Yiddish of a short story and a lecture by the American Nobel laureate Isaac Bashevis Singer—still the only Yiddish writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature—and examples of poetry, fiction, and literary essays by many equally talented but less widely celebrated Yiddish writers, including Chaim Grade, Jacob Glatstein, Anna Margolin, Blume Lempel, Peretz Fishbein, and Celia Dropkin. Almost all American Yiddish writers of that generation were born in Europe, and they naturally drew upon European models as well as Anglo-American ones in developing their verse and prose. It’s not surprising that their narratives frequently take up the experience of dislocation, whether by explicitly telling stories about being an émigré in a land with little patience for the past, or more implicitly by exploring the complications faced by Jews and others in the twentieth century.

The fifth part of this anthology, Oy, the Children!, considers the descendants of Yiddish speakers, who went on to roles of increasing prominence in American culture. Inheritors of the immigrants’ pathos, their offspring built upon that legacy to make their own marks. In many cases, like Cynthia Ozick’s story Envy: or, Yiddish in America (1968) or Joan Micklin Silver’s film Hester Street, they did so by depicting the experiences of Yiddish speakers; artists who did so include novelist Michael Chabon and playwright Paula Vogel, both of them winners of the Pulitzer Prize. In other cases—for example, Hollywood actors Leonard Nimoy and Fyvush Finkel—they distilled the humor or charm of their Yiddish-speaking families and milieus and transformed them in one way or another for wider consumption. The section also includes a story-within-a-story by Art Spiegelman that is part of Maus (1991), an extraordinarily influential graphic novel about the Holocaust in which the characters are depicted as mice, cats, dogs, and pigs. Other comics by Liana Finck and Stan Mack showcase the way Jews in America have gone from being only the People of the Book to also being the People of the Graphic Book. Among other things, there has been a veritable explosion in Yiddish-related children’s books, to mention only one aspect of the intense creativity with which Askhenazim have married the word with the image in recent decades. This section showcases the way the torch moved on from the immigrant generation to its descendants.

Finally, the sixth and last section of the anthology, The Other Americas, explores Yiddish as it flourished not just in the United States but through the American continent, from Canada to Argentina. (The word America comes from Amerigo—in Latin, Americus—Vespucci, the Italian cartographer, navigator, financier, and explorer who in 1501–02 sailed to Brazil and the West Indies.) The language thrived in these regions, too, and continued to link Jews who had come from the same communities in Europe but found themselves in very different situations after immigration. These selections help to suggest some of the ways in which the story of Yiddish in the United States wasn’t unique but rather part of a larger set of phenomena that involved the establishment of Jewish communities throughout the Diaspora.

Each of the entries is introduced with a brief contextual headnote, and a time line presents some fascinating and representative historical events—but, again, this isn’t a history. It’s most of all meant to be a grab bag, an opportunity for readers to get a little lost and to discover something that they weren’t expecting. It showcases the rich diversity of Yiddish voices in America and of the American culture influenced and inspired by, and created as a result of, Yiddish and its speakers and their descendants. They pushed Yiddish—its sound, its sensibility—to utterly unexpected regions in the continuation of its epic story. By doing so, they have changed America.

Finally, a note on style: the pieces included in this anthology come from various historical periods. In general, we follow the YIVO transliteration system unless an individual author has chosen otherwise. Yiddish words not already accepted in standardized English are italicized, except again when writers opt for an individualized approach.

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Ilan Stavans and Josh Lambert

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Time Line

Yiddish in America

1880

s

Eastern European Jews begin to immigrate to America in large numbers. (The first group of Sephardic Jews settled in New Amsterdam from Brazil in 1654, and German Jews arrived in the 1840s.)

1888

Bernard Weinstein and Morris Hillquit establish the Fareynikte Yidishe Geverkshaftn (United Hebrew Trades) to organize Jewish labor.

