Telugu Christians: A History

Praise for Telugu Christians

The attraction of the message of the gospel to people who were not primarily intended to be its recipients, and the incredibly diverse communities that eventually came into existence under the capacious tent of Christianity fascinate anyone interested in the regional history of India. The manifold groupings of Telugu Christians described in this book trace their backgrounds to denominational traditions, Bhakti movements, and inspirational individuals. James Taneti has successfully captured this diversity even as he makes clear that the message of the gospel was readily accepted by communities that had no standing among the dominant segments of the contemporary society. By moving away from a singular focus on the history of a specific Christian denomination, Taneti commendably captures the broad history of the evolution of the different and yet overlapping Christian communities among the Telugu people.

—Mrinalini Sebastian, literary critic and research scholar, Harcum College Partnership Site at Grace-Trinity UCC, Philadelphia

"James Taneti’s Telugu Christians is a concise history which focuses on the Telugu Christian people and how they both spread and shaped Christianity in their part of India. He presents Christianity there as a product of the interactions between foreign missionary Christianity, dominant caste Hindu religion and culture, and the Dalit culture (with a strong feminine input) from which most Christians have been drawn. While emphasizing the Protestant experience there, the history is also ecumenical in scope and sensitive to parallel developments elsewhere in India. The history is well researched and well thought through. I definitely recommend it for publication."

—John C.B. Webster, professor of church history at the Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, Pittsburg, PA, and the United Theological College, Bangalore

In this comprehensive study on Telugu Christians, James Taneti, an ‘insider,’ commendably narrates the story of the appropriation of Christian faith by Dalits, Adivasis, and Caste communities. This work brings to the focus the role played by the women in Telugu Christianity, hitherto a neglected area. This study also critically examines the nonchurch and antichurch movements and those movements within the church that influenced the contextualization of Telugu Church.

—David Udayakumar Kurapati, professor of missiology and principal, Master’s College of Theology, Visakhapatnam, India

Decolonising the Church involves decentering the denominational histories and writing the marginal communities into the history of the Spirit’s movement. This book engages in such redemptive historiographic practice. A must-read for every student of Dalit Christian Studies.

—Joseph Prabhakar Dayam, professor of theology, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, India

James Taneti’s focus on group conversions of the Telugu Dalits into Christianity in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and their part in the emergence of the local church, aspects hitherto neglected in the historical discourses, is commendable. This book is a resource to all those interested in studying and writing the history of Telugu Christians.

—Asheervadam Prabhudas Injumuri, professor of history of Christianity and principal, Mennonite Brethren Bible Seminary, Shamshabad, India

James Taneti offers an engaging and honest account of the complex history of Telugu Christians and the ways in which it parallels, but also differs, from the story of Christianity in other parts of India. Taneti does an excellent job of delineating the role key individuals, as well as social factors, such as caste and gender, played in shaping Telugu Christianity. A much-needed scholarly work that is written in a clear and accessible style.

—Raj Nadella, Samuel A. Cartledge, associate professor of New Testament, Columbia Theological Seminary, Decatur, GA

"Telugu Christians, James Elisha Taneti’s masterful history of five centuries of the Telugu-speaking peoples’ encounter with and embrace of Christianity, should be on the bookshelf of anyone who seeks a wide-angled understanding of what it meant—and means today—to be Christian in the complex milieu of South India. The book fills a lacuna in the history of Indian Christianity, but more importantly, it also draws creatively on the social sciences, gender studies, and the history of religions in ways that scholars in the new(ish) field of World Christianity would do well to ponder and emulate. A work of meticulous scholarship, Telugu Christians deserves fulsome praise and applause."

—Richard Fox Young, Timby Chair of the History of Religions, Princeton Theological Seminary

Telugu Christians

Telugu Christians

A History

James Elisha Taneti

Fortress Press

Minneapolis

TELUGU CHRISTIANS

A History

Copyright © 2022 Fortress Press, an imprint of 1517 Media. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical articles or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Email [email protected] or write to Permissions, Fortress Press, PO Box 1209, Minneapolis, MN 55440-1209.

Cover design: Savanah N. Landerholm

Print ISBN: 978-1-5064-6943-0

eBook ISBN: 978-1-5064-6944-7

While the author and 1517 Media have confirmed that all references to website addresses (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing, URLs may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared.

