Encounters with Luther: New Directions for Critical Studies

Encounters with Luther

© 2016 Westminster John Knox Press

Chapter 13 © 2011 Mary Jane Haemig

Published by Westminster John Knox Press

Louisville, Kentucky

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25—10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Westminster John Knox Press, 100 Witherspoon Street, Louisville, Kentucky 40202-1396. Or contact us online at www.wjkbooks.com.

Scripture quotations from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible are copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. and are used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked RSV are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1946, 1952, 1971, and 1973 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., and are used by permission.

See acknowledgments, pp. xiii–xiv, for additional permission information.

Book design by Drew Stevens

Cover design by Allison Taylor

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Stjerna, Kirsi Irmeli, 1963-editor. | Schramm, Brooks, 1957-editor.

Title: Encounters with Luther : new directions for critical studies / edited by Kirsi I. Stjerna and Brooks Schramm.

Description: Louisville, KY : Westminster John Knox Press, 2016. | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016006689 (print) | LCCN 2016016929 (ebook) | ISBN 9780664262167 (alk. paper) | ISBN 9781611646900 (e-book)

Subjects: LCSH: Luther, Martin, 1483-1546. | Theology, Doctrinal. | Theology.

Classification: LCC BR333.3. E53 2016 (print) | LCC BR333.3 (ebook) | DDC 230/.41—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016006689

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48–1992.

Most Westminster John Knox Press books are available at special quantity discounts when purchased in bulk by corporations, organizations, and special-interest groups. For more information, please e-mail [email protected].

Contents

Foreword

Stanley Hauerwas

Contributors

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Kirsi I. Stjerna

Abbreviations

Searching for the Common Ground

1.A Common Teacher, Doctor Communis? The Ecumenical Significance of Martin Luther

Eero Huovinen

Wrestling with Demons and Violence

2.To Hell (and Back) with Luther: The Dialectic of Anfechtung and Faith

Denis R. Janz

3.Luther on the Devil

Volker Leppin

4.Warrior Saints: Warfare and Violence in Martin Luther’s Readings of Some Old Testament Texts

Mickey L. Mattox

5.Why War Is a Moral Necessity for America, Or, How Realistic Is Realism?

Stanley Hauerwas

Reimagining Theologies of the Cross

6.The Theology of the Cross: A Usable Past

Douglas John Hall

7.Usus Crucis: The Use and Abuse of the Cross and the Practice of Resurrection

Vitor Westhelle

8.Becoming a Feminist Theologian of the Cross

Deanna A. Thompson

Sex and Marriage Matters

9.The Mother of All Earthly Laws: The Lutheran Reformation of Marriage

John Witte Jr.

10.Luther on Marriage, for Gay and Straight

Kirsi I. Stjerna

Sharing the Sacraments

11.Luther and the Reformed Eucharist: What Luther Said, or Might Have Said, about Calvin

B. A. Gerrish

12.Finitum est capax infiniti: Luther’s Radical Incarnational Perspective

Kurt K. Hendel

Spiritual Care

13.Praying amid Life’s Perils: How Luther Used Biblical Examples to Teach Prayer

Mary Jane Haemig

14.Luther’s In-Depth Theology and Theological Therapy: Using Self Psychology and a Little Jung

Peter D. S. Krey

The Word Transforming the World

15.Christ Has Nothing to Do with Politics: Martin Luther and the Societal Order

Hans J. Hillerbrand

16.Luther on Government Responsibility for the Poor

Carter Lindberg

17.Martin Luther’s Concept of Sola Scriptura and Its Impact on the Masses: A Dalit Model for Praxis-Nexus

