Exodus

TITLES IN THIS SERIES:

EXODUS, T. Desmond Alexander

LEVITICUS, Nobuyoshi Kiuchi

DEUTERONOMY, J. G. McConville

JOSHUA, Pekka M. A. Pitkänen

RUTH, L. Daniel Hawk 1 & 2 SAMUEL, David G. Firth

1 & 2 KINGS, Lissa M. Wray Beal

ECCLESIASTES & THE SONG OF SONGS, Daniel C. Fredericks & Daniel J. Estes

DANIEL, Ernest C. Lucas

HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH & MALACHI, Anthony R. Petterson

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©2017 by T. Desmond Alexander

T. Desmond Alexander has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work.

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Scripture quotations marked njb are taken from The New Jerusalem Bible, published and copyright © 1985 by Darton, Longman & Todd Ltd and Doubleday & Co., Inc., a division of Random House, Inc. and used by permission.

First published 2017

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Contents

Editors’ preface

Author’s preface

Abbreviations

Introduction

1. The Exodus story

2. The literary context of Exodus

3. Exodus and the rest of the Old Testament

4. Exodus and the New Testament

5. The structure of Exodus

6. Authorship and date of composition

7. Source-oriented and discourse-oriented approaches

8. Exodus and history

9. The route of the Exodus

10. The text of Exodus

11. Translating Exodus

Text and commentary

1:1 – 2:25: The Israelites in Egypt: Introduction

Exodus 1:1–6

Exodus 1:7–14

Exodus 1:15–22

Exodus 2:1–10

Exodus 2:11–22

Exodus 2:23–25

Exodus 3:1 – 4:17

Exodus 4:18–31

Exodus 5:1 – 6:12

Exodus 6:13–27

Exodus 6:28 – 7:7

Exodus 7:8 – 11:10: Signs and wonders in Egypt: introduction

Exodus 7:8–13

Exodus 7:14–25

Exodus 8:1–15[7:26 – 8:11]

Exodus 8:16–19[12–15]

Exodus 8:20–32[16–28]

Exodus 9:1–7

Exodus 9:8–12

Exodus 9:13–35

Exodus 10:1–20

Exodus 10:21–29

Exodus 11:1–10

Exodus 12:1–28

Exodus 12:29–36

Exodus 12:37–41

Exodus 12:42–50

Exodus 12:51 – 13:16

Exodus 13:17–22

Exodus 14:1–31

Exodus 15:1–21

Exodus 15:22 – 18:27: The wilderness journey of the Israelites to Sinai: introduction

Exodus 15:22–27

Exodus 16:1–36

Exodus 17:1–7

Exodus 17:8–16

Exodus 18:1–27

Exodus 19:1 – 40:38: The Sinai narrative: introduction

Exodus 19:1–15

Exodus 19:16–25

Exodus 20:1–17

Exodus 20:18–21

Introduction to the ‘Book of the Covenant’

Exodus 20:22–26

Exodus 21:1 – 22:20[19]

Exodus 22:21[20] – 23:9

Exodus 23:10–19

Exodus 23:20–33

Exodus 24:1–11

Exodus 24:12–18

Exodus 25:1 – 31:18: Overview

Exodus 25:1–40

Exodus 26:1–37

Exodus 27:1–21

Exodus 28:1–43

Exodus 29:1–46

Exodus 30:1–38

Exodus 31:1–18

Exodus 32:1 – 34:35: Rebellion in the camp

Exodus 32:1 – 33:6

Exodus 33:7 – 34:35: Moses mediates on behalf of the people

Exodus 33:7–11

Exodus 33:12 – 34:35

Exodus 35:1 – 39:31: The manufacture of The portable sanctuary and priestly clothing

Exodus 35:1–19

Exodus 35:20–29

Exodus 35:30 – 36:7

Exodus 36:8 – 38:20

Exodus 38:21–31

Exodus 39:1–31

Exodus 39:32–43

Exodus 40:1–38

Bibliography

Search terms for Scripture references

Search names for authors

Search items for subjects

For Alana and Ross with love

EDITORS’ PREFACE

The Apollos Old Testament Commentary takes its name from the Alexandrian Jewish Christian who was able to impart his great learning fervently and powerfully through his teaching (Acts 18:24–25). He ably applied his understanding of past events to his contemporary society. This series seeks to do the same, keeping one foot firmly planted in the universe of the original text and the other in that of the target audience, which is preachers, teachers and students of the Bible. The series editors have selected scholars who are adept in both areas, exhibiting scholarly excellence along with practical insight for application.

Translators need to be at home with the linguistic practices and semantic nuances of both the original and target languages in order to be able to transfer the full impact of the one into the other. Commentators, however, serve as interpreters of the text rather than simply its translators. They also need to adopt a dual stance, though theirs needs to be even more solid and diversely anchored than that of translators. While they also must have the linguistic competence to produce their own excellent translations, they must moreover be fully conversant with the literary conventions, sociological and cultural practices, historical background and understanding, and theological perspectives of those who produced the text as well as those whom it concerned. On the other side, they must also understand their own times and culture, able to see where relevance for the original audience is transferable to that of current readers. For this to be accomplished, it is not only necessary to interpret the text, but one must also interpret the audience.

Traditionally, commentators have been content to highlight and expound the ancient text. More recently, the need for an anchor in the present day has also become more evident, and this series self-consciously adopts this approach, combining both. Each author analyses the original text through a new translation, textual notes, a discussion of the literary form, structure and background of the passage, as well as commenting on elements of its exegesis. A study of the passage’s interpretational development in Scripture and the church concludes each section, serving to bring the passage home to the modern reader. What we intend, therefore, is to provide not only tools of excellence for the academy, but also tools of function for the pulpit.

David W. Baker

Gordon J. Wenham

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

I was first introduced to the Hebrew text of Exodus in the autumn of 1974 in my second year as an undergraduate student at the Queen’s University of Belfast. The exegesis class was taken by Dr Gordon Wenham, one of the co-editors of this series, and someone to whom I am deeply grateful for his friendship and support over several decades. Many years have passed since then, but those early days were highly formative. Little did I think in 1974 that a substantial part of my adult life would be spent researching and writing on Exodus.

This commentary has been a long time in gestation. Hopefully, it is much the better for that. Nevertheless, I am very conscious of the challenge of commenting on a book that has been scrutinized by many others from all kinds of perspectives. I have drawn inspiration and insight from many people, past and present, sometimes from those who would disagree with my reading of the text. Amid the welter of opinions expressed on Exodus, this commentary gives priority to explaining its theological significance.

