2 Corinthians and Galatians: A Critical & Exegetical Commentary

Copyright 2011

The information in this book is intended for personal study, and for classroom and pulpit use by Bible students and teachers. Therefore, readers who wish to reproduce any of the comments or special studies in the form of free handouts to students or listeners or in sermon outlines as they are being preached are encouraged to do so with no need to seek prior permission. We ask that you simply include a line giving credit to the source you have copied. No other reproduction of this book in any form or by any means is allowed without prior written permission from the publisher.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Scripture quotations contained herein, unless otherwise noted, are from the New American Standard Bible, copyrighted 1960,1962, 1963, 1971, 1972, 1975, 1977, 1995 by the Lockman Foundation. Used by permission.

SUGGESTED CATALOGING INFORMATION

Reese, Gareth L., 1932-

New Testament Epistles: 2 Corinthians and Galatians. A critical and exegetical commentary by Gareth L. Reese.

xxviii, 384; Hi, 296 p., maps.

Spine title: 2 Corinthians and Galatians.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN: 099-845-1851

1. Bible. NT. 2 Corinthians - Commentaries. 2. Bible. NT. Galatians -Commentaries.

DEDICATION

Thank you to the friends and supporters of Central Christian College of the Bible. For over half a century, you have made it possible for me to teach and write.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART ONE: 2 CORINTHIANS

Introductory Studies

Commentary

Special Studies

#1. A Review of Paul's Instructions Concerning Church Discipline

#2. Doctrine of the Atonement

Annotated Bibliography

Index

PART TWO: GALATIANS

Introductory Studies

Commentary

Special Studies

#1. 4QMMT and Paul's Works of the Law

#2. Justification by Faith

Annotated Bibliography

Index

Commentary On

2 Corinthians

PREFACE

One value of studying 2 Corinthians results from interacting with the letter's emphasis on the apostolic message and apostolic authority. Apostles of Jesus are mouthpieces for God, delivering an inspired message from God to men. Early in this 21st century, this is an emphasis that sorely needs to be heard and heeded. In contrast to earlier commentaries on 2 Corinthians, which tended to treat it as a manual to guide modern preachers in their ministry, this commentary emphasizes a return to an appreciation for apostolic authority.

The new covenant promised by Jeremiah (Jeremiah 31:31-34) has been inaugurated and ratified by Christ's death on Calvary. The new covenant gospel message which reflects the truths Jesus taught during His earthly ministry is what is now to be preached, and the new covenant Scriptures are to be treated as our rule of faith and practice.

The early threat to New Testament Christianity posed by the Judaizers is better understood with the information learned from 2 Corinthians included in our sources of information. As this 21st century begins, there are those who seek evidence that in the early decades after Jesus' resurrection there were competing Christianities, with the strand that survived being that which is represented in our New Testament Scriptures. Once it is recognized that the Judaizers were not Christians but false brethren (Galatians 2:4) and false apostles (2 Corinthians 11:13), the Judaizers' message cannot be appealed to by those who would try to make a case for competing 1st century Christianities. Such views are a false presentation of what Christianity as preached by Jesus' apostles was like. Instead of preaching competing messages, the apostles of Christ were in agreement with each other on matters of doctrine and practice, and there was one faith (not many faiths) which they once and for all delivered to the saints (Jude 3).

As Paul wrote 2 Corinthians he pointed the way to reconciliation between human beings and reconciliation between God and man. This, too, is a needed message in our day.

2 CORINTHIANS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introductory Studies

A. Historical Allusions

B. Reminder of the History as Given in Acts

C. Authorship and Attestation

D. Occasion of Writing

E. Purpose of Writing

F. Time and Place of Writing

G. The Travels of Paul and His Companions

H. Other Critical Matters

1. Paul's Corinthian Correspondence

2. Integrity of 2 Corinthians

3. The identity of the Offender in 2:5-10

4. The identity of the unbelievers who tried to destroy Paul's apostolic reputation

I. Suggested Topics for Further Study

J. Outline of 2 Corinthians

Commentary

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Special Study #1: A Review of Paul's Instructions Concerning Church Discipline

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Special Study #2: Doctrine of the Atonement

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Annotated Bibliography

Index

THE PAULINE EPISTLES: GROUP TWO

¹

2 Corinthians

INTRODUCTORY STUDIES

A. HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS

As we study these historical allusions, we are looking for anything that will help us answer questions about the author, date, destination, and purpose of the letter.

1. Historical Allusions from the beginning of the letter. 1:1-2:13

1:1 - Paul signs this letter.² Timothy is with Paul when this letter is written. He was not with Paul when 1 Corinthians was written. Before the writing of that letter (1 Corinthians 4:17), Timothy had been sent to Macedonia with Erastus to organize the collection (Acts 19:22). According to 1 Corinthians 16:10,11, Timothy was expected to finally arrive at Corinth. That trip has been completed, Timothy has returned to Paul, and is again with the apostle when 2 Corinthians is written.

The destination of the letter is given. To the church of God which is at Corinth with all the saints that are throughout Achaia. What do we know about Christians in Achaia other than those at Corinth? There were several at Athens (Acts 17:34). We also know about a church at Cenchrea (Romans 16:1). We know of none elsewhere from the extant New Testament records. Acts just does not record any missionary activities in the outlying regions of the province, but we must remember Paul's oft-used method of evangelism was to himself work in the metropolitan centers, while his helpers evangelized the villages and communities for miles around.

We have our first help on the date of this letter. It cannot be before there was a church in Corinth. The church there was begun during Paul's second missionary journey, AD 51-54 (Acts 18:1-18).

1:2 - The usual Pauline greeting. Paul does not use the conventional greeting regularly found in letters in the Hellenistic and Roman worlds, which was simply Greetings (charein). Paul instead combines both the Hebrew and Greek form of greeting (shalom and charein). This is done, it appears, for two reasons: 1) People of both Greek and Hebrew descent were to be found in the churches. 2) These terms grace and peace have a new meaning now, a Christian meaning, and are most appropriate. Grace - i.e., unmerited favor to you - is a prayer for their continuing salvation. Peace to you - i.e., peace with God and peace with man - is a prayer that the result of salvation will be experienced by the readers to an ever fuller extent.

1:3-5 - Paul's usual thanksgiving. It is Paul's custom, after the opening greeting, to write words of thanksgiving to God for the people to whom he is writing. There is a thanksgiving in every letter but Galatians (where he was so stirred up by the apostasy that he leaves out the thanksgiving). Usually, in the thanksgiving, there are intimations of what the rest of the letter is about. The keynote of this thanksgiving is comfort. See how often the word comfort appears in the next few verses.