1897

Forverts, a Socialist Yiddish-language daily published in New York City, appears. It is a successor of Di arbeter-tsaytung (The Worker’s Newspaper), founded seven years earlier. Abraham Cahan would become its most distinguished editor, and it would reach a circulation of over 200,000.

1899

Leo Weiner, an instructor in Slavic Languages at Harvard, publishes a pioneering study, in English, titled The History of Yiddish Literature in the Nineteenth Century.

1902

On May 15, 20,000 protestors, led by Fanny Levy and Sarah Edelson, protest the high price of kosher meat in New York; more than sixty women would be arrested for their part in the protest, but it was largely successful.

1909

The Uprising of the 20,000, a major strike of garment workers, is led by the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union, inspired in part by a speech by the activist and laborer Clara Lemlich.

1911

The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, on March 25, kills 146 workers, many of them Yiddish-speaking Jews, and exposes unsafe working conditions.

1916

Tens of thousands of mourners attend the funeral of Sholem Aleichem, and his will is printed in the New York Times and read into the Congressional Record.

1917

Emma Goldman, a Yiddish-speaking anarchist activist and the editor of Mother Earth, is deported to Russia for advocating against the draft.

1919

Three Yiddish poets—A. Leyeles, Jacob Glatstein, and N. B. Minkov—publish the first issue of In zikh (In Oneself), a journal dedicated to a new poetic practice, with a manifesto explaining their aims.

1923

Sholem Asch’s controversial Yiddish play God of Vengeance (1906), which includes a scene in which two women kiss, opens on Broadway, in English translation; the cast, director, and producer are arrested on indecency charges.

1925

YIVO, Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut (Yiddish Scientific Institute) is established, with its headquarters in Vilnius, Lithuania. It will soon have branches in Berlin, Warsaw, and eventually New York, where its library will contain 350,000 books and extraordinary archival materials.

1927

The Arbeter Ring (Workmen’s Circle), a major Yiddish organization, opens Camp Kinder Ring, a summer camp, in Hopewell Junction, New York.

1931

Stella Adler, whose acting career began in her parents’ celebrated Yiddish theater troupe, joins the Group Theatre, a legendary New York–based theater company influenced by Konstantin Stanislavski.

1934

Henry Roth publishes the English-language novel Call It Sleep, about a boy growing up in a Yiddish-speaking family on the Lower East Side.

1935

Isaac Bashevis Singer emigrates from Warsaw to New York.

1937

A song written by Jacob Jacobs and Sholom Secunda for the Yiddish theater becomes a massive international hit in a cover by the Andrews Sisters, Bei Mir Bist Du Schön.

1946

The English translation of Sholem Asch’s novel East River spends more than six months on the New York Times bestseller list.

1953

Partisan Review publishes the story Gimpel the Fool (1945) by Isaac Bashevis Singer, in a translation by Saul Bellow.

1959

Uriel Weinreich is appointed assistant professor of Yiddish language, literature, and culture at Columbia University.

1964

Fiddler on the Roof, a musical by Jerry Bock, Sheldon Harnick, and Joseph Stein, and based on the Yiddish stories of Sholem Aleichem, opens in New York. It will go on to break the record for the longest-running Broadway show, be adapted into a Hollywood film, and, in 2018, run in New York for the first time in Yiddish translation, directed by Joel Grey.

1967

Chaim Grade publishes the first volume of his novelistic masterpiece, Tsemakh Atlas, which will appear in English translation as The Yeshiva in 1976.

1968

Cynthia Ozick publishes the story Envy: or, Yiddish in America in Commentary magazine, and Leo Rosten publishes The Joys of Yiddish.

1973

Max Weinreich’s Geshikhte fun der yidisher shprakh is published posthumously by YIVO in New York; it would appear in English translation as The History of the Yiddish Language, in four volumes, in 2008.

1976

Literary critic Irving Howe publishes World of Our Fathers: The Journey of East European Jews to America and the Life They Found and Made. It will receive the National Book Award.

1978

Isaac Bashevis Singer is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the first and so far only Yiddish writer to receive the award.