All commentators approach their studies with presuppositions, knowingly or unknowingly. I am no exception. I write from a position of believing that the book of Exodus carries an authority that is of divine origin, being more than simply the product of a human author. This conviction arises out of my Christian faith, and it undoubtedly influences how I approach Exodus. I have sought to read the text in sympathy with the author who gave the book its present shape. Approached in this way, I find the book of Exodus to be more harmonious and unified than is often assumed by others. This outlook is not shared by everyone who writes on Exodus and some will think that I too easily accept the veracity of all that Exodus affirms.

Many people have contributed to the writing of this commentary, directly and indirectly, but they must not be held responsible for its limitations and shortcomings. My colleagues in Union Theological College and in the Institute of Theology at the Queen’s University of Belfast have provided a supportive environment for undertaking research. I am most grateful to the Management Committee of Union Theological College for granting me a period of study leave during the academic year 2013–14, which allowed me to see a major part of this commentary completed. For feedback on all of the commentary in draft form I am indebted to the series editors, Dr David Baker and Dr Gordon Wenham. I am thankful to Revd Jordan Litchfield for meticulously proofreading some sections. For his gracious patience and support as the publishing editor, I thank Phil Duce at Inter-Varsity Press. In seeing this volume through to publication, my gratitude goes to Eldo Barkhuizen. His expertise as a copy editor has eradicated many inconsistencies and errors in a long and complex manuscript. It has been very reassuring to have his input into the production of this book. For her constant support in every area of my life, words are insufficient to express my indebtedness to Anne, my wife. Her love never falters, even when she has had to take second place to a computer screen. Without her personal sacrifice this book would still be a work in progress. Finally, the completion of this volume has coincided with the marriage of my children, Jane and David, to Ross and Alana, respectively. As they enter into special covenant relationships, may they know the blessing of the One who graciously and lovingly invites all of us into a unique covenant relationship with him. To the most recent additions to our family, Alana and Ross, this book is dedicated with love.

Soli Deo gloria.

T. Desmond Alexander

ABBREVIATIONS

Textual

4QExa – first Exodus manuscript found in Qumran, Cave 4

HB – Hebrew Bible

Hebr. – Hebrew

lxx – Septuagint

mt – Masoretic Text

SamP – Samaritan Pentateuch

Syr – Syriac

Tg(s) – Targum(s)

TgJon – Targum Jonathan

TgO – Targum Onqelos

TgPs-J – Targum Pseudo-Jonathan

Vg – Vulgate

Hebrew grammar

abs. – absolute

adj. – adjective, adjectival

art. – article

conj. – conjunction

const. – construct

def. art. – definite article

f. – feminine

gen. – genitive

hiph. – hiphil

hith. – hithpael

hoph. – hophal

imp. – imperative

impf. – imperfect

inf. – infinitive

K – Kethibh (the written Hebrew text)

m. – masculine

ni. – niphal

pass. – passive

pf. – perfect

pi. – piel

pl. – plural

plpf. – pluperfect

poss. – possessive

pr. – pronoun

pref. – prefix

prep. – preposition

ptc. – participle, participial

pu. – pual

Q – Qere (the Hebrew text to be read out)

sg. – singular

suff. – suffix

Miscellaneous

Akk. – Akkadian

ANE – Ancient Near East(ern)

asv – American Standard Version

c. – circa, approximately

ch(s). – chapter(s)

ed(s). – edited by, editors(s), edition

Eng. – English

esp. – especially

evv – English versions

esv – English Standard Version

fn. – footnote

ft – feet

FS – Festschrift

g – gram(s)

hcsb – Holman Christian Standard Bible

jb – Jerusalem Bible

jps – Jewish Publication Society Old Testament (1917)

av – Authorized (King James) Version

kg – kilogram(s)

km – kilometre(s)

l – litre(s)

m – metre(s)

m. – mile(s)

n. – note

nab – New American Bible (1991)

nasb – New American Standard Bible

neb – New English Bible

net – The New English Translation Bible

niv – New International Version, 1984 ed.

niv2011 – New International Version, 2011 ed.

njb – New Jerusalem Bible

nkjv – New King James Version

nlt – New Living Translation

nrsv – New Revised Standard Version

NT – New Testament

OT – Old Testament

p(p). – page(s)

pl. – plate

rev. – revised (by)

rsv – Revised Standard Version

SBL – Society of Biblical Literature

t – ton(s)

tev – Today’s English Version (= Good News Bible)

tniv – Today’s New International Version

tnk – JPS Tanakh (1985)

v(v). – verse(s)

Journal, reference works, series

AB – Anchor Bible

ABD – D. N. Freedman (ed.), Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., New York: Doubleday, 1992

AJSLL – American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures

AJSR – Association for Jewish Studies Review

AnBib – Analecta biblica

AOAT – Alter Orient und Altes Testament

AOTC – Apollos Old Testament Commentary

ASOR – American Schools of Oriental Research

ATANT – Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments

AuOr – Aula orientalis

AUSS – Andrews University Seminary Studies

BA – Biblical Archaeologist

BAR – Biblical Archaeology Review

BASOR – Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BBB – Bonner biblische Beiträge

BBC – Blackwell Bible Commentaries

BBET – Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie

BBR – Bulletin for Biblical Research

BCBC – Believers Church Bible Commentary

BETL – Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium

BHS – K. Elliger and W. Rudolph (eds.), Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, 2nd ed., Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1977

Bib – Biblica

BibInt – Biblical Interpretation

BibOr – Biblica et Orientalia

BibS(N) – Biblische Studien (Neukirchen, 1951–)

BibSem – Biblical Seminar

BJS – Brown Judaic Studies

BN – Biblische Notizen

BKAT – Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament

BR – Bible Review

BSac – Bibliotheca sacra

BSC – Bible Student’s Commentary

BST – The Bible Speaks Today

BTB – Biblical Theology Bulletin

BWANT – Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament

BZAW – Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

CahRB – Cahiers de la Revue biblique

CBC – Cambridge Bible Commentary

CBCOT – Cambridge Bible Commentary on the Old Testament

CBET – Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology

CBOTS – Coniectanea Biblica: Old Testament Series

CBQ – Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CBQMS – Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series

CC – Continental Commentaries

CCSOT – Communicator’s Commentary Series: Old Testament

CH – Code of Hammurabi

CJT – Canadian Journal of Theology

CTJ – Calvin Theological Journal

CTM – Concordia Theological Monthly

CV – Communio viatorum

DDD – K. van der Toorn, B. Becking and P. van der Horst (eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, Leiden: Brill; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999

DOTHB – B. T. Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books, Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press; Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2006

DOTP – T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press; Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2003

DSB – Daily Study Bible

EBC – Expositor’s Bible Commentary, 1984

EC – Epworth Commentaries

ECC – Eerdmans Critical Commentary

EncJud – Encyclopedia Judaica, 26 vols., Jerusalem: Keter, 1972

EPSC – Evangelical Press Study Commentary

ErIsr – Eretz-Israel

ETL – Ephemerides theologicae lovanienses

EUSLR – Emory University Studies in Law and Religion,

EvQ – Evangelical Quarterly

ExAud – Ex auditu

FAT – Forschungen zum Alten Testament

FOTL – Forms of Old Testament Literature

FRLANT – Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

GKC – E. Kautzsch (ed.), Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, rev. and trans. A. E. Cowley, Oxford: Clarendon, 1910