1:8-11 - Something recently happened to Paul in Asia that left him in mortal danger. It is doubtful that the riot of Demetrius and the silversmiths at Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41) is the event alluded to. Verse 9 speaks of a sentence of death. The apostle, in his own mind, was convinced that his days were numbered.

1:15,16 - Paul here explains a recent change in his travel plans. Originally, his planned itinerary was to go to Corinth from Ephesus, then to Macedonia, and from thence back to Corinth, and then to go on to Jerusalem with the offering. Apparently, Paul's plans were changed for him by some unforeseen circumstances in the church at Corinth. Because of the change in plans, some people at Corinth charged Paul with vacillation (1:17) and perhaps with being afraid to come again to Corinth.

1:19 - Paul and Timothy and Silas had preached among the readers. This occurred during Paul's first trip to Corinth (Acts 18:1-5), when the church was first planted there.

1:23 - To spare you I came no more to Corinth. Most commentators put this verse with verses 15,16 and understand it to be an explanation as to why Paul changed his travel plans.

2:1 - Paul says he determined not to come to Corinth again in sorrow. This could mean sorrow which he would feel, or sorrow which he would cause. It sounds as though there has been a very recent sorrowful visit made by Paul to Corinth.

2:3,4 - This very thing I wrote you .... The Greek verb egrapsa is an aorist tense. It may be an historical aorist (i.e., referring to some letter before the one now being written),³ or it may be an epistolary aorist (i.e., referring to the letter now being written). Paul seems to be saying that he is writing this very letter to the Corinthians so that when he comes he will not have sorrow from them.

2:6-8 - Some individual in the Corinthian church has been disciplined and the discipline has led that person to repent. Who was the man? Was he the incestuous man of 1 Corinthians 5?⁴ These verses also point to a difference of opinion among the Corinthians as to exactly what to do with the offender. The majority inflicted the discipline. What was the position of the minority? Were they opposed to any discipline being practiced in this case? Did the minority believe the social ostracism involved in the discipline had not yet been of sufficient duration? Whichever it may have been, the disciplined member had repented, and Paul here urges that the penitent be publicly restored to fellowship.

2:9 - Again, a decision must be made concerning I wrote.  Is it historical or epistolary? Paul seems to be saying that he is writing this very letter to the Corinthians to put them to the test, to see if they would obey him in all things. His apostolic authority is being tested.

2:12-13 - Shortly before writing this letter, Paul has been to Troas. He came to do evangelistic work because there was an open door of opportunity. At the same time, he also expected to meet Titus (who had been sent to Corinth on a trouble-shooting mission) at Troas and hear a report from him. But Titus did not come as soon as Paul expected. Paul was so intensely anxious about Titus' mission to Corinth that he could not carry on the work at Troas. He instead departed to Macedonia in order that he might the sooner meet Titus and hear of the progress of affairs in Corinth. (Some of these details we ascertain from what Paul writes in 2 Corinthians 7:5-7.)

2:14 - 7:4 contain a long presentation of Paul's apostolic credentials.

2. Historical allusions in the closing chapters of the letter. 11:1-13:14

11:1ff - Paul is still calling for recognition of his apostleship. In 11:5 and in 12:11, Paul insists he is not inferior to the most eminent apostles. If we may let Galatians 2 guide us, most eminent apostles reflects the exalted view (held by the Judaizers) of Jesus' original apostles over against Paul. The most eminent apostles should not be identified with the false apostles (the Judaizers) of 11:13.

11:23-27- Note all that has happened to Paul before this letter was written. Very few of these things are mentioned by Luke in Acts 13-19.

11:32,33 - Chronologically, the danger at Damascus preceded most of the hardships just catalogued in verses 23-27. The attempt by certain Jews to capture and kill Paul at Damascus occurred after his call to be an apostle (Acts 26:16-18) and his three-year stay in Arabia.⁵ Does Paul put this attempt on his life at the end of the list of his hardships because it is an example of how Jewish religious leaders, all along, have been trying to get rid of Paul, the apostle of Christ?

12:2-4 - Paul was caught up to Paradise fourteen years before the writing of this epistle. As indicated below, we will date the writing of 2 Corinthians in the Fall of AD 57. Fourteen full years before the writing of 2 Corinthians would bring us to the Fall of AD 43, a few months before the first missionary journey began.⁶ If this dating is accurate, the vision of Paradise concerning which Paul here speaks is nowhere else recorded.⁷

12:14 - This is the third time Paul is ready to come to Corinth. Have there been two other trips to Corinth before 2 Corinthians is written? Or does this verse speak only of Paul's plans and intentions which could not be carried out to completion? Acts does not record two other trips antecedent to the one from which 2 Corinthians was written. Do we get help later in 2 Corinthians (e.g., 13:1-2)? Has Paul been to Corinth more than once before 2 Corinthians was written?

12:18 - Titus and the brother have previously been sent by Paul to Corinth. When was this trip? 12:17 indicates this trip is already in the past as 2 Corinthians is being written, so it cannot be the same as the up-coming trip made by Titus and two brothers to implement the collection of the offering at Corinth (2 Corinthians 8:16-23). Who is the brother? When was the trip here-indicated made?

12:19 - We have been speaking all for your upbuilding, beloved. This verse has implications concerning the tone of the whole letter. Paul says it is all for their upbuilding.

12:20 - Paul is afraid he may yet find trouble when he arrives at Corinth. He was anxious that before he next arrives in town the church correct all the evils mentioned in his correspondence with them. Two issues were paramount: the disharmony in the life of the congregation resulting from the divisive work of the Judaizers (12:20) and continuing immorality by some in the church (12:21).⁸

12:21 - Paul is anxious, lest he be humiliated (humbled) when he next comes into their presence. Does this not sound a bit like he had been humiliated once before this letter is written?

13:1,2 - This is the third time that Paul was coming to Corinth. He has already been present there the second time. 12:14 therefore must mean more than that other trips were just planned but never carried out. He had been there twice before this proposed trip. On the second trip he had warned those who persisted in their old sins. Now he says that when he arrives on this third visit, should he find some still continuing to practice their sins, he will not spare them. There will be discipline administered by an apostle of Christ.