1980

The Yiddish Book Center is founded by Aaron Lansky in Amherst, Massachusetts.

1990

Forverts launches an independent English-language edition under the name The Forward.

1991

The Wall Street Journal publishes its first-ever Yiddish headline: "Der letster yidisher laynotayp in Amerike (The Last Yiddish Linotype in America).

2005

The Forverts building on the Lower East Side, with the faces of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels carved into its historic facade, is converted into luxury condos, some of which sell for more than $3 million.

2009

On December 3, Zackary Sholem Berger, a doctor, translator, and poet in Yiddish and English, creates what are thought to be the first-ever Yiddish-language posts on the social media network Twitter.

2018

The National Yiddish Theater Folksbiene’s Yiddish-language version of Fiddler on the Roof (Fidler afn dakh), inspired by the novel by Sholem Aleichem, translated by Shraga Friedman (originally performed in Israel in 1965) and directed by Joel Grey, becomes an unlikely hit on Broadway.

די גאַנצע וועלט שטייט אויף דער שפּיץ צונג.

Di gantse velt shteyt af der shpits tsung.

The entire world rests on the tip of the tongue.

—Yiddish Proverb

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Part I

Politics and Possibility

די זון שײַנט גלײַך אויף אָרעם און רײַך.

Di zun shaynt glaykh af orem un raykh.

The sun shines the same on rich and poor.

However improbable it may seem, the arrival of around two million Yiddish-speaking Jews from Central and Eastern Europe in North America, between the middle of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth, has turned out to be one of the most profoundly influential modern migrations. It’s an astonishing story. When those Jews first arrived in large numbers in North America, they came mostly from countries in which their economic and political disenfranchisement was taken for granted, places where a Jewish man could not freely choose where to live or what profession to pursue, and where the publishing of newspapers and magazines in the language he spoke, Yiddish, was subject to harsh censorship. (Jewish women were disenfranchised doubly, as Jews and as women.) Violent attacks on Jewish civilians in their homes and businesses—which came to be known as pogroms—were frequent enough, and received enough tacit government support, to add pervasive terror to a Jew’s typical experience of life. Meanwhile, as other Jews gained civil rights in western Europe, even they looked back at the still-disenfranchised, increasingly impoverished Yiddish-speaking Jews of Eastern Europe as embarrassments or as a problem to be solved.

Once they got to America, Yiddish-speaking Jews faced a vastly different set of possibilities. While prejudice against them certainly persisted among their neighbors, there was less of a threat of violence for individual Jews. Economically and culturally, these Jews had the opportunity to create businesses and institutions that could benefit their communities and the world. And they did. Jewish entrepreneurs and families created companies, political parties, banks, unions, publications, hospitals, museums, universities, and many other institutions. In less than a century, the children and grandchildren of those first Yiddish-speaking immigrants were living an entirely different existence: whereas their grandparents had been some of the poorest and most politically disenfranchised people on the planet, by the 1970s Ashkenazi Jews were among the most financially successful and educated demographic group in the world’s most powerful nation.

The texts gathered in this section reflect what it was like to live through this massive transformation, showing how Yiddish-speaking Jews and their descendants have reacted to the new possibilities that America offered them. For some, this was a chance to scrimp and save, to earn a better life for themselves and their descendants. For others, it was an opportunity to advocate for new political systems and new approaches to social and economic problems. Everything was up for grabs, and the question was: what’s worth fighting and sacrificing for?

Further reading

Tony Michels, A Fire in Their Hearts: Yiddish Socialists in New York (2005)

Lara Rabinovitch, Shiri Goren, and Hannah S. Pressman, eds., Choosing Yiddish: New Frontiers of Language and Culture (2012)

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A Ghetto Wedding

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Abraham Cahan

Born in Belarus, Abraham Cahan (1860–1951) was the longtime editor of Forverts, the most important Yiddish daily newspaper in America. He also wrote novels, in English, and was an active Socialist politician. His books include Yekel: A Tale of the New York Ghetto (1896), the novel The Rise of David Levinsky (1917), and an autobiography, translated in part as The Education of Abraham Cahan (1969). The following story comes from The Imported Bridegroom and Other Stories of the New York Ghetto (1898).