GTJ – Grace Theological Journal

HALOT – L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, tr. M. E. J. Richardson, Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000

HBM – Hebrew Bible Monographs

HBT – Horizons in Biblical Theology

HCOT – Historical Commentary on the Old Testament

HL – Hittite Laws

HSM – Harvard Semitic Monographs

HeyJ – Heythrop Journal

HTIBS – Historic Texts and Interpreters in Biblical Scholarship

HTKAT – Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament

HTR – Harvard Theological Review

HUCA – Hebrew Union College Annual

IBC – Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching

IBD – J. D. Douglas (ed.), Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 3 vols., Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1980

IBHS – B. K. Waltke and M. O’Connor, Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990

IBS – Irish Biblical Studies

IBT – Interpreting Biblical Texts

ICC – International Critical Commentary

IDB – G. A. Buttrick, T. S. Kepler, J. Knox, H. G. May, S. Terrien and E. S. Bucke (eds.), Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols., New York: Abingdon, 1962

IDBS – K. Crim et al. (eds.), Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible Supplementary Volume, Nashville: Abingdon, 1976

IECOT – International Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament

IEJ – Israel Exploration Journal

ILR – Israel Law Review

Int – Interpretation

ITC – International Theological Commentary

JAAR – Journal of the American Academy of Religion

JANESCU – Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University

JAOS – Journal of the American Oriental Society

JATS – Journal of the Adventist Theological Society

JBL – Journal of Biblical Literature

JBLMS – Journal of Biblical Literature: Monograph Series

JBQ – Jewish Bible Quarterly

JBS – Journal of Biblical Studies

JDT – Jahrbüch für deutsche Theologie

JES – Journal of Ecumenical Studies

JETh – Jahrbuch für evangelikale Theologie

JETS – Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JHS – Journal of Hebrew Scriptures

JJS – Journal of Jewish Studies

JLA – Jewish Law Annual

JNSL – Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages

JQR – Jewish Quarterly Review

JNES – Journal of Near Eastern Studies

JR – Journal of Religion

JSOT – Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup – Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series

JSS – Journal of Semitic Studies

JTC – Journal for Theology and the Church

JTS – Journal of Theological Studies

KEL – Kregel Exegetical Library

LE – Laws of Eshnunna

LHB – Library of Hebrew Bible

LNTS – Library of New Testament Studies

LOS – London Oriental Series

LTE – Library of Theological Ethics

MAJT – Mid-America Journal of Theology

NAC – New American Commentary

NACSBT – New American Commentary Studies in Bible and Theology

NCB – New Century Bible

NCBC – New Cambridge Bible Commentary

NDBT – B. S. Rosner, T. D. Alexander, G. Goldsworthy and D. A. Carson (eds.), New Dictionary of Biblical Theology: Exploring the Unity and Diversity of Scripture, Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press; Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2000

NEchtB – Neue Echter Bibel

NIBCOT – New International Biblical Commentary Old Testament

NICOT – New International Commentary on the Old Testament

NIDOTTE – W. A. VanGemeren (ed.), New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, 5 vols., Grand Rapids: Zondervan; Carlisle: Paternoster, 1997

NIVAC – The NIV Application Commentary

NSBT – New Studies in Biblical Theology

NSKAT – Neuer Stuttgarter Kommentar, Altes Testament

NTM – New Testament Monographs

OBO – Orbis biblicus et orientalis

OBT – Overtures to Biblical Theology

Or – Orientalia

OTG – Old Testament Guides

OTL – Old Testament Library

OTM – Old Testament Message

OTS – Old Testament Studies

OtSt – Oudtestamentische Studiën

PAAJR – Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research

PBM – Paternoster Biblical Monographs

PEQ – Palestine Exploration Quarterly

PIBA – Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association

PRSt – Perspectives in Religious Studies

PTR – Princeton Theological Review

PWCJS – Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies

QR – Quarterly Review

RB – Revue biblique

RBL – Review of Biblical Literature

RBS – Resources for Biblical Study

REBC – Revised Expositor’s Bible Commentary

ResQ – Restoration Quarterly

RTP – Revue de théologie et de philosophie

SANT – Studien zum Alten und Neuen Testament

SBJT – Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

SBLDS – Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series

SBLMS – Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series

SBLSCSS – Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Studies Series

SBLSP – Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers

SBLSemS – Society of Biblical Literature Semeia Series

SBLSymS – Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series

SBT – Studies in Biblical Theology

ScrHier – Scripta hierosolymitana

SemeiaSt – Semeia Studies

SJLA – Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity

SJOT – Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament

SJSJ – Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism

SJT – Scottish Journal of Theology

SNTSMS – Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series

SOTBT – Studies in Old Testament Biblical Theology

SSN – Studia Semitica Neerlandica

ST – Studia theologica

StudBib – Studia biblica

SVT – Supplements to Vetus Testamentum

TAPS – Transactions of the American Philosophical Society

TD – Theology Digest

TDOT – G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren and H.-J. Fabry (eds.), Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 15 vols., Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974–2006

Them – Themelios

TI – Text and Interpretation

TJ – Trinity Journal

TOTC – Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries

TynB – Tyndale Bulletin

USQR – Union Seminary Quarterly Review

UT – C. H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, Analecta orientalia 38, Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1965

VT – Vetus Testamentum

WBC – Word Biblical Commentary

WC – Westminster Commentaries

WCJS – World Congress of Jewish Studies

WD – Wort und Dienst

WEC – Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary

WestBC – Westminster Bible Companion

WMANT – Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament

WTJ – Westminster Theological Journal

YES – Yale Egyptological Studies

ZABR – Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte

ZÄS – Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde

ZAW – Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

ZBKAT – Zürcher Bibelkommentare Altes Testament

ZDPV – Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins

ZTK – Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche

INTRODUCTION

The name ‘Exodus’ comes from the Greek gen. noun exodou, ‘going out/departure of’, which in the lxx translates the Hebr. word lĕṣē’t, ‘to go forth’, in 19:1. The only other use of the Greek term exodos in Exodus occurs in 23:16, with reference to the ‘going out’ of the year. The Hebr. name for Exodus is wĕ’ēlleh šĕmôt, ‘and these are the names’, the opening words of the mt in 1:1.

All English translations, unless stated otherwise, are my own.