13:5 - Test yourselves to see if you are in the faith; examine yourselves! Something has happened (Judaizers) that leaves the Corinthians vulnerable. They may very well be departing the faith once-for-all delivered to the saints. May we see in this call for spiritual examination one of Paul's purposes for writing this letter?

13:10 - I am writing these things ... in order that when present I may not use severity. This sounds as though it might be another part of his purpose for writing.

13:11 - Finally, brethren, rejoice, be made complete, be comforted, be like-minded, live in peace seems to sum up all Paul has written in this letter.

Subscription (KJV) - The second epistle to the Corinthians was written from Philippi, a city of Macedonia, by Titus and Lucas. Is this uninspired ascription accurate? It is supported by various older manuscripts, including B², Syr.P., Syr.H., and Copt.

3. Other historical allusions in the book

7:5-7 - Paul came to Macedonia from Troas still troubled in heart. Then Titus came with news that the Corinthians were sorry for their actions and wanted to see Paul. A tremendous relief came over Paul at hearing this news.

7:8-10 - Paul had made them sorry with a letter he had written, but their sorrow had led them to repentance. Was this letter that made them sorry a severe letter (as some conjecture), or was the letter that made them sorry the letter we call 1 Corinthians? It seems to us that 1 Corinthians is severe enough to cause Paul some worrying about how it would be received, and to cause some godly sorrow on the part of the Corinthians who took Paul's words to heart. (For more on this question, see below.)

7:12 - I wrote is still making reference to the letter introduced in 7:8. Just as he explained why he is writing this second letter to Corinth (2:3,4,9), he here explains why he wrote the letter we call 1 Corinthians, namely, to give the Corinthians opportunity to show whether or not they would be loyal to an apostle of Jesus such as he was.

7:14-16 - The Corinthians (with fear and trembling) obeyed Titus when he came to Corinth at the beginning of the visit just recently ended. As far as the context is concerned, the obedience has to do with the repentance of the Corinthian Christians.⁹

8:1-4 - The Macedonian churches are in the midst of taking up a generous offering for the poor Christians at Jerusalem. When they heard about the offering, the Macedonians came to Paul and begged to be allowed to participate in the offering.

8:6-9 - Titus, on an earlier occasion, had begun the collection of the offering at Corinth. Now, Paul has urged him to return to Corinth to continue the mechanics of collecting it. He appeals to the Corinthians to respond with the same kind of loving generosity that characterized the Macedonians and that characterized their Lord.

8:10 - A year previous to the writing of 2 Corinthians, the Corinthian church desired to take up an offering for the Jerusalem Christians. The Corinthian church was the first to even want to take up an offering, and the first to do anything about taking up one. So with all their faults there were still many good points about the church - and there is no wonder Paul loved them deeply. He offers his opinion that it would be well for them to finish what they had started.

8:16-22 - Titus is going to corne to Corinth with two helpers to keep the fund raising campaign moving. The three were being sent by Paul (2 Corinthians 9:3).¹⁰

9:2-4 - Paul is in Macedonia when he writes. He has been telling them about how the Corinthians were eager to be involved in the offering. Paul hopes his boast will not be disappointed. Is it implied that the trouble caused by the Judaizers has temporarily caused a suspension of the raising of the offering among the Corinthians?

10:1 - Paul signs his name again.

10:2 - When he arrives at Corinth this third time, Paul is going to deal with some, i.e., those who falsely accuse him. (Those false accusers will be identified as Judaizers later in these introductory studies.)

10:9,10 - Letters (plural). Has Paul written more than one letter to Corinth? If not, what is the meaning of this plural? Is this evidence that Paul's already-written letters are in circulation among the churches?

B. A REMINDER OF THE HISTORY AS GIVEN IN ACTS

1. Paul first came to Corinth during his second missionary journey, about AD 51. He stayed with Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18), and planted a church in Corinth (1 Corinthians 3:10). Departing from Corinth after 18 months (AD 54), and leaving Aquila and Priscilla at Ephesus, he went on to Caesarea, Jerusalem, and Antioch of Syria. This concluded his second missionary journey.

2. The third missionary tour began with an overland journey from Antioch of Syria, through south Galatia, and on to Ephesus (Acts 18:23-19:1). His great Ephesian ministry lasted three years (Acts 20:31).

3. According to Acts 19:22, near the end of those three years, Timothy and Erastus were sent to Macedonia. Paul himself stayed on in Asia. Perhaps after their departure, around Passover time, AD 57, Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and sent it off to Corinth.¹¹ In it, he indicated his plans to remain at Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Corinthians 16:8). 1 Corinthians 4:17 alludes to Timothy's trip.

4. Acts 19:23-41 relates the riot in Ephesus by Demetrius and the silversmiths. The yearly festival in honor of Artemis was celebrated by the idolaters about the same time on the calendar (May or June) that Pentecost was celebrated by the Jews. Perhaps the riot caused Paul to leave Ephesus earlier than he originally expected to, perhaps not.

If we read 2 Corinthians 1:8-11 aright, between the writing of 1 Corinthians and his departure from Asia, Paul found himself in the midst of mortal peril.¹² Were Judaizers, like those recently come to Corinth, behind that peril? Was this the occasion when Aquila and Priscilla risked their lives to rescue Paul (Romans 16:3,4)?

5. Acts 20:1 indicates that after the riot of Demetrius, Paul departed from Ephesus for Macedonia.

6. Per Acts 20:2, Paul went through Macedonia giving exhortation, then came to Greece.

7. Per Acts 20:3, three months were spent in Greece (the winter of AD 58), and then Paul departed for Jerusalem with the offering. He originally had intended to sail; but a plot by unbelieving Jews against him was discovered, and so Paul went overland and escaped the danger from the Jews.

The book of Acts records two visits to Corinth made by Paul, one on the second missionary journey, and one at the close of the third journey, on the eve of the departure for Jerusalem with the offering. (Acts 20:4 likely names some of the delegates of the churches who carried the offering.)

C. AUTHORSHIP AND ATTESTATION

1. Internal evidence as to authorship

Paul twice signs the letter, 1:1 and 10:1. While some have questioned the unity of 2 Corinthians, there has been near-unanimous agreement concerning the Pauline authorship of 2 Corinthians. When one studies the internal evidences, the elusive (from the standpoint of the modern reader) references to movements, people, and events are just what one would expect from an authentic letter. No forger would write of these matters so artlessly.¹³ Internal evidence points to genuineness.¹⁴

2. External evidence as to the authorship of 2 Corinthians

There are allusions and annotated quotations in the Early Christian writers which abundantly attest to this letter.