Had you chanced to be in Grand Street on that starry February night, it would scarcely have occurred to you that the Ghetto was groaning under the culmination of a long season of enforced idleness and distress. The air was exhilaratingly crisp, and the glare of the cafés and millinery shops flooded it with contentment and kindly good will. The sidewalks were alive with shoppers and promenaders, and lined with peddlers.

Yet the dazzling, deafening chaos had many a tale of woe to tell. The greater part of the surging crowd was out on an errand of self-torture. Straying forlornly by inexorable window displays, men and women would pause here and there to indulge in a hypothetical selection, to feast a hungry eye upon the object of an imaginary purchase, only forthwith to pay for the momentary joy with all the pangs of awakening to an empty purse.

Many of the peddlers, too, bore piteous testimony to the calamity which was then preying upon the quarter. Some of them performed their task of yelling and gesticulating with the desperation of imminent ruin; others implored the passers-by for custom with the abject effect of begging alms; while in still others this feverish urgency was disguised by an air of martyrdom or of shamefaced unwantedness, as if peddling were beneath the dignity of their habitual occupations, and they had been driven to it by sheer famine—by the hopeless dearth of employment at their own trades.

One of these was a thick-set fellow of twenty-five or twenty-six, with honest, clever blue eyes. It might be due to the genial, inviting quality of his face that the Passover dishes whose praises he was sounding had greater attraction for some of the women with an effectual demand than those of his competitors. Still, his comparative success had not as yet reconciled him to his new calling. He was constantly gazing about for a possible passer-by of his acquaintance, and when one came in sight he would seek refuge from identification in closer communion with the crockery on his pushcart.

Buy nice dishes for the holidays! Cheap and strong! Buy dishes for Passover! When business was brisk, he sang with a bashful relish; when the interval between a customer and her successor was growing too long, his singsong would acquire a mournful ring that was suggestive of the psalm-chanting at an orthodox Jewish funeral.

He was a cap-blocker, and in the busy season his earnings ranged from ten to fifteen dollars a week. But he had not worked full time for over two years, and during the last three months he had not been able to procure a single day’s employment.

Goldy, his sweetheart, too, who was employed in making knee breeches, had hardly work enough to pay her humble board and rent. Nathan, after much hesitation, was ultimately compelled to take to peddling; and the longed-for day of their wedding was put off from month to month.

They had become engaged nearly two years before; the wedding ceremony having been originally fixed for a date some three months later. Their joint savings then amounted to one hundred and twenty dollars—a sum quite adequate, in Nathan’s judgment, for a modest, quiet celebration and the humble beginnings of a household establishment. Goldy, however, summarily and indignantly overruled him.

One does not marry every day, she argued, and when I have at last lived to stand under the bridal canopy with my predestined one, I will not do so like a beggar maid. Give me a respectable wedding, or none at all, Nathan, do you hear?

It is to be noted that a respectable wedding was not merely a casual expression with Goldy. Like its antithesis, a slipshod wedding, it played in her vocabulary the part of something like a well-established scientific term, with a meaning as clearly defined as that of centrifugal force or geometrical progression. Now, a slipshod wedding was anything short of a gown of white satin and slippers to match; two carriages to bring the bride and the bridegroom to the ceremony, and one to take them to their bridal apartments; a wedding bard and a band of at least five musicians; a spacious ballroom crowded with dancers, and a feast of a hundred and fifty covers. As to furniture, she refused to consider any which did not include a pier-glass and a Brussels carpet.

Nathan contended that the items upon which she insisted would cost a sum far beyond their joint accumulations. This she met by the declaration that he had all along been bent upon making her the target of universal ridicule, and that she would rather descend into an untimely grave than be married in a slipshod manner. Here she burst out