1. The Exodus story

The Exodus story is usually associated with Egypt. Yet the whole account is set in two contrasting locations and involves movement between them. About half of the book’s contents describe events at Mount Sinai (19:1 – 40:38) rather than in Egypt (1:1 – 15:21), with a few chapters describing the journey from Egypt to Mount Sinai (15:22 – 18:27). The physical trek from the low-lying region of the Nile Delta to the mountains at the southern end of the Sinai Peninsula reflects a spiritual pilgrimage that brings the Israelites into a closer relationship with God (G. I. Davies 1999b: 149). Their journey to the ‘mountain of God’ will climax in YHWH’s coming to reside among them, an occurrence of considerable magnitude in the Pentateuchal story. Yet this event does not mark the climactic end of the story, for God’s ultimate purpose is that the Israelites should dwell with him on a holy mountain in the Promised Land (15:17). The events at Mount Sinai anticipate and prepare for this other mountain.

YHWH’s coming to live among the Israelites brings to an apt conclusion a book that is dominated by the theme of knowing God personally. Through both actions and words YHWH makes himself known, from first appearing as a flame of fire to Moses (3:2) to his fire-and-cloud glory descending upon the newly erected tent-sanctuary (40:34–38). From start to finish Exodus explores how YHWH takes the initiative in order that the Israelites and others may know him more fully. The Exodus story is a multifaceted diamond that witnesses to God’s compassion, faithfulness, glory, holiness, justice, majesty, mercy and power.

The theme of knowing YHWH permeates the entire book in a rich variety of complementary ways. It surfaces dramatically in Pharaoh’s response to Moses and Aaron ‘Who is YHWH that I should heed him by releasing Israel? I do not know YHWH and moreover I will not release Israel’ (5:2). This response is addressed indirectly in the signs and wonders episodes that are meant to make YHWH known to both the Israelites and the Egyptians (6:3–7; 7:5, 17; 8:10[6], 22[18]; 9:14, 16, 29; 10:1–2; 11:7; cf. 14:4; 18). Knowing YHWH relationally lies at the heart of the covenant or friendship treaty ratified at Mount Sinai, paving the way for YHWH to come and reside among the Israelites. The overall movement in Exodus underlines that knowing God is not confined merely to intellectual knowledge. YHWH moves from being a distant deity to becoming a close neighbour.

The deliverance of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt is presented as an act of faithfulness on the part of God. YHWH fulfils his earlier promise to Abraham that his descendants would come out with great possessions after being ‘enslaved and ill-treated four hundred years’ (Gen. 15:13–14; cf. Exod. 2:24; 3:7–10, 17; 6:5–8; 13:3–5, 11). The importance of God’s covenant with Abraham is also underlined by the significance given to circumcision in several Exodus passages (Gen. 17:1–27; Exod. 4:25–26; 12:44, 48).

As YHWH takes the initiative in making himself known, Moses is transformed from someone who fears to look at the divine presence (3:6) to someone who desires to see the very face of God (33:18–23). Even the leaders of the Israelites are eventually allowed to witness in safety something of the divine glory (24:9–11). Yet while there is undoubtedly a positive movement within Exodus towards a more intimate knowledge of YHWH, Moses is still not permitted to see God’s face. As the broader story reveals, the events at Mount Sinai represent a partial restoration of the relationship between God and humanity that was broken when Adam and Eve betrayed YHWH and were expelled from the Garden of Eden (Gen. 3:1–24). All that happens at Mount Sinai anticipates something better still to come.

The concept of knowing YHWH is enriched by various related motifs. Before the Israelites can enter into a covenant relationship with YHWH, they have to be freed from serving Pharaoh. They move from bondage to a supposedly divine king to bonding with the sovereign God (Fretheim 1991a: 1). The two situations could not be more different. Pharaoh enslaves them against their will and subjects them to harsh servitude; YHWH invites the Israelites to submit voluntarily to his lordship over them, vowing to treat them as his ‘treasured possession’ (19:5). Pharaoh conscripts the Israelites to build store-cities using clay bricks; YHWH asks them to construct with precious materials a royal tent that will be his residence among them. The Israelites’ life under YHWH’s kingship is decidedly different from what they experienced under Pharaoh.

The process by which the Israelites come into a closer relationship with YHWH becomes a paradigm for the Israelites’ understanding of divine salvation. As Dumbrell remarks:

The general contours of the Book of Exodus are erected around this movement from slavery to the concluding picture of worship. The transition from slavery to worship is accomplished through a very great redemption, which is at the center of the book. Basic to all of Israel’s later theology is the redemption of the exodus. (2002a: 32)

While Dumbrell rightly emphasizes the concept of redemption, a careful analysis of Exodus reveals that redemption from slavery is only one element of divine salvation.

In Exodus redemption entails much more than liberation from oppression. The Israelites are not just set free from slavery to a tyrant, but are granted the privilege of potentially becoming priestly monarchs, who will fulfil the original commission given to humanity by God at creation (see comments on 1:7 and 19:6). This transformation begins with the Israelites being rescued from the cruelty of pseudo-divine Egyptian kings. Opposing YHWH and his purposes, the pharaohs of the Exodus story exemplify the powers of evil that exist in the world. With good reason, the Israelites celebrate YHWH’s redemption of them from these evil powers (see comment on 15:13).

Release from the tyranny of anti-God powers, however, does not automatically transform the Israelites into a holy nation. This requires a further process involving both atonement and consecration. Before the Israelites can become God’s people they need to be ransomed from the domain of death and purified from the defilement of sin. Both of these elements are essential to the process of atonement (Sklar 2005: 44–79) and both are found at the heart of the Passover ritual. The Israelites also need to be consecrated or made holy if they are to live in the presence of YHWH. This too is part of the Passover ritual and occurs through the eating of the sacrificial meal. Interestingly, the concepts of atonement and consecration associated with the Passover reappear in the rituals for the sealing of the covenant at Mount Sinai (24:5–11) and for the appointment of the Aaronic priests (29:1–46). The pattern established by these related events underlines that the transformation of the Israelites into priestly monarchs requires their redemption from slavery, ransom from death, purification from defilement and sanctification through contact with that which is holy.

Viewed as a whole, the Exodus story emphasizes YHWH’s role as both saviour and sovereign, these two aspects being intertwined. While the first half of Exodus gives prominence to God’s saving the Israelites from slavery, his majestic power is demonstrated through the signs and wonders that lead eventually to the destruction of Pharaoh’s chariot force. In celebration of their dramatic deliverance at the Lake of Reeds the Israelites extol God’s majesty (15:6, 11). Similarly, although the second half of Exodus stresses the lordship and majesty of YHWH, through a covenant that demands exclusive allegiance and a portable sanctuary decorated for royalty, his compassion and mercy are highlighted by his willingness to forgive the rebellious Israelites and renew the covenant relationship that is endangered by the golden bull incident.