1) Allusions¹⁵

a) Polycarp (AD 115) in his Epistle to the Philippians at 11:3 has an allusion to 2 Corinthians 3:2; at 2:4 is an allusion to 2 Corinthians 4:14; at 6:2 is an allusion to 2 Corinthians 6:7; at 6:2 is an allusion to 2 Corinthians 5:10; and perhaps at 4:1 is an allusion to 2 Corinthians 6:7.

b) In the Epistle to Diognetus, (chapter 5:8) there are certain expressions which remind one of 2 Corinthians 6:8-10 and 10:3.

c) Theophilus of Antioch (AD 115-188) alludes in ad Autol. iii.30 to pledge, perhaps an allusion to 2 Corinthians 1:22. Allusions to 2 Corinthians 7:1 and 11:19 have been seen in ad Autol. i.2 and iii.4.

2) Annotated Quotations¹⁶

a) Irenaeus (AD 180)

Paul has plainly said in the second to the Corinthians, 'in whom the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers' (2 Corinthians 4:4). Adv. Haeres. 3.7.1

"For the apostle does also say in the second [Epistle] to the Corinthians: 'For we are unto God a sweet savour of Christ, in them which are saved, and in them which perish (2 Corinthians 2:15,16). Adv. Haeres. 4.28.3.

The apostle Paul ... says in the second [Epistle] to the Corinthians: 'And lest I should be lifted up by the sublimity of the revelations, there was given unto me a thorn in the flesh, the messenger of Satan to buffet me ...' (2 Corinthians 12:7-9). Adv. Haeres. 5.3.1.

b) Athenagoras (c. AD 180)

It is manifest therefore, that according to the apostle this corruptible and dissipated must put on incorruption; that the dead being raised up to life ... (2 Corinthians 5:10). De Resurrect. Mort. 18.

c) Clement of Alexandria (AD 190)

The apostle calls the common doctrine of the faith a taste of knowledge in the second to the Corinthians (2 Corinthians 2:14), for until this day the same veil remains (2 Corinthians 3:14). Stromata IV.16.

Hence also Paul ... 'ye have these promises,' says he, 'dearly beloved; let us cleanse our hearts from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God (2 Corinthians 7:1). Stromata III. 14.

d) Tertullian (AD 200)

For indeed they suppose that the Apostle Paul, in the second to the Corinthians, forgave the same fornicator whom in the first he had declared out to be delivered to Satan for the destruction of the flesh. (2 Corinthians 2:10). De Pudicitia, c.XIII.

e) Firmilian, in his epistle to Cyprian (lxxiv. 14) quotes 2 Corinthians 11:2, attributing the words to the apostle. (ANF, V.5, p.393)

f) Cyprian (c. AD 250)

Likewise the blessed apostle Paul, full of the inspiration of the Lord, 'Now he that ministereth,' says he, 'seed to the sower, will both minister bread ...' (2 Corinthians 9:10,11). De Opp. et Eleemos.

g) Novatius (c. AD 250)

Lastly, the apostle Paul, 'Having,' says he, 'the same spirit, as it is written, I believed, therefore have I spoken; we also believe, and therefore speak'. (2 Corinthians 4:13). (Cap XXIX).

3) Canonical Listings

Marcion's Apostolicon (AD 140) had 2 Corinthians in it.

The Muratorian Canon (AD 170) includes 2 Corinthians.

3. Summary:

The internal evidence and the external evidence as to the genuineness of 2 Corinthians is so strong many writers do not even spend time on the subject, merely taking it for granted. In fact, while scholars may differ as to the continuity and integrity of the text, there is no serious divergence among them in the opinion that all the parts of the epistle are genuine writings of the apostle Paul.

D. OCCASION OF WRITING

At the time of the writing of 1 Corinthians, and in the days shortly after that letter was dispatched, Paul was dealing with a very serious crisis in the church at Corinth. He had made a hasty, unplanned trip to Corinth, where he was rejected, and as a result left town very sorrowful at heart. His apostolic authority had been opposed, questioned, and by some (outsiders who infiltrated the church) scornfully denied.

From Ephesus, Paul had sent Titus to Corinth to deal with their failure to practice church discipline on a flagrant offender (2 Corinthians 2:13; 7:6,7,13-15). Titus was apparently instructed to report back to Paul as soon as possible concerning the response of the Corinthians to his mission. As time passed, and Titus did not come, Paul became more and more intensely anxious to hear news from Corinth.

Paul left Ephesus for Troas (though not forced to leave by the riot of Demetrius, perhaps the riot made further work there extra difficult), hoping that Titus would return from Corinth and meet him there. In Troas, he found an opening for missionary work (2:12). Weeks passed, Titus did not arrive, and Paul became anxious (2:13). The suspense at last became so intolerable that he threw up his work in Troas and crossed over into Macedonia, in order to meet Titus the sooner.¹⁷

According to 2 Corinthians 7:5-7, the occasion of this second letter to the Corinthians is the return of Titus from Corinth and his report to Paul.

In the report Titus brought about the progress of the gospel in Corinth, there was much good news, and some bad. Titus reported his mission had had good results: the church had cut off from membership the brother who had committed the grave offense (2:6); the Corinthian Christians had repented sincerely for the painful lowering of the ethical standards of their church (7:11); they had displayed deep sorrow for causing Paul to write such a letter as he did to them (7:3.9); and they had shown sincere affection for Paul (7:7), and submission to Titus as Paul's representative. Paul, in a fervor of thanksgiving, affection, and comfort, is thus prompted to write this letter.

If this had been the only information which Titus had brought from Corinth, 2 Corinthians would have been an expression of unalloyed thanksgiving and joy. But unfortunately such was not the case. Titus also brought news that some false teachers had come to town and were seriously attacking Paul's apostolic authority and message. If the Christian faith of the Corinthians is not to be seriously undermined, this attack will have to be answered. That is precisely what Paul does in this letter.

E. PURPOSE OF WRITING

In a sentence, Paul's purpose in writing 2 Corinthians was to restore his apostolic reputation in the minds of the Corinthian Christians. 2 Corinthians is the most sustained and extended presentation of his apostolic credentials found in any of his letters. Servants of Satan (2 Corinthians 11:14,15) had come to Corinth and attacked his legitimacy as an apostle of Christ, and a significant minority of the church has been persuaded he might not be an apostle of Jesus. In passage after passage, as he writes 2 Corinthians, Paul reflects the nasty insinuations made against him by the Judaizers, and in each case he sets the record straight.¹⁸ Reconciliation between Paul and the Corinthians will be possible and be complete only if the Corinthians continue to recognize who he is and Who sent him to Corinth.