Surekha Nelavala

Critical Issues to Embrace

18.Suffering and the Theology of the Cross from a Feminist Perspective

Anna Madsen

19.Like a Sow Entering a Synagogue

Brooks Schramm

Index

Foreword

Stanley Hauerwas

It is, no doubt, odd that I have agreed to write the foreword to this collection of essays exploring the ongoing impact of Luther and Reformation studies. It is odd because I am an outspokenly ambivalent Protestant who identifies with what I have called the Catholic side of the Reformation. By that description I have tried to indicate that whatever it might have meant to be Protestant since the sixteenth century, today it is no longer self-evident what it means to be Protestant. That it is no longer self-evident what it means to be Protestant is the inevitable result of what became one of the distinguishing characteristics of Protestantism, that is, self-propagation. That is to say, once Protestantism began there was no way to avoid its becoming an end in itself. In 2015 in the American landscape you can drive down any road and see five different Protestant churches, some mainline others non-denominational. What are we to make of this? Is this what Luther had in mind when he hung his theses on the Wittenberg doors? It’s hard to imagine Luther would find it any easier to make sense of our current situation than we can.

Yet the above description is all the more reason a collection like this is timely and needed for current theological reflection on Luther and the Reformation legacy. It is fitting that as we approach the anniversary of the Reformation, scholars from around the world continue to reflect on the implications of Luther’s theology for us today. In particular, it seems fitting that all Christians reflect on Luther and ecumenism in the twenty-first century. It is not simply ironic that the contributors of this essay, as well as other Luther scholars, have found it worth revisiting Luther’s Catholicism. For whatever significance his theology has had for the present divisions that mark the church today, I think it is fair to surmise Luther may be a key figure for helping us better understand what unites us so that the future of the church is marked not by its division but rather by its unity as the body of Christ. The essays in this book are no doubt a wonderful expression of this hope that is shared by all who have been baptized into the life, death, and resurrection of Christ our Lord.

Contributors

B. A. Gerrish is John Nuveen Professor Emeritus and Professor Emeritus of Historical Theology in the Divinity School at the University of Chicago in Chicago, Illinois.

Mary Jane Haemig is Professor of Church History at Luther Seminary in St. Paul, Minnesota.

Douglas John Hall is Professor Emeritus of Christian Theology at McGill University in Montreal, Canada.

Stanley Hauerwas is Gilbert T. Rowe Professor of Theological Ethics in Duke Divinity School at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.

Kurt K. Hendel is Bernard, Fischer, Westberg Distinguished Ministry Professor of Reformation History at the Lutheran School of Theology in Chicago, Illinois.

Hans J. Hillerbrand is Professor Emeritus of Religion and History and Professor Emeritus of Germanic Languages and Literature at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.

Eero Huovinen is Bishop Emeritus of Helsinki, Finland, and Docent at the Theological Faculty at Helsinki University.

Denis R. Janz is Provost Distinguished Professor of the History of Christianity at Loyola University in New Orleans, Louisiana.

Peter D. S. Krey is Pastor of Christ Lutheran Church in El Cerrito, California.

Volker Leppin is Chair of Church History at the Eberhard Karls University in Tübingen, Germany.

Carter Lindberg is Professor Emeritus of Church History in the School of Theology at Boston University in Boston, Massachusetts.

Anna Madsen is Director of the OMG Center for Theological Conversation in Sioux Falls, South Dakota.

Mickey L. Mattox is Professor of Historical Theology at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Surekha Nelavala is Pastor of Global Peace Lutheran Fellowship and Pastor of Harmony Community Lutheran Church in Frederick, Maryland.

Brooks Schramm is Kraft Professor of Biblical Studies at Lutheran Theological Seminary at Gettysburg in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

Kirsi I. Stjerna is First Lutheran, Los Angeles/Southwest California Synod Professor of Lutheran History and Theology at Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary of California Lutheran University in Berkeley, California.

Deanna A. Thompson is Professor of Religion at Hamline University in Saint Paul, Minnesota.

Vitor Westhelle is Professor of Systematic Theology at the Lutheran School of Theology in Chicago, Illinois, and at the Faculty of Theology of IECLB in São Paulo, Brazil.

John Witte Jr. is Robert W. Woodruff Professor of Law; McDonald Distinguished Professor; and Director, Center for the Study of Law and Religion at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia.