The transformation of the Israelites into a holy nation rests on the grace of God. By God’s initiative and power they are brought to Mount Sinai, carried on eagles’ wings (19:4). Yet Exodus reveals that this is not cheap grace. YHWH demands of the Israelites exclusive and total obedience in order that they may become priestly monarchs and live in God’s presence. The obligations of the covenant are designed to order and shape their community so that the people’s behaviour resembles that of YHWH. Compassion and integrity are to be prominent characteristics of God’s holy people.

The covenant or friendship treaty established at Mount Sinai brings the Israelites into a special relationship with God. This is necessary if they are to dwell with God on his holy mountain in the Promised Land. Strikingly, both mountains are linked by the portable sanctuary, which YHWH instructs the Israelites to build. The tabernacle is a miniature Mount Sinai; the holiness of Mount Sinai is reflected in the holiness of the sanctuary. Symbolically, the Israelites take Mount Sinai with them on their onward journey to the Promised Land. This underlines that all the events in the Exodus story lay the foundation for Israel’s future relationship with YHWH.

2. The literary context of Exodus

Exodus cannot be understood fully without appreciating its literary context. As the second book of the Pentateuch, Exodus continues the story that begins in Genesis. From the outset the Exodus narrator presupposes that the reader is familiar with Genesis. This is immediately apparent in the opening sentence of Exodus, where the names ‘Israel’ and ‘Jacob’ are used of the same individual without any explanation. Deliberate allusions to Genesis recur to varying degrees throughout Exodus and impact the reading of Exodus. Every effort is made in the commentary to identify these allusions and explain their significance.

The relationship between Genesis and Exodus has engendered much speculation. Some contemporary scholars suggest that the linking of the patriarchal and exodus traditions is a late development (Dozeman 2009: 59–60; K. Schmid [2010], who argues at length that they were combined only in the early Persian period). Yet passages like Deut. 26:5–8 and Josh. 24:2–7, generally taken to be pre-exilic in origin, put both elements together, suggesting that these traditions were united well before the exilic period, a view advocated by von Rad (1966b: 1–78) and Noth (1972: 39–41).

While Exodus presupposes Genesis, it has unquestionably been composed with the expectation that there will be a sequel. This sequel is Leviticus. The most obvious bridge between Exodus and Leviticus concerns the consecration of the Aaronic priests and the portable sanctuary. The instructions for their consecration are given in Exod. 29, but the implementation is recorded in Lev. 8. Moreover, all that is said in Leviticus presupposes the construction of the portable sanctuary with YHWH’s dwelling among the Israelites.

Exodus ought to be read as part of the larger story that runs from Genesis to Kings. When this wider canvas is taken into consideration, YHWH’s coming to live among the Israelites has every appearance of reversing, in part at least, the consequences of Adam and Eve’s betrayal of God in the Garden of Eden. Exodus anticipates that this reversal will ultimately result in God’s dwelling with the Israelites on a holy mountain in the land of Canaan (15:17). Yet before this happens, YHWH will encounter the Israelites at another holy mountain, Mount Sinai, and enter into a covenant relationship with them in the hope that they will become a holy nation.

3. Exodus and the rest of the Old Testament

The exodus from Egypt is presented within the OT as one of the most important events in the story of God’s relationship with Israel. This tradition was deeply ingrained in Israelite thought, for as Hendel remarks, ‘Virtually every kind of religious literature in the Hebrew Bible – prose narrative, liturgical poetry, didactic prose, and prophecy – celebrates the exodus as a foundational event’ (2001: 601; the one exception noted by Hendel is the Wisdom literature). The expressions ‘out of Egypt’ and ‘out of the land of Egypt’ are used 114 times throughout the OT, excluding the book of Exodus itself, with reference to the Israelites’ coming out of Egypt (Lev. 11:45; 19:36; 22:33; 23:43; 25:38, 42, 55; 26:13, 45; Num. 1:1; 9:1; 11:20; 14:19; 15:41; 20:5, 16; 21:5; 22:5, 11; 23:22; 24:8; 26:4; 32:11; 33:1, 38; Deut. 1:27; 4:20, 37, 45–46; 5:6; 6:12, 21; 8:14; 9:7, 12, 26; 13:5[6], 10[11]; 16:1, 3, 6; 20:1; 23:4[5]; 24:9; 25:17; 26:8; 29:24[23]; Josh. 2:10; 5:4–6; 24:6, 17, 32; Judg. 2:1, 12; 6:8, 13; 11:13, 16; 19:30; 1 Sam. 8:8; 10:18; 12:6, 8; 15:2, 6; 2 Sam. 7:6, 23; 1 Kgs 6:1; 8:9, 16, 21, 51, 53; 9:9; 12:28; 2 Kgs 17:7, 36; 21:15; 1 Chr. 17:21; 2 Chr. 5:10; 6:5; 7:22; 20:10; Neh. 9:18; Pss 80:9[10]; 81:11[12]; 114:1; Isa. 11:16; Jer. 2:6; 7:22, 25; 11:4, 7; 16:14; 23:7; 31:32; 32:21; 34:13; Ezek. 20:6, 9–10; Dan. 9:15; Hos. 2:15[17]; 12:9[10], 13[14]; 13:4; Amos 2:10; 3:1; 9:7; Mic. 6:4; 7:15; Hag. 2:5). While this list alone highlights the significance of the Egyptian origin of the Israelites, this does not include the many allusions to Exodus sprinkled throughout the rest of the OT (e.g. Lev. 18:3; 19:33–34; 25:42; Deut. 5:15; 7:8, 18–19; 10:19; 11:2–4; 13:5[6], 10[11]; 16:12; 23:4[5], 7[8]; 24:18, 22; Josh. 9:9; 1 Sam. 2:27; 2 Chr. 6:11; Neh. 9:9–12; Pss 66:6; 68:7–9[8–10]; 74:2; 77:14–20[15–21]; 78:11–54; 81:6–7[7–8]; 99:6–8; 105:25–45; 106:6–23; 114:1–8; 135:8–9; 136:10–16; Eslinger 1991: 44–45; Kitchen 2003: 244; Estes 2014: 35–50). Newsom rightly observes, ‘The story of the Exodus is the story of the Hebrew Scriptures . . . It is no accident that the story of the Exodus is the only story which the Torah instructs the people of Israel to retell. This story is central to their identity as God’s people’ (1987: 71; italics in original).

References in the OT to the exodus do not merely look back to it as a landmark event in the past. What happened in Egypt becomes a paradigm for what God will do in the future. ‘Isaiah saw a day when Israel would again return from Egyptian (and Assyrian) exile akin to the exodus of old (Isa. 27:12–13; 40:3–5; 43:1–7, 14–21; 44:21–23; 48:20–22; 49:8–13; 51:9–11)’ (Merrill 2014: 15; cf. B. W. Anderson 1962: 177–195). Similar expectations are found in Jeremiah (16:14–15; 23:7–8), Hosea (2:14–15; 11:1–11), Amos (9:14–15), Micah (7:15–20), Haggai (2:4–9) and Zechariah 10:8–12).