To my deceased grandparents—Taneti Veeranna, Buli Venkamma, Mandapalli Melenchthon, and Sugana—and all other ancestors, a part of whose story I am

Contents

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

Part I

1. Introduction

2. Scattered Beginnings

3. A Confluence of Three Worlds

4. Women’s Leadership in the Making of Telugu Christianity

Part II

5. The Spirit at the Edges: Telugu Pentecostals

6. Consolidated Centers and Expansive Edges

7. The Movements around and outside the Church

8. Conclusion

Selected Bibliography

Index

Acknowledgments

As any student of history would attest, it takes a village to work on a story. During the process of research and writing, I have consulted with and taken time from many colleagues in the Telugu states. These colleagues have been gracious with their time and wisdom. I have also sought data from archivists and acquaintances, and everyone approached has been generous. I am grateful for their patience and generosity. I am especially grateful to Arun Nirmal Raj, George Ebenezer, Larisa Peter, Rajendra Prasad Yarreballe, and Zaccheaus Katta for sending me books and documents when requested. Rosalyn F. Lomax has patiently looked at the style and accessibility of the draft, while John C. B. Webster generously commented on the argument and narrative. I am grateful to both. I, however, own responsibility for any flaws in style or substance. This delightful but laborious project would not have been possible without the untiring support of my wife, Mary, and children, Vismai, Vismitha, and Colt.

Abbreviations

AELC Andhra Evangelical Lutheran Church

BFBS British and Foreign Bible Society

BFMULCA Board of Foreign Missions of the United Lutheran Church in America

CBFMB Canadian Baptist Foreign Mission Board

CLS Christian Literature Society

CMS Church Missionary Society

COG Church of God in India

CSI Church of South India

GDM Godavari Delta Mission

IPC Indian Pentecostal Church of God

ISPCK Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge

LMS London Missionary Society

MVS Maranatha Visvasa Samajam

NCCR National Council of Churches Review

NTC New Testament Church

PIME Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions

SPCK Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge

SPG Society for the Propagation of the Gospel

WME World Missionary Evangelism

Part I

1

Introduction

Telugu Christianity is a site of collaboration, compliance, and conflict among social groups, with their religious quests and the political aspirations behind them. The confluence of social groups in the Telugu Church and their social interests determine the trajectory of its faith development. Amateur observers and non-Christian neighbors identify the community with Dalits and women, two groups at the margins of Telugu society. As a child, I witnessed the gatherings of these Christians being publicly shouted at and heard discreet whispers about their untouchable origins and feminine religion. Even the caste Christians tend to identify Christianity with Dalits and hence call themselves converts and not necessarily Christians. Although there may be a hint of contempt behind these claims, they are not without merit.

Telugu Christianity is a religion of the marginalized. In the hundred years between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries, Dalits embraced it and filled the church pews and pulpits. During this period, Christianity on the subcontinent had grown exponentially. The growth of Christianity was so phenomenal that Stephen Neill, a mission historian, claimed that Protestant Christianity on the subcontinent had grown tenfold in the second half of the nineteenth century.¹ It is difficult to account for the percentage of Dalits in the Telugu Church today, as many of them do not identify themselves as Christians due to the implications it would have on their education and employment. The government of India designates a certain share of seats in education and employment to Dalits, a provision aimed at protecting the groups that have been wronged and ensuring equity for all social groups. This affirmative discrimination is also called reservation. The Dalits who identify themselves or are identified as Christians are denied this provision because of a constitutionally agreed-upon claim that there is no caste system in Christianity and that one cannot be a Christian and Dalit at the same time.² Reservation is denied to Muslims and Parsees as well. Given the porous nature of religious identities, Dalits and Christians may call themselves Hindus or the census might record them as Hindus. Given the politics of identity, it is both challenging and risky to accurately number the percentage of Dalits within the church. Having consulted with colleagues who specialize in the history of Telugu Christianity, I roughly estimate that at least three-fourths or more of Telugu Christians are of Dalit background.³ The lack of data did not deter Solomon Raj Pulidindi, a Lutheran scholar, from identifying the Telugu Christian community with Dalits.⁴

The women outnumbering the men in most Christian gatherings signals the interest women show in Christianity. In addition to filling the pews, women—Dalit and caste—have been at the front lines of introducing the tradition to their families and communities and in inviting them to faith in Christ, as I will demonstrate in the following chapters. They continue to transmit and interpret the Christian tradition at home and in their communities.

Despite, or perhaps because of, their location at the social margins, Telugu Christians, by and large, are as Sanskritic as their non-Christian neighbors and occasionally more Hindu than others. The very values of which they found themselves victims and protested against to become Christian and the practices that perpetuated their subservience are the same values and practices an observer and non-Christian would find in them. For example, Telugu Christians do not lag behind their dominant caste counterparts in practicing endogamy, a system designed to cement caste boundaries and the control of women. This riddle prompted the rendering of this story. I seek to explain this conundrum of the marginalized mimicking the dominators by analyzing the social processes at work in the making of Telugu Christianity. The aim of this volume is two-pronged and modest. It is, first, to narrate the story of Telugu Christians and while doing so, second, to demonstrate how the social interests of social groups shaped the reception, interpretation, and appropriation of their religion.