Acknowledgments

These pages constitute a continuation of the copyright page. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to quote from copyrighted material:

•The essays in this book were originally published in the Seminary Ridge Review and are used by permission of the publisher.

•Eero Huovinen, Doctor communis? The ecumenical significance of Martin Luther’s Theology, Lutherjahrbuch 80 (2013): 13–30. Used with permission.

•Stanley Hauerwas, Why Is War a Moral Necessity for America, in War and the American Difference: Theological Reflections on Violence and National Identity (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group 2011), 21–34. Used with permission.

•Vitor Westhelle, The Practice of Resurrection: On Asserting the Openness of Past Victimizations, in The Scandalous God: The Use and Abuse of the Cross (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2006), 108–124. Used by permission.

•Deanna Thompson, Becoming a Feminist Theologian of the Cross, in Cross Examinations: Readings on the Meaning of the Cross Today (ed. Marit A. Trelstad; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2006), 76–90. Used with permission.

•Kirsi I. Stjerna, Luther on Marriage—Considerations in Light of Contemporary Concerns, in Matthias Heesch, Thomas Kothmann, Craig L. Nessan, eds. Theologie im Spannungsfeld von Kirche und Politik (Theology in Engagement with Church and Politics), Hans Schwarz zum 75 Geburstag (Hans Schwarz on the Occasion of His 75th Birthday) (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2014), 409–426. Used by permission.

•Kurt Hendel, Finitum capax infiniti: Luther’s radical incarnational perspective, Currents in Theology and Mission, 35/6 (December, 2008): 420–433. Used with permission.

•Carter Lindberg, Luther on the Use of Money, Christian History 6, no. 2 (1987) is revised and footnoted and is used by permission.

•Quotations from Luther’s Works, vols. 1–30, are used with the permission of Concordia Publishing House:

250 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 1

Credit: From Luther’s Works 1 © 1958, 1986 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

150 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 2

Credit: From Luther’s Works 2 © 1960, 1988 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

280 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 9

Credit: From Luther’s Works Vol. 9 © 1960, 1988 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

25 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 12

Credit: From Luther’s Works Vol. 12 © 1955, 1983 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

180 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 16

Credit: From Luther’s Works 16 © 1969 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

100 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 20

Credit: From Luther’s Works 20 © 1973, 2001 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

260 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 21

Credit: From Luther’s Works 21 © 1956, 1984 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

150 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 26

Credit: From Luther’s Works 26 © 1963, 1991 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

15 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 27

Credit: From Luther’s Works 27 © 1964, 1992 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

350 word quote from Luther’s Works, Vol. 30

Credit: From Luther’s Works 30 © 1967, 2001 Concordia Publishing House. Used with permission. www.cph.org.

•Quotations from Luther’s Works, vols. 31–55, are used with the permission of Fortress Press.

Introduction

Kirsi I. Stjerna

Reformation Scholarship Pulsating

Martin Luther continues to excite. The reformer engages scholars from different fields and backgrounds—endlessly, it seems. Ongoing, renewed Reformation research is finding new touchpoints with Luther and his fellow reformers, such as John Calvin—ones that facilitate advantageous conversations between ecumenical partners. Bridges are being built that cross historical divides, not the least thanks to new compassionate and critical scholarship, invoked particularly by the 2017 Reformation Jubilee year.

With new approaches and questions, scholars seek to take a new look at the Reformation’s roots and the multifarious heritage that has percolated from the radical developments of the sixteenth century. Study of the Reformation proves time again its relevance not only in enhancing our sense of history and belonging, but also contributing to our theological imaginations and spiritual visions. What was said and done in the sixteenth century mattered greatly, and much of that still matters today in both recognizable and less noticeable ways. The pulsating study of the Reformation provides important ingredients for our continued deliberations on theology, history, and Christian identity today.

In this book, nineteen scholars share their work on Reformation themes. Each scholar writes from his or her expertise and areas of interest and with a passion for the topic. The articles represent natural diversity in terms of methodologies used, the authors’ gender, age, language of origin, stages in career, and institutional and ecclesial connections. The result is a delightfully rich chorus of voices that advance Luther and Reformation research individually and collectively.

