Varqá and Rúhu’lláh

Varqá and Rúhu’lláh

101 Stories of Bravery on the Move

by

Boris Handal

Table of Illustrations

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgements

A Short Note on Bahá’í Orthography

Glossary

Introduction

I - In Yazd

II - In Tabríz

III - Varqá’s First Pilgrimage

IV - Back in Tabríz

V - Prison in Yazd and Iṣfahán

VI - Rúḥu’lláh

VII - The Second Pilgrimage

VIII - The Terrible Mother-in-law

IX - In Zanján

X - Arrested in Zanján

XI – The Mystery of Martyrdom

XII – The Poetry in the Dove

XIII - The Long Horseback March to Tehran

XIV - The Anbar Prison

XV - The Martyrdom of Varqá and Rúḥu’lláh

XVI - After the Martyrdom

XVII – In the Aftermath

XVIII - Valíyu’lláh Varqá

XIX - Dr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá

XX - Final Reflections

Appendix I: A Tribute to Dr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá by Shahbaz Fatheazam

Appendix II: Ḥuqúqu’lláh (The Right of God) – A Talk by the Hand of the Cause Dr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá

Bibliography

Copyright

Table of Illustrations

Figure 1: Panorama of Yazd in the 19th century. Source: Nabíl’s Narrative.

Figure 2: A Nineteenth Century Persian Caravanserai in Sabzevar, Iran, by Alireza Javaheri (CC BY-SA 4.0).

Figure 4: An old view of the city of Tabríz.

Figure 3: Map of Iran. Courtesy: Pedro Donaires.

Figure 5: Bíbí Yazdí who married Ḥájí Mírzá Ḥusayn Yazdí (Varqá’s brother). Source: MyHeritage.com

Figure 7: Prince Malek-Qasim Mírzá’s palace in Urúmíyyih were the Báb’s portrait was drawn. Source: Nabíl’s Narrative.

Figure 6: Muẓaffari’d-Dín Mírzá’s Court as the Heir Prince in Tabríz.

Figure 8: A group of Bahá’ís in Tabríz in 1891. Seated third from right is ‘Alí Muḥammad Varqá. Front row, second from left is Rúḥu’lláh Varqá and the other boys seated with him are probably his brothers. Courtesy: George Ronald Oxford.

Figure 9: A group of Bahá’ís in Tabríz in 1882. Left to right, front row: Siyyid Mihdí Yazdí, unknown, Mír Sulaymán Yazdí (brother of Siyyid Yazdí). Left to right, middle row, seated: Ḥájí Amín, unknown, ‘Alí Muḥammad Varqá, Ḥájí Mírzá Ḥusayn Yazdí (Varqá’s brother). Back row: unknown, unknown. Courtesy: George Ronald Oxford.

Figure 11: Cities associated with Bahá’í history. Courtesy: Pedro Donaires.

Figure 10: The city of ‘Akká at the beginning of the 19th Century.

Figure 12: Mansion of Mazra’ih, c. 1900. Courtesy: Bahá’í World Centre.

Figure 13: The House of ‘Abbúd in ‘Akká.

Figure 14: Headstone of Ḥájí Mullá Mihdí in the cemetery of Mazra’ih © Bahá’í World Centre.

Figure 15: The Mansion of Bahjí at the beginning of the 19th Century.

Figure 16: A street of ‘Akká at the beginning of the 19th Century. Courtesy: Bahá’í World Centre.

Figure 17: The Soltanieh in Zanján (Public domain).

Figure 18: View of Zanján in the 19th century.

Figure 19: Laqá’íyyih Khánum. Courtesy: Monireh Kazemzadeh.

Figure 20: ‘Alá’u’d-Dawlih, the Governor of Zanján.

Figure 21: Kámrán Mírzá, Governor of Tehran.

Figure 22: Mas’úd Mírzá, Governor of Isfahan, the Sháh’s oldest son.

Figure 23: Naṣiri’d-Dín Sháh (reigned 1848 – 1896).