Some of the subordinate ideas behind the main purpose for writing can be learned by listening to Paul's own words. (1) He explains the reason for his change of travel plans (1:15-16); it was not that he was vacillating (1:17), but, rather, it was to spare them (1:23-2:1) and to spare himself (2:3) another painful visit. Several times he returns to this theme (10:2,6) and explains he is writing these things so that, hopefully, he will not have to use apostolic severity when he next comes to their town (13:10). If they will take advantage of the interlude before his next visit to repent, severity can be avoided. (2) There is a call for the Corinthians to repudiate the Judaizers (6:14-7:1) who had brought strife to the congregation (2 Corinthians 12:20). Such a repudiation of the false apostles (2 Corinthians 11:13) will be an acid test of their recognition of Paul's apostolic authority. (3) For over a year prior to writing 2 Corinthians, an offering for the poor Christians at Jerusalem has been Paul's passion. If the Corinthians will again get involved in that (2 Corinthians 8-9), it will show they and Paul are on the same wavelength. (4) Everything he has written has been intended for their spiritual upbuilding (12;19). (5) His appeal near the end of the letter for them to test and examine themselves to see if they are in the faith (13:5) tells us what was on Paul's heart as he wrote. (6) 13:11 neatly summarizes what Paul hoped to accomplish by this letter he has written to Corinth.

F. TIME AND PLACE OF WRITING

1. Place

The place is Macedonia (2 Corinthians 2:13, 7:5, 9:2-4). The Subscription says Philippi. This is one subscription that may be right, as far as the place of writing is concerned, but we cannot be sure. Some early Christian writers suggested Berea or Thessalonica as the place of writing. Lipscomb argues for Thessalonica as the place of writing from the fact that all the churches of Macedonia are said to be giving generously to the offering for Jerusalem, and it is (in his opinion) not likely that Paul would have made such a statement unless he had already visited most of the Macedonian churches.¹⁹ Philippi would be the first of the Macedonian churches to be visited by a man traveling from Troas. If it is true that Paul must have visited several of the Macedonian churches before writing 2 Corinthians 8:1, then obviously the letter could not have been written from Philippi.

2. Time

The allusions that point to the time of writing are these: (1) A mortal danger at Ephesus is past (2 Corinthians 1:8-10). (2) The offering for the saints at Jerusalem, delivered at the end of the third missionary journey (AD 54-58), is still being collected. (3) The letter was written some time before Paul's three month stay at Corinth (Acts 20:2,3 v. 2 Corinthians 8,9). (4) The time of writing fits best at Acts 20:2, where Paul is said to have gone through those districts of Macedonia.

So we conclude that 2 Corinthians was written in the fall of AD 57, about six months after the writing of 1 Corinthians.²⁰

G. THE TRAVELS OF PAUL AND HIS COMPANIONS

1. Paul's visits to Corinth, and a summary of his activities in this period of his life:

How many trips did Paul make to Corinth? Acts records two trips: one at the founding of the church (Acts 18), and one near the end of the third missionary journey, when the collection for the Jerusalem poor was being put together (Acts 20). The Corinthian correspondence records three trips (2 Corinthians 12:14,21; 13:1,2; 2:1). The third trip of Corinthians is the same as the second trip of the Acts record.

How do we reconcile the two accounts? Did Paul make only two trips to Corinth, as Acts records? Or, did Paul make a trip to Corinth which is not related by Luke in Acts? If Paul made but two visits to Corinth, then it was the visit on which the church was planted that is being described as a sorrowful visit (2 Corinthians 2:1). This conclusion is hard to believe. Nor is it acceptable to suppose Paul's second missionary tour visit to Corinth was divided into two parts - that he started work in Corinth, made an excursion to neighboring parts of Achaia, and then returned to Corinth to finish the 18-month stay there - which would allow him to call his visit on the third missionary tour his third visit to Corinth. There is precious little evidence of a two-part visit to Corinth on his second missionary tour. And again, it will not do to count a letter to Corinth as a visit. 2 Corinthians 13:2 indicates actual visits are intended. Taking what is written in 2 Corinthians at face value, the only conclusion possible is that Paul has made a trip to Corinth that is not recorded in Acts.²¹

When was the trip (the one unrecorded in Acts) made by Paul to Corinth? Two answers to this question have been advanced by students of Paul's writings to Corinth: (1) The trip was made before 1 Corinthians was written, or (2) The trip was made in the interval between the writing of 1 Corinthians and 2 Corinthians. Either way, since this unrecorded trip falls between the two trips recorded in Acts, it is often called the intermediate trip. While the first option has been defended (often including many pages of arguments discussing whether this intermediate trip either preceded or followed an alleged previous letter to Corinth), in this commentator's judgment there are several points that militate against this hypothesis. The second visit to Corinth left Paul with some unpleasant memories (2 Corinthians 2:1). If it occurred before 1 Corinthians was written, why do we read nothing about it in 1 Corinthians? Why revive memories of this painful visit in 2 Corinthians after ignoring them in 1 Corinthians? The better way of reconstructing Paul's travels at this time in his life is to have the intermediate trip between the writing of 1 and 2 Corinthians. Against this hypothesis, it has been objected that there is not enough time between the writing of 1 Corinthians in the spring of AD 57 and the writing of 2 Corinthians in the fall of AD 57 for such a trip to be made. However, there was a trade route across the Aegean Sea between Ephesus and Corinth. Paul could have gone by ship to Corinth from Ephesus and then back to Ephesus in three weeks or less.

We are now ready for a summary of Paul's activities at this period of his ministry per the information given in Acts and in the Corinthian correspondence:

(a) Paul, at Ephesus, writes 1 Corinthians in the spring of 57 AD. In this letter, he announces a change in his travel plans (1 Corinthians 16:5-8). Paul's directions concerning needed discipline (1 Corinthians 5:1-8) for the immoral man are ignored by the church at Corinth. Timothy arrives at Corinth (1 Corinthians 4:17), but is unable to deal with the crisis. Timothy returns to Paul with adverse news of the continued disorder at Corinth.²²

(b) Because conditions in the church have deteriorated since he wrote 1 Corinthians, Paul makes a brief and hurried trip to Corinth, the purpose of which was to encourage the church to practice church discipline in the case of the incestuous man. The results of this intermediate trip were so disappointing to Paul that he spoke of it being a sorrowful trip. It would appear that, just as they had earlier, a vocal minority continued to object to the exercise of any discipline against the incestuous offender (2 Corinthians 2:6). One immediate consequence of the minority's behavior was to raise a serious question about Paul's apostolic authority. Apparently, during this visit, Paul rebuked others in the church who were guilty of immorality (2 Corinthians 12:21), but did not on this occasion immediately discipline. The guilty were given time to repent. And another factor may have contributed to Paul's humiliation: have the Judaizers already arrived, and when they begin to attack his apostleship, did the Corinthians fail to champion his cause against the Judaizers?