The Context of the Articles

The articles stand on their own while their birthing context is shared: each contributor has presented from his or her work once upon a time at the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Gettysburg. By invitation to participate in the annual Luther Colloquy, which is offered each October for students, scholars, alumni/alumnae, and friends, scholars have put aside time and other commitments to drill deeper into a topic about which they have felt passionate and on which they have been currently working. They have delighted in the opportunity both to focus on a topic at stake and to share from the fruits of their labor with a broader audience beyond their customary academic peers. Deep friendships across denominational or institutional divides have been built on these occasions of celebration of scholarship and intellectual discovery regarding the sixteenth-century sources.

The Luther Colloquy has a long history: It was established in 1970 by professors Eric Gritsch and Gerald Christianson. The founding vision stated that critical reassessment of Luther and his heritage in terms of their significance for modern ecumenical Christianity is enhanced by renewed focus on supportive interdisciplinary scholarship in the field.¹ Since 2000, under the direction of the Institute for Luther Studies, which hosts the Luther Colloquy as part of the seminary’s graduate studies program, the original vision has been expanded to embrace ecumenical horizons theologically in a more explicit manner and to initiate partnerships that enhance critical appreciation of the Reformation’s traditions around the world, with and beyond Luther.² The articles in this book represent this vision in practice.³ Articles have been previously published in the seminary’s faculty journal, Seminary Ridge Review, and are here published with the enthusiastic permission of the authors.

The Content of the Book

Encounters with Luther offers in one volume original primary research from an international and ecumenical pool of established scholars in their field. Luther and Lutheran theological tradition, as well as the broader Protestant tradition, are herewith critically re-assessed, with humor and heart. Combined, the articles address both the Reformation’s historical foundations and its proper understanding in light of the most recent research, while intentionally moving forward, with an explicit focus on contemporary issues of relevance and ecumenical collegiality, in scholarship and in praxis.

As the table of contents reveals, topics range from sacraments and marriage to violence and the devil, from reassessment of the relations between Calvin and Luther to hopes for ecumenical unity and a reality check on Jewish-Christian relations. The presentations have been offered over the course of the last fifteen years, with an emphasis on the more recent offerings: each author has focused on a specific topic in the field of his/her scholarship, attempting to present a detailed, analytical account. Each author feels passionate about the topics at stake and genuinely seeks for the truth of the matter, striving to articulate findings in convincing and fresh ways.

One could choose to focus on any of the articles based upon its topic—or its author—and be rewarded with the inquiry. In this regard, the work can serve as a valuable reference tool for a wide-ranging audience. At the same time, the reader could embrace the whole in search for constructive paradigm shifts and programmatic moves toward reforming the Reformation traditions and reclaiming the contemporary relevance of the sixteenth-century reforming visions to be offered in new languages. The reader could begin by reflecting on what are some of the continuing and what are some of the new issues for Reformation scholarship to tackle, and also, in the company of the reformers, name some of the burning issues of our time.

Questions that demand our attention are reflected in the articles: What methods do we use in Reformation scholarship, and what sources do we choose to engage? Are we looking at the ocean of possibilities with broad enough horizons and large enough nets? How do we or should we or could we write about Luther, or Calvin, or any of the personalities involved, in light of our most recent knowledge? What new is there to discover in Luther or his fellow reformers? What are the divides and connectors between different denominational groups? What is the status of our respective practices and theologies with the sacraments and Christian life together? Do the sixteenth-century theological debates still divide or have we moved to a place where altogether different urgencies should grab our attention? E.g., a life-and-death matter for our generation is no longer the agreement on eucharistic theology but rather the rescue of the failing creation we have managed to hurt beyond the imagination of our reforming ancestors. Our urgencies are less in the doctrines and more in the practice, where the reformers’ theological vision can be found timelessly empowering.