Figure 24: Photograph of the scene depicting the assassination of Naṣiri’d-Dín Sháh in the film Soltan-e Sahebgharan.

Figure 25: Map of the Royal Complex of Tehran in the 19th Century.

Figure 26: Ḥájíbu’d-Dawlih, the beast of the Anbar.

Figure 28: Plane of the Anbar prison. Adapted from: Yaghoub Khazaei (2018).

Figure 30: A criminal being punished with the bastinado in Iran.

Figure 29: Political prisoners in the Anbar prison.

Figure 31: Rúḥu’lláh Varqá in 1891.

Figure 32: View of Ferdowsi avenue (formerly, Alaé-Doulah) Tehran (1915) where Rúḥu’lláh, Varqá, Mírzá Ḥusayn Zanjání and Ḥájí Ímám Zanjání were paraded in 1896 before being sent to prison.

Figure 33: Facsimile of Rúḥu’llah’s Calligraphy. Source: Bahá’í World Centre.

Figure 34: Rúḥu’lláh portrait by Jill Hatcher. Courtesy: Juxta Media.

Figure 36: Rúḥu’lláh and Varqá in chains.

Figure 35: The Hand of the Cause ‘Alí Muḥammad Varqá. Courtesy: George Ronald.

Figure 38: The mausoleum of Varqá and Rúḥu’lláh in Tehran.

Figure 37: Varqá, Rúḥu’lláh, Mírzá Ḥusayn Zanjání and Ḥájí Ímám Zanjání chained to each other in the Anbar prison from left to right.

Figure 40: Rúḥu’lláh’s surviving brothers: Mírzá Valíyu’lláh Varqá (left) and Mírzá ‘Azízu’lláh Varqá (right), in Tehran in 1908.

Figure 39: Muẓaffari’d-Dín Sháh (reigned 1896–1907).

Figure 41:‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Dublin, New Hampshire, in 1912. Valíyu’lláh Varqá is second from the right. Source: National Bahá'í Archives, United States.

Figure 42: Valíyu’lláh Varqá as a young man.

Figure 44: Bahá’is of Lima welcoming Hand of the Cause Valíyu’lláh Varqá in Lima, Peru, August 1953.

Figure 43: First National Spiritual Assembly of Iran formed in 1934. The future Hands of the Cause Shu’á’u’lláh ‘Alá’í and Valíyu’lláh Varqá are seated first and second from the left, respectively.

Figure 45: Hand of the Cause and Trustee of the Ḥuqúqu’lláh Valíyu’lláh Varqá.

Figure 46: Members of the first Spiritual Assembly of Tehran (1897). Mírzá ‘Azízu’lláh Varqá is seated in the middle of the front row holding the Greatest Name. On the middle row three of the four Hands of the Cause are seated: (from left to right) Mírzá Ḥasan-i-Adíb, Ibn-i- Aṣdaq, Ḥájí Mullá Akbar (Ḥájí Akhund). The covered faces are those of Covenant-breakers. Courtesy: George Ronald Oxford.

Figure 47. Childhood photograph of Dr Varqá on which ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote Hand, Confirmed and Yá Bahá u’l-Abhá (O Thou Glory of the Most Glorious).

Figure 48: Members of Iran’s National Youth Committee in 98 BE. Seated from right to left: Mr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá (later Hand of the Cause), Mr ‘Alí Nakhjavání, Mrs Rúḥangiz Mutivayyih, Dr Míhdí Samandarí and Mr Muḥammad Yazdání. Standing from right to left: Mr ‘Abdu’lláh Misbáh, unknown, Mr Salim Nunu, Mr Zikru’lláh Khádem (later Hand of the Cause) and Mr Abu’l-Qásim Faizi (later Hand of the Cause).

Figure 49: Hand of the Cause Dr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá (front row, second right) and members of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Congo and Gabon (1971). Courtesy: Bahá’í World Centre.

Figure 50: Dr Varqá attending the 1985 International Bahá’í Youth Conference in Lima. The author is on the left.

Figure 51: Hand of the Cause of God and Trustee of the Ḥuqúqu’lláh Dr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá. Courtesy: Bahá’í World Centre.