(c) From Corinth, Paul returned to Ephesus.²³ Shortly after his return to Ephesus, Titus is sent to attempt to deal with the problem at Corinth. (This trip by Titus is alluded to in 2 Corinthians 2:13 and 7:6,13.)

(d) Sometime after the riot of the silversmiths (Acts 19:23-41), Paul leaves Ephesus. We may conjecture the riot occurred after a poorly attended Artemision in June of AD 57 had resulted in meager profits for the craftsmen. In any case, Paul had planned to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost of that year (1 Corinthians 16:8).

(e) Having departed from Ephesus, Paul came to Troas. Here he awaited Titus, who does not come as expected. Paul either arrived there earlier than expected, or Titus was delayed longer than expected.

(f) Having departed from Troas, Paul went across the sea to Macedonia. Here, Titus meets him with news from Corinth. Titus reports there has been a change of attitude. The majority had disciplined the incestuous man. The discipline had produced its intended results; the man repented. By this positive response, Paul is comforted. The majority have returned to being supporters of Paul. However, Titus also has some sad news. Judaizers have begun to deceive the church, and not a few Corinthians are entertaining serious doubts about Paul's apostolic authority. So, in the fall of AD 57, Paul pens his second letter to Corinth. Titus is sent to Corinth to revive their participation in the offering for Jerusalem, and we may also presume Titus carries this recently penned second letter from Paul to Corinth.²⁴

(g) Departing from Macedonia, Paul went to Corinth, just as he announced in his changed travel plans that he would (2 Corinthians 1:15,16), where he stayed three months, the winter of AD 58.

(h) In the spring, when weather allows travel on the Mediterranean to resume, Paul then begins the trip to Jerusalem with the offering. The men named in Acts 20:4 are likely the messengers chosen by each of the churches to carry their respective portions of the total offering.

2. The journeys of Timothy, as indicated by the Corinthian correspondence:

The verses which deal with this subject are: (a) 1 Corinthians 4:17 and 16:10. Timothy's trip started before 1 Corinthians was written. He was going through Macedonia; the possibility was good that he would, at length, arrive in Corinth. The purpose of this trip was to encourage the churches of Macedonia and Achaia to participate in the offering for the poor at Jerusalem. (b) 2 Corinthians 1:1. Timothy is with Paul in Macedonia when 2 Corinthians is written.

There are three suggestions given concerning Timothy's ministry. (a) Suggestion #1 is he never got to Corinth. The theory is that he met Paul when the apostle finally arrived in Macedonia, and thus Timothy never got to Corinth. But if Timothy had never arrived in Corinth, or had been recalled by Paul (so that he did not go to Corinth), we would expect some explanation in 2 Corinthians. Certainly, if Paul had recalled a messenger whose coming had been expected and so distinctly announced we should suppose he would have felt called upon to justify such a proceeding against the objections of his opponents. We therefore conclude that Timothy actually did get to Corinth, (b) Suggestion #2 is that Timothy did get to Corinth but that nothing noteworthy happened during his visit there. No mention is made in 2 Corinthians of Timothy's visit to Corinth, or of its results, or of his reception and treatment there, it is said. Why is this? Some assert that the most natural solution is that the 1 Corinthian letter was not well-received; and when Timothy saw that the church declined to comply with its injunctions, he immediately came to Paul to report his ill-success. Whereupon, Paul took other steps, such as Titus being sent, as is mentioned in 2 Corinthians. But there seems to be a better answer than this. (c) Suggestion #3 is that Timothy did get to Corinth, but that his visit was unsuccessful. This conjecture differs from #2 above in that this one suggests Timothy worked hard trying to right the wrongs but was unsuccessful, and therefore returned to Paul in accordance with the instructions of 1 Corinthians 16:10. If he reached Corinth and was contemptuously treated, he probably returned as quickly as possible to Paul at Ephesus; and his report of the grave condition of things at Corinth would account for the apostle's decision to hurry across to Corinth himself.

3. The journeys and work of Titus, as indicated in 2 Corinthians:

Titus seems to have made three trips to Corinth.

(a) 2 Corinthians 8:6 tells of the first of these trips. Titus started the collection for the Jerusalem poor at Corinth. This seems to have been before 1 Corinthians was written. 1 Corinthians 16:1 implies the Corinthian Christians already had information concerning the collection before Paul wrote the 1 Corinthian letter. Those who think Paul wrote a previous letter put it in here, and have it carried by Titus. It is most probable that Titus was sent out at the same time Timothy and Erastus were sent to Macedonia (Acts 19:22).

(b) 2 Corinthians 2:13 and 7:6,13 speak of the second journey by Titus. After the failed intermediate visit made by Paul, Titus was apparently sent to correct the situation at Corinth. Timothy, we believe, was unsuccessful in his attempts to right the problems, and so returned to Paul without the problems being settled. Paul himself made a quick trip to Corinth over the trade route, but was not successful in handling the problems. Titus, therefore, is sent to set things in order. Those who believe there was a severe letter put it here, with Titus carrying it. Under Titus' guidance, the Corinthians took proper action, especially in the case of the offender (7:14-16). Titus then returned to Paul, meeting him in Macedonia (7:5-7), which meeting was the occasion for the writing of 2 Corinthians.

(c) 2 Corinthians 8:6,17,18,22 tell of a third trip. Titus and two helpers are being sent to finish the job of the collection. Who are the two helpers? Verse 18 speaks of the brother whose fame in the things of the gospel .... The most common opinion is that this was Luke.²⁵ Others suggested are Barnabas, Mark, Silas, Trophimus, or Timothy. Verse 22 identifies another brother. This companion has been variously identified as Apollos, Silas, Sosthenes, Zenas. In other words, we just do not know for sure who these companions of Titus were. Titus and his two helpers are being sent back to Corinth by Paul, sent from Macedonia, and probably are the ones who carried this second Corinthian letter (8:23, 9:3,5) to Corinth.