The reformers’ theologies and examples in many ways speak to our conscience and challenge us: In the tradition of the reformation’s radical theologies of Christian freedom and equality, how successful or deliberate are we in our efforts to evoke reforms to eradicate relentless poverty and ongoing crimes of violence, and to secure human rights for every child of God? What transformative language can we use to speak to the manifold experiences of the hells of violence and war? Gender and sexuality issues, and relatedly, marriage rights, present an ongoing acute issue: how better to translate into practice the Reformation’s radical theologies to secure human rights in this regard and in other matters of human-relations? In addition, in this broken world, what kind of an enduring and life-giving spiritual voice is there to be found in the Reformation theological tradition? How can the spiritual promise of God-based hope for renewal, proclaimed by the reformers with varied dialects, foster true unity and peace and re-adjustment of our priorities today? To paraphrase the words of one of the contributors, have we learned to play with one another, regardless of our differences?

Rather than describing the contents of each article, the articles are offered for the reader to embrace, with the promise of satisfaction and surprise. The following thesis statements suffice to highlight the neuralgic pulse of the research in the weaving together of the threads.

Searching for the Common Ground

Wrestling with Demons and Violence

Reimagining Theologies of the Cross

Sex and Marriage Matters

Sharing the Sacraments

Spiritual Care

The Word Transforming the World

Critical Issues to Embrace

To paraphrase Luther’s words (quoted in Denis Janz’s article): We are children of God in faith, in which we receive God’s grace, while in God’s love we are made doers and actors. The ongoing dilemma and invitation for all Christians is the balance between receiving divine grace and sustenance and renewal of pardoning mercy for our daily faltering, and rejoicing in the gifts already received and boldly moving mountains and changing the world—in faith that believes in the God of the impossible. Reformation traditions underscore this fundamental conviction: God is omnipotent, and in God we stand strong, even in our own fragility.

This volume seeks to invite more traffic in the ocean called reformation studies and traditions. The horizon is endless and there is room for more sailors.

Special thanks are due to our editors at Westminster John Knox Press, Dan Braden and Julie Tonini, without whose professional guidance and expertise this project could not have been completed.

We dedicate this book to the founders of the Luther Colloquy at Gettysburg Seminary: Eric W. Gritsch† and Gerald (Jerry) Christianson.

1. Luther Colloquy and the Institute for Luther Studies has been directed (in this order) by Eric Gritsch, Scott Hendrix, and Kirsi Stjerna. See further: http://www.ltsg.edu/resources-services/resources-for-ministry/institute-of-luther-studies.

2. The planning committee for the Luther Colloquy, in recent years, consisted of Professors B. Bohleke, Brooks Schramm, and Kirsi Stjerna, with input from colleagues and students. Originally a free-standing institution, recently the event was incorporated into the seminary’s Graduate Studies program, with the same committee in operation.

3. Only a selection of the presentations are included in this volume. For a complete list and collections, see the Seminary Ridge Review: http://www.ltsg.edu/about-us/news/seminary-ridge-review.

Abbreviations

Searching for the Common Ground

1. A Common Teacher, Doctor Communis?

The Ecumenical Significance of Martin Luther

Eero Huovinen

Distinguished participants of the Academy, dear sisters and brothers in Christ. It is a great joy and honor to visit the famous Lutheran Theological Seminary in Gettysburg and especially to be invited by Professor Kirsi Stjerna, with whom I have been able to study theology both in Helsinki and in Rome. Especially I appreciate the honor of offering the George and Janet Harkins lecture. George Harkins graduated from Gettysburg seminary and was the secretary to Franklin Clark Fry, who was elected in Helsinki in 1963 to be the President of the Lutheran World Federation. His wife Janet had a lifelong devotion to the church in a remarkable way, teaching church school for 77 years. Through to their will, much has been donated to Gettysburg Seminary.

Luther’s Relation to the Earlier Tradition?