4. Exodus and the New Testament

The primary focus in this commentary is to interpret the book of Exodus within the context of the OT story that runs from Genesis to Kings. Within this context Exodus highlights how YHWH comes as divine saviour and sovereign to bring the Israelites into a special relationship with himself. The sequence of events described in Exodus provides a distinctive paradigm for understanding the process by which alienated humans are brought closer to God. In this respect Exodus is unique in the OT. This restoration paradigm, however, becomes the basis for OT expectations regarding a future, greater exodus.

Against this background it is noteworthy that NT writers elucidate the life of Jesus Christ using the Exodus paradigm of restoration. Not surprisingly, Jesus’ death at Passover provides a focal point for this interpretation. This connection is drawn out graphically in John’s Gospel through the observation that Jesus’ bones, like those of the Passover sacrifice, are not broken (John 19:31–37; cf. Exod. 12:46). The apostle Paul confirms the idea of Jesus being a Passover sacrifice, when he comments briefly, ‘For Christ, our Passover, has been sacrificed’ (1 Cor. 5:7). Elsewhere, Peter refers to Jesus Christ as ‘a lamb without blemish or defect’ (1 Peter 1:19). By itself this phrase need not denote a Passover sacrifice, but the remarks that follow this suggest strongly that Peter has Passover in view. Peter’s affirmation that those who are ransomed by Christ’s blood (1 Peter 1:18) become ‘a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s special possession’ (1 Peter 2:9) clearly echoes the Exodus story (Exod. 19:6). The idea of Jesus Christ being a ransom appears frequently in the NT (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; Luke 1:68; 2:38; 21:28; 24:18; Rom. 3:24; 8:23; 1 Cor. 1:30; Eph. 1:7, 14; Col. 1:14; 1 Tim. 2:6, 14; Heb. 9:12, 15). Because many of these references to ransom are brief, we cannot be certain that they refer to Passover. Nevertheless, this link would be consistent with what is said throughout the NT.

The most sustained connection between Jesus and the Exodus story comes in John’s Gospel. From beginning to end, John sets about using the Exodus story to explain how Jesus Christ, as the Passover lamb, brings life to those under the threat of death. John’s focus on Passover is reflected in the fact that he, unlike the Synoptic Gospel writers, records how Jesus was present at three Passovers in Jerusalem. He also places the sacrificial death of Jesus after a series of signs that recall the signs and wonders in Egypt. Whereas the Exodus signs are destructive, anticipating the death of the firstborn males, John’s signs are constructive, anticipating resurrection life. John the Baptist’s references to the ‘Lamb of God’ (John 1:29, 36) also probably allude to the Passover lamb, although some NT scholars question this link. Their doubts arise from a failure to see the atoning aspects of ransom and purification that are associated with Passover in Exodus. Elsewhere in John’s Gospel the Exodus Passover sheds light on Jesus’ comments about eating his flesh and drinking his blood (John 6:53–58; see Hoskins 2009a: 285–299) and about being freed from slavery to sin (John 8:34–36; see Hoskins 2010: 47–63).

John’s interest in the Exodus story is not confined to Passover. He sees a parallel between God’s coming to dwell among the Israelites in a tent and Jesus’ coming as God to dwell in human flesh (John 1:14). As God’s glory was revealed to the Israelites in Exodus (Exod. 16:10; 24:16; 40:34), so too Jesus displays similar glory (John 1:14). John also underscores that Jesus is the source of grace and truth, echoing God’s declaration of his nature in Exod. 34:6 (Willoughby 2014: 122–125).

As a paradigm for the restoration of humanity to a closer relationship with God, the Exodus story moves from God’s redeeming the Israelites from slavery to establishing a covenant relationship with them. In this process ‘grace’ precedes ‘law/instruction’ or ‘discipleship’, a pattern that is also reflected in the NT. Regrettably, under the terms of the Sinai covenant, the Israelites found themselves frequently being punished for their disobedience. Eventually, Jeremiah proclaimed that God would establish a new covenant, writing his instructions on the hearts of his people (Jer. 31:31–34; cf. Ezek. 37:15–28). NT writers contend that this promise is being fulfilled in Jesus Christ (Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25; 2 Cor. 3:6). Consequently, the new covenant is viewed as superior to the old (Heb. 8:8; 9:15; 12:24). Additionally, this new covenant opens the way for people to come to ‘Mount Zion and to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem’ and to an experience of God that is much less intimidating than that which occurred at Mount Sinai (Heb. 12:18–24; cf. Rev. 21:1–4). This movement from Mount Sinai to Mount Zion is also in keeping with how the tabernacle is perceived as a microcosm. When God’s glory filled the portable sanctuary, this pointed forward to his glory filling the whole earth.

The introduction of the new covenant is accompanied by the replacement of the Jerusalem temple by a new, ever-growing temple comprising people (Eph. 2:19–21). As the church becomes this new temple, where God dwells by the Holy Spirit, the cultic practices associated with the tabernacle/temple of the old covenant become redundant (Heb. 7:12). And as the Holy Spirit gave special skills to the Israelites to construct the tabernacle, so too the Holy Spirit gives grace-gifts to Christians to build the new temple. In the light of this Paul sees his apostolic ministry as laying a foundation upon which others will build. As a master builder, Paul resembles Bezalel (1 Cor. 3:10).

Apart from providing a model that exemplifies those elements necessary to restore the broken relationship between God and humanity – redemption, ransom, purification, sanctification, covenant – the Exodus story also offers examples of behaviour to be avoided or illustrations for moral teaching. Paul warns against idolatry by recalling the golden bull incident (1 Cor. 10:7–8). In 1 Cor. 5 Paul uses the concept of unleavened bread to encourage his readers to purge the evil person from among them.

5. The structure of Exodus

A survey of scholarly attempts to set out the structure of Exodus reveals a spectrum of proposals. The geographical movement in Exodus from Egypt to Mount Sinai is often reflected in how scholars view the book’s structure, with the journey between the two locations being described in 15:22 – 18:27. Adopting such an approach, Noth (1962: 5) splits Exodus into three parts: (1) 1:1 – 15:21: The Exodus from Egypt; (2) 15:22 – 18:27: The Beginning of Israel’s Life in the Wilderness; (3) 19:1 – 40:38: The Making of the Covenant on Sinai and the First Divine Ordinances. Motyer (2005: 24) embraces a similar tripartite approach, but opts for different boundaries: (1) 1:1 – 13:16: Israel in Egypt: the Saviour; (2) 13:17 – 24:11: Israel at Sinai: The Companion; (3) 24:12 – 40:38: Israel Around the Tabernacle: The Indweller. While the geographical movement is significant, and part of a longer journey that will eventually take the Israelites to Canaan, it is noteworthy that Moses is placed at Mount Sinai, the ‘mountain of God’, in chs. 3–4. His encounter with YHWH anticipates future events (cf. 3:12), tying together the two halves of Exodus (Polak 1996: 113–147).