H. OTHER CRITICAL MATTERS (necessarily raised in the interprettation of 2 Corinthians)

1. Paul's Corinthian correspondence

2 Corinthians 10:9,10 speak of letters (plural). Is this an indication that Paul has written more than one letter to Corinth before our 2 Corinthian epistle? Does the use of the plural word letters mean the Corinthians had received several letters from Paul?²⁶ Might the plural letters mean that the Corinthians have in their possession some of Paul's epistles to other churches. Both Thessalonian letters were written from Corinth, and the Corinthians would be aware of them and of their contents.²⁷ Or, again, might Paul have been including this letter which he was then writing, by way of anticipation? Or, the possibility exists the plural word is used in the same way we use the word correspondence. Remember, Clement of Rome knew of only one letter written to Corinth, so we must be careful in saying that there were several written, some of which may now be lost. The plural in 2 Corinthians 10:9,10 does not necessarily indicate more letters written to Corinth than the two we now possess.

2. The Integrity of 2 Corinthians

²⁸

Based wholly on internal evidence, and in some cases on dubious interpretation of certain verses, doubts have been raised about the integrity of several parts of 2 Corinthians.²⁹ The following chapters (or portions of chapters) have been treated as not enjoying integrity:

(a) 2 Corinthians 2:14-7:4 (minus 6:14-7:1)

Based on the fact that 7:5 continues the thought begun in 2:13, this long section has been treated either as part of a separate letter of defense written to Corinth by Paul, or it has been called the great digression. It is the judgment of this present commentator that such a treatment of this section misses the very point why Paul included it where he does in 2 Corinthians. The fact that Paul was an apostle of Christ and ministering under the new covenant were the heart and soul of his attempt to restore his apostolic reputation among the Corinthians. It is incorrect to speak of this as a great digression.

(b) 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1

Over a century ago, James Denney expressed his opinion that, after reading 2:4-6:13, this paragraph jolts the mind as a stone on the road does a carriage wheel.³⁰ While Denney went on to defend the integrity of this paragraph, the same cannot be said for many who have written commentaries on 2 Corinthians. During the past century, arguments marshaled to disprove integrity were worded this way: (1) The paragraph is a self-contained unit unrelated to the rest of the book. (2) In these few verses there are four Greek words not found elsewhere in the Greek Bible, and two more words which are found only in the New Testament.³¹ (3) When these verses are removed, 6:11-13 flow right into 7:2 (the topic is an open heart). (4) The citations from the Old Testament (6:16-18) are introduced by a non-Pauline citation formula. (5) Pauline terms (righteousness [6:14], flesh and spirit [7:1]) are used in a non-Pauline sense.³²

Thankfully, recent studies have not been so radical, due in no small part to the fact that there is no external manuscript evidence to support the idea that this passage was not part of the original form of the epistle, or that the passage was originally located elsewhere in this epistle. All the available manuscript evidence has this paragraph precisely where it appears in our Bibles. And it is in this place because Paul put it here; it exactly suits the argument Paul is making. He is identifying the ones who have been the cause of the recent strained relations between the Corinthians and himself. Get rid of the Judaizers and one of the major causes of the strained relations will also be gone.

(c) 2 Corinthians 8

The proposals to separate chapter 8 from chapters 1-7, and to separate chapter 9 from chapter 8, have met with very little approval. The restoration of Paul's apostolic reputation is still the theme underneath the appeal concerning a revival of their interest in the offering for Jerusalem. 9:1 begins with for showing that the subject in the closing verses of chapter 8 is being continued. For it is superfluous for me to write to you about this ministry to the saints is not the way a new topic would be begun; it is not a proof that chapter 8 and chapter 9 do not go together. The verb tense is present; Paul says it is superfluous to go on writing. As he comes toward the conclusion of this topic of the offering, there are two more things he wants to say: (1) he gives his reasons for sending the brethren instead of coming himself (9:1-5), and (2) he calls attention to the blessings of Christian giving (9:6-15).

(d) 2 Corinthians 11:32,33

The case here is somewhat similar to 6:14-7:1. There is said to be a violent transition in the vein of thought; and if we omit the verses which produce this abrupt change, we are told that we have a good sequence of thought. But there is no agreement among those who propose to excise the sentences as to how much ought to be cut out in order to make a good junction. It is by no means incredible that Paul dictated just what has come down to us. Could not Paul be closing the list of hardships he has suffered at the hands of the unbelieving Jews by recalling one of the very first instances of such persecution, namely that at Damascus. The implication is that the Judaizers caused the problems at Damascus, just like they are causing the problems at Corinth.

(e) 2 Corinthians 10 to 13

Hypotheses concerning the separation of these four chapters from the remainder of 2 Corinthians rest on a common conviction that there is a drastic change of tone (from relief and unbridled joy to biting irony and sarcasm) at 2 Corinthians 10:1 that signals the last four chapters cannot be a part of the same letter as chapters 1-9.³³ Those who have challenged the integrity of these chapters have tended to adopt one of two alternatives: (1) One follows the lead of A. Hausrath (1870) who proposed the hypothesis that chapters 10-13 were part of a severe letter written earlier than the letter that contained chapters 1-9.³⁴ (2) The other follows the lead of J.S. Semler whose hypothesis was that chapters 10-13 were part of a letter written later than the one containing chapters 1-9.³⁵ Proponents of each proposal put forward arguments to prove theirs is correct and the other is wrong. The result is that the arguments cancel each other out, leaving the integrity of 2 Corinthians intact.

By far the strongest argument in favor of recognizing the integrity of the epistle in exactly the form it has come down to us is that the proposals to make 1-9 or 10-13 parts of two different epistles rest entirely upon internal evidence alone; none of the alternative proposals receives any support whatsoever from manuscripts, versions, or quotations. It takes too many assumptions to say chapters 10-13 form part of another letter. It must be assumed, first, that the ending of chapters 1-9 was somehow lost. It must be assumed, second, that the beginning of chapters 10-13 was somehow lost. And third, it must be assumed that some unknown person put what was left of 1-9 and 10-13 together. This is too much assumption for this commentator!