Speaking during this Reformation week, I would like to start by asking together with you, how Martin Luther stands out from his own environment and background, from his contemporaries. What is Luther specificus? What relation does he have to the medieval Roman Catholic Church and its theology? This issue can be approached from different angles. For a good while, we looked for the real Luther by emphasising the differences and disputes that he had in regard to the mainstream of his time. Many researchers maintained that it was either Luther’s fault or to his credit that the western part of Christendom was divided in the sixteenth century.

The viewpoint of this research shifted as late as the middle of last century. While nonetheless admitting the differences, both Catholic and Lutheran scholars now aim to assess how Luther connects with the preceding age and with the classic interpretation of Christianity. This has no doubt happened because of the rise of the Ecumenical Movement since World War II. As the year 2017 draws nearer, we find it appropriate to ask what the ecumenical significance of Martin Luther and his theology is, what they mean a half a millennium after the Reformation.

It was a new spirit of ecumenism when Cardinal Jan Willebrands in 1970 at the Fifth Assembly of the Lutheran World Federation applied the classic Roman Catholic title of doctor communis to Martin Luther. Cardinal Willebrands referred to the well-known thought of Luther that justification is the doctrine upon which the church stands or falls. In speaking of this matter, Luther can also be a common teacher for the Roman Catholic Church, because Luther desires that God will remain our Lord and that our most important human response is unconditional trust and respect for God.¹

This title that the Cardinal used for Luther, doctor communis, is one of the honorifics of St. Thomas Aquinas. According to Willebrands, St. Thomas and Luther, the Middle Ages and the Reformation, belong together. Luther represents and continues a common tradition. Nevertheless, doctor communis is not simply a historical title, pointing to the past. With this title, the Cardinal wishes to show us that Luther has something to say jointly to the Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches today.

Cardinal Willebrands’ thoughts were continued by Karl Lehmann, then Roman Catholic Bishop of Mainz. Cardinal Lehmann writes of the ecumenical significance of Luther’s Small Catechism. Lehmann states that the Small and Large Catechisms—in contrast to certain other writings of Luther—are an excellent example of the linkage of the Reformer with earlier tradition. Within the history of the church, Luther’s Catechisms are neither new nor the random contrivance of a single theologian. Rather, they are closely related, both in their structure and their content, to the classical theology of the early church and the medieval church. According to Lehmann, Luther is a Teacher of the Faith (Lehrer des Glaubens).²

Although the churches’ evaluations of Luther have differed greatly throughout history in regard to content and estimation, both sides have long held certain features in common. Just as Luther’s valuation as doctor communis has not been self-apparent to Roman Catholics, it has not been all that clear to Protestants either. Luther has been interpreted as an individual, a person who started something new—whether that was negative or positive. Luther created a new Protestant Christian belief—or at least he presented an interpretation of the original belief which differed radically from the faith of earlier centuries.

Roman Catholic Interpretation of Luther: Arch-heretic or Father in Faith?

According to Roman Catholics, Luther departed from the one, catholic tradition—which was his downfall. In the assessment of Protestants, Luther departed from tradition, and that was his accomplishment. Overstating the case only slightly, we can say that Luther was not doctor communis for either side.

For Roman Catholics Luther has been one of those deviating from the main tide, in other words, a heretic, while for the Protestants he has been a guiding light whose significance is emphasized against an otherwise dark firmament overshadowing the church. And even when Luther has been studied in relation to his background of ecclesiastical and general history, his qualities, uniqueness, and digression from the norm, that is to say, his significance as an individual, has come to the fore. So it is rather understandable that there has not been enough motivation for scrutinizing Luther as doctor communis, as a representative of the one, classical Christendom.³

During the Reformation, Roman Catholics depicted Luther as an archheretic and as a destroyer of the unity of the church. Even at the beginning of the twentieth century, Luther was seen in dark colors, not only to be avoided in doctrine but also to be studied under the typology of a personal pathology. For example, Heinrich Denifle claimed that Luther had created his doctrine of justification simply in order to be able to live a carefree, libertarian life for himself. From these viewpoints, we could say that both Luther the person and Luther the theologian were viewed as the sum of individual flaws and biases.