Taking a more thematic approach, Cassuto (1967: xi–xvi) divides Exodus into three parts: (1) chs. 1–17: Bondage and Liberation; (2) chs. 18–24: The Torah and Its Precepts; (3) chs. 25–40: The Tabernacle and Its Service. A slightly modified version of this is proposed by Kaiser (2008: 344–346; cf. Schultz 1996a: 188–189): (1) 1:1 – 18:27: Divine Redemption; (2) 19:1 – 24:18: Divine Morality; (3) 25:1 – 40:38: Divine Worship. An alternative analysis, consisting of four parts, is offered by J. G. Janzen (1997: vii–ix): (1) chs. 1–24: Oppression, Redemption, Covenant; (2) chs. 25–31: Planning a Place for Presence; (3) chs. 32–34: Sin, Redemption, Covenant; (4) chs. 35–40: Preparing a Place for Presence.

Recognizing the challenge of dividing Exodus into three or four sections, Fretheim (1991a) breaks the book into nine sections: (1) Growth and Bondage in Egypt (chs. 1–2); (2) Moses and God: Call and Dialogue (3:1 – 7:7); (3) The Plagues (7:8 – 11:10); (4) From Passover to Praise (12:1 – 15:21); (5) The Wilderness Wanderings (15:22 – 18:27); (6) Law and Covenant (19:1 – 24:18); (7) The Plan of the Tabernacle (25:1 – 31:18); (8) The Fall and Restoration of Israel (32:1 – 34:35); (9) God Fills the Tabernacle (35:1 – 40:38). This approach reflects well the contours of the book, recognizing, for example, that chs. 32–34 stand apart from the tabernacle-building instructions in chs. 25–31 and their fulfilment in chs. 35–40.

On the structure of Exodus M. S. Smith (1997: 190) divides the book into two parallel parts linked together by 15:1–21:

I. Egypt

A. Chapters 1–2: Moses’ movement from Egypt to Midian

B. Two calls and two confrontations

i. 3.1 – 6.1: Moses’ first call and confrontation with Pharaoh

i'. 6.2 – 14.31: Moses’ second call and confrontation with Pharaoh

The conflict between the powers of Egypt and Sinai

15.1–21: Victory at the sea

II. Sinai

A'. 15.2 – 18.27: Israel’s movement from Egypt to Midian

B'. Two covenants and two sets of tablets

i. Chapters 19–31: Israel’s first covenant with Yahweh; the first tablets

i'. Chapters 32–40: Israel’s second covenant with Yahweh; the second tablets

In Smith’s analysis 15:1–21 has a ‘central, pivotal place’, looking back to what has happened and forward in anticipation of the events that will occur at the mountain. This reading of 15:1–21 is open to challenge, however, for the mountain anticipated in 15:17 cannot be Mount Sinai (G. I. Davies 1999b: 150–151).

Certain features in Exodus offer some pointers to how the book is structured. The song in 15:1–17, which celebrates YHWH’s rescue of the Israelites from Pharaoh’s control, interrupts the prose narrative at a significant point in the story. The song itself is linked to Miriam’s singing in 15:21. This concludes Israel’s time in Egypt, suggesting that a new stage in the narrative begins in 15:22, with Moses leading the people into the Wilderness of Shur. Ch. 18 also appears to play an interesting role as regards the structure of Exodus, recalling Moses’ flight to Midian and all that subsequently happened in Egypt and anticipating what will transpire at Mount Sinai. There is good reason to view ch. 18 as a ‘hinge’ that links together chs. 1–17 and 19–40. This explains why Noth and Cassuto differ in their structural analyses concerning the placement of ch. 18.

6. Authorship and date of composition

Almost nothing can be said with any certainty about the authorship and date of composition of Exodus. The book itself does not identify the author responsible for organizing and shaping its contents, although it is implied that he is omniscient and reliable. A few explicit statements credit Moses with recording in writing specific parts of Exodus, but the narrator does not claim that Moses is the author of this material (24:4; 34:27–28). Other statements attribute the composition of important sections of Exodus to God (e.g. 20:1–18; 20:21 – 24:2; 25:1 – 31:18). Miriam might have composed the song in 15:1–18 (see comment on 15:21).

In the absence of specific information it is hardly surprising that a tradition developed linking Moses to the authorship of Exodus and the rest of the Pentateuch. As Exodus stands, only one brief statement refers to circumstances after the time of Moses (16:36). However, a careful reading of the NT reveals that the tradition of Mosaic authorship is not necessarily endorsed by Jesus and his earliest followers (Aalders 1949: 139–142). For example, Jesus’ reference to the ‘Book of Moses’ in Mark 12:26 need not imply authorship; the designation could be a popular title for Exodus, recognizing the prominent role played by Moses in the story.

The issue of authorship and date of composition of the Pentateuch has generated a whole field of research within OT studies (for a survey, see T. D. Alexander 2012: 7–110). As will be observed in the commentary, opinions regarding the process by which Exodus was composed are manifold, with different schools of thought competing with each other. All of this discussion rests on unstable foundations that depend upon how the present text of Exodus is divided into different sources. For decades the analysis of the Documentary Hypothesis associated with Wellhausen offered some stability to this discussion. However, the past few decades have witnessed an increasing unease with this theory, with opposition coming no longer only from conservative scholars. Typical of this new generation of scholars is T. L. Thompson, who rejects the traditional source-critical analysis of Genesis and Exodus because it is

no longer sufficient to maintain such a radical interpretation of narrative, one which carries us so far from any immediate reading of the text. Differences in divine names, places names, references to individuals and groups, even differences in style and language, while often giving evidence for lack of homogeneity in the tradition, do not justify the positing of distinct documents, separated by centuries. (1987: 155)

With the door having been pushed ajar, speculation on the composition of the Pentateuch has resulted in an ever-increasing range of theories. Some of these come from scholars who are highly sceptical about the historical value of the Exodus traditions. This has fuelled the view that the Pentateuch was composed long after the events narrated within it. Consequently, it is espoused by some scholars that Exodus was composed in the post-exilic period, addressing the condition of those Jews who found themselves in exile, not unlike the situation of the ancient Israelites in Egypt (e.g. Mullen 1997). Yet such a line of reasoning fails to do justice to the way in which the Exodus traditions permeate the whole of the OT. The idea of Israel’s coming out of Egypt and entering into a covenant relationship with YHWH at Mount Sinai has every appearance of being a long-standing tradition. As regards the dating of these traditions, in the light of the limited evidence available, scholars ought to be exceptionally restrained about making absolute claims (Sommer 2011: 85–108). This leaves open a wide range of possibilities regarding the dating of Exodus.