We are thus pleased to defend the integrity of the epistle; i.e., that it was delivered to the Corinthian church in substantially the same form as we now have it. A strong case can be made for the integrity of 2 Corinthians, and its being dispatched as a single composition.³⁶

3. The identity of the offender of 2 Corinthians 2:5-10

The traditional identification is that the offender of 2 Corinthians 2:5-10 is the incestuous man of 1 Corinthians 5:1-8. So Tertullian wrote (De Puciditia XIII). If the references to a sorrowful letter in 2 Corinthians speak of 1 Corinthians, then the offender undoubtedly is the incestuous man.

Once higher critical studies resulted in a denial of the integrity of 2 Corinthians, it was not long until new hypotheses were advanced concerning the identity of the offender. The hypothesis that has gotten the most traction is the one which proposes that the offender is the leader of the Judaizers, those opponents of Paul who recently have invaded Corinth. By their vicious attacks they have offended Paul, the theory goes; 2 Corinthians 2:10 is then interpreted to mean that Paul forgives this man. However, in the light of 7:12,13 where Paul distinguishes between the offended and himself, it is hard to accept this suggestion that the offender is the leader of the opposition party, and that Paul is the offended one. Paul's forgiveness of the incestuous man (2 Corinthians 2:10) is done in harmony with an apostle's authority to forgive sins or retain sins on earth since they are simply reflecting what has already taken place in Heaven (John 20:23).

4. The identity of the unbelievers who tried to destroy Paul's apostolic reputation.

Since the 17th century, scholars have offered three basic theories concerning the identity of Paul's detractors at Corinth: (1) They were Gnostics.³⁷ (2) They were Judaizers.³⁸ (3) They were a mixture of the two, such as found in the group known as Essenes.³⁹

The general consensus of opinion is that these were Judaizers. According to 11:22,23, the opponents were men who boasted about their relation to Abraham, the Law, and the traditions of Israel. They were ethnically Jewish. The comparison between the ministries of the old and new covenants in 2 Corinthians 3:6-18 is indirectly aimed at the Judaizing party (11:22,23). Shortly after he wrote this second letter to Corinth, Paul wrote the letter to the Galatian churches, to deal with the Judaizers who recently had come among those churches. A few months after the writing of 2 Corinthians and Galatians, Paul wrote his letter to the Romans, and he warns them to beware of the Judaizers (Romans 16:17-19). These letters form Group Two of Paul's writings. Coming from the same period of time in his ministry, it is reasonable to believe the errorists attacked in 2 Corinthians were Judaizers.⁴⁰

Everything we read in 2 Corinthians points in this direction. The Judaizers who troubled the churches in Galatia were not even Christians, but merely pretended to be Christians in order to enter and control the churches (Galatians 2:4). Likewise, the Judaizers at Corinth were leading their followers astray from the simplicity and purity of devotion to Christ (11:3). In language that reminds us of Galatians 2:6-8, Paul affirms they preached a different Jesus (11:4). What they taught was not the gospel (11:4) but, raising up speculations against the knowledge of God, their teaching was contrary to any real knowledge of God (10:5). They offered an alien spirit (11:4, a spirit of bondage). They diluted or adulterated the word of God (4:2). They led people astray from the simplicity that is in Christ Jesus (11:3).

A reading of Paul's replies to their crafty and insidious defamation of his apostleship leads us to see certain glimpses of who they were and what they did. They had arrived in Corinth carrying letters of commendation (3:1), perhaps from churches they had already infiltrated and deceived. They are characterized as false apostles (11:13), suggesting they were traveling missionaries who, upon arriving in Corinth, claimed to be apostles of Christ.⁴¹ Unlike the apostles of Jesus, they were still emphasizing the old covenant (3:6). They were greedy and avaricious (11:20). They were lawless (6:14). They were deceitful workers (11:13). They were servants of Satan (11:15). They commended themselves and measured themselves by themselves (10:12). They intruded into and appropriated other men's labors rather than starting works themselves (10:16). They took financial advantage of the Corinthians (12:17). They were peddlers of the word of God (2:17). Their influence was destructive to the peace and harmony of the church (12:20). They boasted they had received visions and revelations from the Lord (12:1). They pretended to be servants of righteousness (11:15).⁴²

Some of the things the Judaizers said as they tried to destroy Paul's apostolic influence by ridicule, innuendo, and misrepresentation, included:

■ He carried no letters of commendation (3:1; 10:13,14), but he was a braggart who was always commending himself (4:2,5; 5:12; 6:4; 10:12,19; 12:11).

■ His personal appearance was unimpressive (10:10) and he was unskilled in speech (10:10,11:6).

■ He was a man of mere human motives (10:2).

■ He never gave any thought to whether or not he could deliver on what he promised (1:17).

■ He always was trying to say Yes and No in the same breath (1:17,18).

■ He talked about his authority like a tyrant (1:24; 10:8), and, like many tyrants, he was actually a coward. For example, he said that he would come to Corinth, and yet did not dare show himself there (1:23; 13:2).

■ When he came to Corinth, the Judaizers said, he had gone outside the limits of the area he was assigned to evangelize (10:13,14).

■ They said his refusal to accept financial support was proof he didn't love the Corinthians (11:7-11) and that he knew he was inferior to the original twelve apostles chosen by Jesus (11:5; 12:11; 13:3).

■ More than that, he was getting money from them by false pretenses, either by having his helpers get money for him (12:17), or he was going to misappropriate some of the money being collected for the poor at Jerusalem (8:20,21 and 12:16-13).

Their aim was to undermine and destroy Paul's apostolic authority in order to bring about his downfall at Corinth and to establish their own credentials. Because of this masterful defense of his apostolic authority, the effort of the Judaizers to thwart the advance of Christianity came to failure.

I. SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY

As 2 Corinthians is read, ideas are introduced which seem to ask for deeper reflection and study. Included in this list are some that have caught the imagination of the writer of this commentary:

1. How to share the comfort one receives from Christ with others who are hurting. (1:3-11)

2. How discouragement and anxiety can hinder a ministry. (2:12,13; 7:5)

3. Can sin in one place (Corinth) have a negative effect on people becoming Christians in another (Troas)?

4. What it means to acknowledge the authority of an apostle of Christ.

5. What happens on the day of our Lord Jesus? (1:14; 4:14; 5:10)

6. The doctrine local autonomy. The power of the local church in cases of discipline (2:3-8). The extent of an apostle's authority when it comes to discipline.

7. The need to reaffirm love for an erring member who has repented. (2:5-10)

8. The importance of not being outwitted by Satan (2:11). What does the devil do to hinder folk from becoming believers in Jesus? (4:3,4)

9. The contrast between