On the eve of the Second World War, there was a new breakthrough both academically and ecumenically in the publication of Joseph Lortz’s book: Die Reformation in Deutschland. Lortz critiqued the errors of the medieval church. He strove to understand Luther’s own spiritual intentions. He appreciated Luther as a religious personality. Nonetheless, he concluded that as a theologian Luther was a subjectivist. In Lortz’s view Luther represents a catholicity without being catholic in an authentic sense. In a unique way Luther had stressed the significance of the Apostle Paul. Yet, Luther did not attend fully (Vollhörer) to the Holy Bible. The revolutionary Luther was entirely a prisoner of his own deliberations.⁴

The theory of Luther’s subjectivism was soon re-evaluated by Roman Catholic scholars. Lortz’s own students, in particular Erwin Iserloh and Peter Manns, held that the thesis of subjectivism was overly superficial and denigrating. Manns used the name Father in Faith (Vater im Glauben) for Luther. Manns examined Luther with special reference to the devotional life of the medieval and early churches. The title Father in Faith arises from that spiritual tradition.

In his broad-ranging study of St. Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther, Otto Hermann Pesch asserted that their understandings of the doctrine of justification were not mutually exclusive. Thus Luther’s theology is properly to be situated among the common traditions of Christendom, regardless of the denomination of the person doing the evaluation.⁵

In official Roman Catholic evaluations after Vatican II, the position afforded to Luther is substantially different from those given at the beginning of the twentieth century. In addition to Cardinal Willebrands and other ecumenically minded thinkers, Pope John Paul II on several instances quoted Luther’s spiritual texts, e.g., the Commentary on Romans. Furthermore, he spoke positively of Luther’s significance for all of Christendom.

Protestant Interpretation of Luther

Mutatis mutandum, Protestant Luther research has followed the same channels as Roman Catholic scholarship. Protestant studies either historically or systematically tended to support a view of Luther as the Reformer. Indirectly, this research-setting quite possibly led to an emphasis on Luther’s distinctiveness and exceptionality.

In examining the history of Protestant Luther studies,⁶ it is rather amazing how Luther is emphatically viewed as extraordinary and original. During the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, Luther was held by many to be unique, even infallible, as a teacher of correct doctrine. Luther was considered to correspond to the angel in Revelation, having an eternal gospel to proclaim to those who live on the earth—to every nation and tribe and language and people (Rev 14:6). Pietism regarded Luther’s theology as an expression of individual piety, i.e., from the point of view of regenerated, living faith and sanctification. In such a view, the significance of the Christian faith lies in the internal and personal experience of belief.

During the Enlightenment, Luther was construed as the precursor of the freedom of reason and the conscience, the one who freed the Christian faith from the dark disbelief of the Middle Ages. The general anthropological mode of thought, characteristic of the era, led to a delineation of Luther as a situation-bound thinker whose thoughts could not claim normativeness. Luther was esteemed as a great person and as a fighter, but he too was to be evaluated critically on the basis of reason and the ethical demands of the conscience.

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing boasted of Luther that he had set people free from the bondage of tradition. The task of the Enlightenment was only to carry this liberation to its fruition. Frederick the Great was not satisfied even with this, but rejoiced that Luther, the poor, damn devil, freed the people from the yoke of the priests and thus increased the income of the state. Lutheranism began to change into Protestantism, which then developed into enlightened subjectivism.

Albert Ritschl strove to place Luther into his own historical framework. Nevertheless, Ritschl was of the opinion that Luther’s value was primarily in the overturning of old speculative metaphysics and mysticism. Ultimately, Luther proclaimed freedom and independence of the soul.

More recent Luther research has been deeply influenced by the same Protestant theological models. In popular church discussions Luther is often held to be a situation-bound dilettante, or an otherwise unrestrained exception in the history of theology, one to whom Christians following current trends should not be too committed. Such comments often reflect, in their background, the same setting of the question: Was Luther a private sage or doctor communis?