While attempting to analyze the processes of reception, interpretation, and appropriation of Christianity by Telugus, I draw from the masterly work of Lamin Sanneh in his book Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture.⁵ Examining various episodes of vernacularization in the history of Christianity, Sanneh points to how the translatability of the Christian message undermines possible attempts by the preacher to elevate their culture and stigmatize the culture of the hearer. Every preaching of Christianity is an encounter of two cultures, that of the preacher and that of the hearer. The preacher transmits the message, and the hearer, out of their cultural worldview, appropriates it. Sanneh considers these processes of transmission and appropriation as basic to the translation of the Christian message. The principle of translation theologically inherent in Christianity invariably affirms the worldview enveloped in the local language.⁶

What if two groups speak the same language and yet subscribe to different worldviews and power interests? In the case of Telugu Christians, the appropriation of the Christian faith involved more than one worldview. It included the worldviews of Dalits, Adivasis, and the myriad caste communities. In becoming Christians, converting groups abandoned some of their beliefs and practices and retained others. At the same time, they reinterpreted and internalized parts of the Christian messages to fulfill their interests and aspirations. In these processes of abandoning parts of the old, retaining some, and appropriating elements from the new and together forging a new faith community, there were losses and gains, some volitional and others negotiated. Those with social leverage dominated this complex negotiation. The power equations between the preacher and the recipients as well as among the recipients invariably impacted the process of translation. In the process, though numerically dominant, Dalits and women had yielded more than their dominant caste counterparts had in the appropriation of the new faith. With social respect as their goal, Dalits and women, even while embracing Christianity, have subscribed to Sanskritic values and practices, what M. N. Srinivas, a sociologist, calls the process of Sanskritization. Srinivas defines this process as the one through which groups from the lower strata of society emulate the customs, rituals, ideologies, and lifestyles of the dominating castes to climb the social ladder.⁷ He lists religious conversions, neo-Vedantic movements, and Sanskritization as weapons of the low castes in their demands for better social status.⁸ I argue that the processes of Christianization and Sanskritization have been parallel for Telugu Christians. I consider the practices of endogamy and the hierarchy based on caste and gender as the markers of Sanskritization.

The process of Christianization invariably involved incorporating a certain degree of modernity. Colonial and missionary collaboration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries made literacy accessible to Dalits. Despite having to choose between livelihood and school, Dalit Christians, by and large, took advantage of the opportunities. Not all could afford to risk lives and livelihood. Having acquired some level of education, many have pursued occupations beyond agriculture, scavenging, and leather-processing, the ones required of Dalits by the traditional Telugu society. And in the process, they moved from receiving wages in kind to a cash-based economy. The move toward literacy, nontraditional employment, and a cash economy had a social agenda as well as implications on their social status. Thus the goal of social respect has been a common thread in the processes of modernization and Sanskritization. The Telugu Christians are by-products of these processes.

To demonstrate how the social interests and political milieu of the Telugu Christian communities impacted their negotiation with the worldview of the Western preachers and with their own, I have divided the book into two sections. While the first narrates the tale of Telugu Christians in the shadow of Western colonialism—Portuguese, Danish, French, Dutch, and British—the second section focuses on the developments in the postcolonial era. This division acknowledges the role political milieu plays in the evolution of a faith community.

The second chapter analyzes the sporadic and scattered interactions among Telugus in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. The sites of these encounters and the social location of the converts point to the origins of Telugu Christianity, and the literature produced during the period exposes the dominance of the literati—local and European—in its evolution. The missionary focus had been on the dominant groups, and the favorable responses had been from the Sudhra castes. The Telugu Christian literature produced by both natives and European missionaries communicated the Christian faith in the idioms of the caste Hindus and thus subtly affirmed the worldviews of the dominators. Missionaries’ mention of Dalits is rare in the period. This cryptic silence about or from Dalits can be interpreted as either a Dalit response in itself or missionaries’ reluctance to engage Dalits in their efforts.

In the Telugu Church, three worlds converged, those of Western (Catholic and Protestant) missionaries, Dalits, and Hindus. The confluence—voluntary, negotiated, and necessary—of these worlds is the subject matter of the third chapter. Dalits converted as communities. They untapped the civil utility of the gospel. The dominant caste Christians, on the other hand, influenced the articulation of the Telugu Christian thought through the pen and pulpit. Western missionaries were not passive