Figure 52: 1985 International Bahá’í Youth Conference, Lima, Peru.

Figure 53: Gathered on the steps of the Seat of the Universal House of Justice on Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel are members of the Continental Boards of Counsellors together with members of the Universal House of Justice, the International Teaching Centre, and, at front, centre, the Hand of the Cause of God Dr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá, December 2005. Courtesy: Bahá’í World Centre.

Figure 54: Hand of the Cause Dr Varqá with members of the Universal House of Justice, 2007. Courtesy: Bahá’í World Centre.

O friends, now indeed is the time, the time of service, the time for acquiring divine bounty, the time of victory.

Rúḥu’lláh Varqá

To the Bahá’ís of Iran

Foreword

Journeys are a pervasive theme in Bahá’í literature, no less so in Varqá and Rúḥu’lláh: 101 Stories of Bravery on the Move by Dr. Boris Handal. As the title suggests, this volume invites the reader to accompany two heroic souls as they scale the rugged mountains on their approach to their Beloved: the father, Mírzá ‘Alí-Muḥammad, surnamed Varqá (Dove) by Bahá’u’lláh, and his young son, Rúḥu’lláh (meaning the Spirit of God). Both individuals figure prominently in Bahá’í history: Varqá, a Hand of the Cause of God, and a renowned teacher, poet and physician and in ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s words, an incomparable person, a jewel of kindness; and Rúḥu’lláh, a prodigy who was referred to as Jináb-i-Mubaligh (the Honourable Religious Teacher) by Bahá’u’lláh. They were both inhumanly put to death in prison in Tehran in 1896; their only crime – being Bahá’ís.

In this volume, the reader is taken on a journey of transformation and discovery. Transported to distant lands, whether on the uplifting and awe-inspiring journeys to pilgrimage in the Holy Land or on the long and perilous journey on horseback from Zanján to Tehran, in chains and fetters and in the bitter cold, the author employs the resources of language and imagery to depict the backdrop of the literal and metaphorical journey: For days the prisoners kept moving through the rocky road flanked on the left by the ruggy slopes of the Alborz ranges and on the right by the vastness of the Iranian plateau. As we marvel at Varqá’s and Rúḥu’lláh’s endurance and the bravery of their exploits, we are prompted to consider afresh the condition and purpose of our own inner lives and spiritual journeys.

The author has assembled many luminous gems to captivate and inspire the reader, amongst them a detailed account of Varqá’s integral role in communicating with Bahá’u’lláh in respect to the treasured portrait of the Báb (painted by artist Áqá Balá Bayg of Shishavan); and a story about the endearing relationship between Rúḥu’lláh and the revered Umm-i-Ashraf (Mother of Ashraf) who showered love and hospitality upon the young Rúḥu’lláh in Zanján in 1882. Also notable is Rúḥu’lláh’s affection and high regard for his aunt Bíbí Túbá (Varqá’s only sister) whom he refers to in glowing terms: my exalted aunt and the esteemed and respected aunt, a regard rarely accorded to women in Persia in those days. Further, there is a graphic description of the brutal Anbar prison which epitomised the miseries of Qajar society where Varqá, Rúḥu’lláh and their two companions, Mírzá Ḥusayn and Ḥájí Ímám, were incarcerated and where Varqá and Rúḥu’lláh were later martyred. It was here that we see the fraternal feeling between Rúḥu’lláh (then aged 12 years) and his older brother, the valiant Azízu’lláh (aged 15 years) who despite the very real danger posed for his own safety (as Varqá himself had cautioned) managed to gain access to that hellish place to be of assistance to his father and brother.

We cannot fail to mention the stirring extracts from Varqá’s and Rúḥu’lláh’s poetry on the mystical themes of love, sacrifice and the mysteries of martyrdom which beckon the reader to search out more. And while Rúḥu’lláh possessed a maturity well beyond his age, his poetry has an evocative quality of the spirit of idealism and service so characteristic of his own age of junior youth:

Hoisting the flags of guidance, march

Towards the world, O lovers of Bahá,

That these intoxicated creatures may awaken

And move away from fancies and doubts,

And the light of God may enlighten their eyes,

And the thorns of their hearts may become roses.