Contrary to the previously used paradigm emphasizing the differences between the Catholic Middle Ages and Luther, we find that, for example, in the United States, Robert Jenson and Carl Braaten’s theological interpretation of the Catholicity of the Reformation has brought up new points of view.⁷ In Finland, similar new thoughts were also introduced by Tuomo Mannermaa and his students.⁸ Both of these parties delineated the philosophical, theological, and spiritual nature of the Middle Ages, thus attempting to understand the era preceding Luther. Furthermore, they focused their attention on how the modern image of Luther has been influenced by various philosophical preconceptions and trends.

So, back to our fundamental question: Was Luther exceptional, unique, i.e., in some manner a novum, or was he rather one link, one witness in the chain of the shared classic Christian faith? Without a doubt, this question is, to the observant academic researcher, quite a generalized one. Nonetheless, answering it may be a justifiable attempt to understand heuristically what is at stake in Luther’s theology and, shall we dare to say, the whole of Christian belief. Was Luther simply the father of Lutheranism or was he also, for all of Christendom, Vater im Glauben? Doctor privatus or doctor communis?

The Ecumenical Significance of Luther’s Catechisms

In attempting an incipient answer to the question above, I want to adapt the interpretation of Karl Lehmann. According to Lehmann’s view, it is particularly the Catechisms of Luther that can, for their part, shed light on both Luther’s relationship to the tradition preceding him and on his significance for the church today. Lehmann says that he is astonished how little Luther’s Catechisms have undergone ecumenical evaluation.⁹ There appear to be at least six well-founded reasons for giving the Catechisms an ecumenical reading.

First, the Small and Large Catechisms are examples of Luther’s deepest desire to be doctor communis. In the Catechisms, if anywhere, Luther was doctor, a teacher of the ordinary people and a guide of pastors in need of theological knowledge and training. Among Luther’s writings, the Catechisms emphasize most visibly what is common to the classic Christian faith.

In accord with the basic idea of a catechism, Luther wanted to teach what is necessary in being and living as a Christian. As doctor, Luther the catechist was primarily a spiritual teacher. His goals of teaching and learning were not just to increase knowledge for its own sake but to foster faith in God and to strengthen love for one’s fellow human being.

Secondly, in his Catechisms Luther was doctor communis in the sense that he structured his catechetical teaching on the foundation of a long tradition. That is to say, Luther’s Small and Large Catechisms were firmly and knowingly built on the framework of the tradition of the Jews and of the early church (the Decalogue, the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, and the Sacraments). Even in its own time Luther’s catechetical ideas were neither original nor a new plan. The Commandments, Creed, and Lord’s Prayer were the didactic heritage of the Middle Ages.

Although catechetical-type books of this form had not been written down, the three primary points mentioned above were the main body of Christian upbringing. Peter Abelard prepared his famous Commentary on the Apostles’ Creed and the Lord’s Prayer, which all Christians were to study together and learn by heart. Erasmus of Rotterdam wrote a catechism soon after 1510. This is the same structure Luther that developed and deepened.

The very framework of the Catechism emphasizes continuity with the tradition of the faith. The Ten Commandments are the foundation of the Judeo-Christian way of life. The Apostles’ Creed has its roots in the first Christian century. The Lord’s Prayer is the model prayer taught by Jesus. The components of Luther’s Catechism are more those coming from the Jews, the New Testament, and Early Christianity than they are innovations of the Reformation.

Thirdly, Luther’s Catechisms, especially the explanation of the Third Article of the Creed, are constructed on two classic dogmas of Christianity, i.e., the doctrines of the Trinity and the two natures of Christ. Although justification is not mentioned as a term in the Catechisms, it is implicitly a central theme and is firmly based on trinitarian doctrine and christology: Salvation is the work of the triune God, which is grounded in the person and work of Jesus Christ. Currently, the Roman Catholic Church, the World Council of Churches, the Lutheran World Federation, as well as the constitutions of many other ecumenical organizations are built upon these dogmata.

Fourthly, Luther’s Catechisms are also witness to the common faith in the sense that, in them, controversial theology aimed at either Rome or the radical Reformation remains only in a subordinate