7. Source-oriented and discourse-oriented approaches

Contemporary biblical studies display something of a tension between source-oriented approaches and discourse-oriented approaches. This distinction between diachronic and synchronic readings arises out of differing intentions on the part of scholars. Those who adopt a source-oriented, diachronic approach are primarily interested in uncovering the process by which a biblical book was created. By associating selected passages within a book with particular oral and written stages of composition, scholars attempt to identify different writers and editors, placing them in relation to one another. A prehistory of the book is constructed, enabling scholars to recover something of the world that gave shape to Exodus as we now know it (cf. e.g. the very different reconstructions of W. H. Schmidt 1988; 1995; Propp 1999; 2006; Dozeman 2009; Albertz 2012; 2015; Utzschneider and Oswald 2015).

A discourse-oriented approach concentrates attention on the book itself as a work of literature. As Sternberg observes, discourse-oriented analysis asks various questions of a text:

What does this piece of language – metaphor, epigram, dialogue, tale, cycle, book – signify in context? What are the rules governing the transaction between storyteller or poet and reader? Are the operative rules, for instance, those of prose or verse, parable or chronicle, omniscience or realistic limitation, historical or fictional writing? What image of a world does the narrative project? Why does it unfold the action in this particular order and from this particular viewpoint? What is the part played by the omissions, redundancies, ambiguities, alternations between scene and summary or elevated and colloquial language? How does the work hang together? And, in general, in what relationship does part stand to whole and form to function? (1985: 15)

These questions move in a direction that is very different from that of source-oriented analysis. The book as a fully composed literary creation is the object of study, not the process by which it was created.

Unfortunately, scholarly discussion of Exodus does not always distinguish clearly between source- and discourse-oriented approaches. This happens, in part at least, because it is often assumed that discourse analysis cannot be undertaken without a prior understanding of source analysis. Childs typifies this, when he remarks:

If one assumes, as I do, that a major purpose of biblical exegesis is the interpretation of the final form of the text, the study of the earlier dimensions of historical development should serve to bring the final stage of redaction into sharper focus. Indeed the recognition of different layers of tradition, both on the oral and literary levels, can have exegetical importance even though the factors which produced them often remain unclear. (1974: 393)

While there may be some validity to Childs’s assessment, in practice it must be treated with the utmost caution. It presupposes that the diachronic reading of Exodus has produced results that can reliably inform our understanding of the final redactional phase of the book’s composition. Yet the current state of Pentateuchal studies is exceptionally fluid, with a growing proliferation of opinions on how and when Exodus was composed. Colourfully, Sternberg captures accurately the challenge confronting the source-oriented critic:

The reading lot of the geneticist is perhaps the hardest of all, because the task of decomposition calls for the most sensitive response to the arts of composition. How else will one be able to tell deliberate from accidental roughnesses and identify the marks of disunity in unity through a text whose poesis covers the tracks of its genesis? It is this enforced movement from discourse to source by way of interpretation that allies genetic criticism with that branch of acrobatics known as lifting oneself up by one’s bootstraps. But then it’s either acrobatics or nothing. (1985: 16–17)

Sternberg’s analysis highlights well the circular argumentation that underlies so much source analysis. With good reason, Propp candidly remarks, ‘We must disabuse ourselves of the conceit that we will ever know exactly how the Torah came to be’ (2006: 734). This commentary takes note of source-analysis proposals, not out of the conviction that these are of intrinsic value, but rather to caution readers against the exaggerated claims of critics who rely overly on these to exegete the text. As Fischer and Markl remark:

In view of the fact that these texts internally are quite strongly intertwined and are also specifically presented as a single entity . . . , and in view of the fact that more than 130 years of effort has failed to provide an acceptable interpretation, we must today acknowledge that all attempts to explain the origin of these texts have not led to any convincing result. (2009: 24)

In theory the source-oriented and discourse-oriented approaches are complementary, addressing different issues. In practice, however, Polzin’s observation remains true:

Traditional biblical scholarship has spent most of its efforts in disassembling the works of a complicated watch before our amazed eyes without apparently realizing that similar efforts by and large have not succeeded in putting the parts back together again in a significant or meaningful way. (1975: 82–83).

The centre of gravity in OT studies continues to be found closer to the source-oriented approach than the discourse-oriented approach, a trend that began in the late eighteenth century and continues to flourish (T. D. Alexander 2012: 7–110). Yet when we compare these two methods, the latter rests on a more secure foundation than the former. The irony of this is caught by Propp, who writes, ‘The harmonizing reader may at least recreate the editors’ understanding of their product. But the atomizing reader posits and analyses literary materials whose existence is highly questionable’ (2006: 734; italics in original).

In approaching this commentary on Exodus I have deliberately sought to give due respect to the book’s author, the author being understood as the individual responsible for shaping the mt of Exodus as we now know it. Theoretically, it is possible that the entire work is the product of the author’s imagination. If we conclude that the whole of Exodus is an imaginary creation, its author was a literary genius, unequalled in the ancient world. Given the rich variety of literary forms found within it, Exodus would easily qualify as one of most truly remarkable works of fiction ever composed. More likely, however, much of the content of Exodus, if not most of it, pre-existed the creation of the narrative within which it is now located. In the process of composing Exodus the author brought together and probably reworked materials written by others.

Exodus may be helpfully compared to a literary collage. There can be no denying that different styles of writing have been set side by side to form the present book. The prose account of Moses’ birth in ch. 2 differs markedly from the formal genealogy of Moses and Aaron in ch. 6; the celebration poem of ch. 15 contrasts sharply with the prose account of the Israelites’ rescue at the Lake of Reeds in ch. 14; the form and content of the Decalogue in ch. 20 stands apart stylistically from that of the Book of the Covenant in chs. 21–23; the instructions for the construction of the portable sanctuary in chs. 25–31 and their fulfilment in chs. 35–40 form two distinctive blocks of material that differ in design from the dramatic prose account of the golden bull incident in chs. 32–34. Whatever the origin of these disparate materials, and those sections of Exodus not mentioned, they have all been combined to form a literary work that, while far from homogenous in terms of style and form, is remarkably unified in the story that it communicates.

Sections of Exodus might have been composed by different people, but now all share a common narrative context. The story includes various speeches that reflect voices other than that of the narrator. We may be tempted to speculate about the prior history of every passage in Exodus, and many scholars have expended considerable energy in this endeavour, but our interpretation of these passages must ultimately be governed by their present literary context. To ignore this not only does a grave disservice to the author of Exodus, but runs the danger of misrepresenting the material itself. Unfortunately, for two centuries OT scholars have generally ridden roughshod over the authors responsible for producing biblical books in their final form. Viewed as mere editors or redactors, their compositional skill has usually been dismissed and they themselves have been demeaned as creative writers. Scholars have not chosen to listen carefully to their voices, preferring rather to substitute the