The concluding stories are devoted to the lives of Varqá’s third son, Mr Valíyu’lláh Varqá and grandson, Dr. ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá who were both Hands of the Cause of God and Trustees of the Institution of Ḥuqúqu’lláh. How remarkable that Varqá’s lineage should have such a deep association with the law of Ḥuqúqu’lláh! – a law, Bahá’u’lláh tells us, in which there are benefits and wisdoms beyond the ken of anyone but God, the Omniscient, the All-Informed.¹ Apt then, is the inclusion of an Appendix with a talk by Dr. Varqá on Ḥuqúqu’lláh given at the Sixth International Convention in Haifa in 1988.

At its closure, the author offers some final reflections which include a welcome recognition of the often hidden yet indispensable role of women in this historical account, at a time when referring to women's names was forbidden by common laws and houses did not even have windows opening upon the outside world. Women used to talk to visitors at home behind curtains and cover their faces in public. While we look back askance at such severe oppression and can take some heart at progress being made in relation to gender equality, the author is at pains to remind us of the systematic oppression of the Bahá’ís in Iran which distressingly continues to the present day.

This foreword would be incomplete without a note on illustrations. Widely sourced, and accompanied by the author’s rich descriptive narrative, they provide fascinating insights to illuminate the context, dating back to early Persia.

One of the stories in this volume concerns a recollection of Varqá upon attaining the honour of meeting Bahá’u’lláh while on his first pilgrimage in 1878. On this occasion, Bahá’u’lláh emphasised the importance of writing: the Blessed Tongue repeated the Command of the ‘First Point,’ which was that the believers should each one write books demonstrating the truth of ‘He whom God shall manifest.’ It is hoped that the publication of Varqá and Rúḥu’lláh: 101 Stories of Bravery on the Move will inspire other individuals to similarly arise and put pen to paper and heed Rúḥu’lláh’s admonition to Make an effort, O my friends! The time to serve hath come!

Dr Felicity Rawlings-Sanaei

Sydney, Australia

September, 2020

¹Bahá’u’lláh. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Bahá’í Reference Library available at: www.bahai.org/r/443108496

Preface

I first met the Hand of the Cause of God Dr ‘Alí-Muḥammad Varqá, member of the illustrious Varqá family, in 1985. An international Bahá’í youth conference was held in Lima, Peru, and Dr Varqá was the special speaker at the invitation of the National Spiritual Assembly of Peru. Youth from almost all of Latin America were interested in coming. However, those were difficult times due to political instability and insecurity because of the threat of armed groups. 

At that time, months after the Iranian Islamic revolution Dr Varqá was residing in Canada. He was not feeling well but when invited over the phone his immediate response was: If that is for the youth I will be there. With a group of friends, I went to receive him at the airport late at night to take him to his hotel. At one of the sessions, I sat next to him and spoke about an article that I had written about his grandfather Varqá and his uncle Rúḥu’lláh. Dr Varqá was impressed by my modest thirty page article written in the Spanish language and was very encouraging about its publication. For my delight, he signed the book cover. I remember him becoming very interested about the sources of my work with a gentleness of which I will treasure forever.

Dr Varqá spoke about the Covenant and how the Universal House of Justice was elected in 1963. He referred to the year 1957 when suddenly Shoghi Effendi died leaving the Hands of the Cause in a leadership role to the Bahá’í world. Given the empty space left by the Guardian’s passing, the Hands studied together the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi to find guidance on what they could do to move the Faith forward. Finally, the Hands decided to continue advancing the Ten Year Crusade and at its conclusion arranged for the election of the first Universal House of Justice. The point that Dr Varqá made was that whatever a problem is, we should always find the solution in the Writings of our Faith.

The conference was a total success and people came to see the Hand of the Cause. Five-hundred youth from eighteen countries in Latin America, North America and four native groups congregated together around Dr Varqá to celebrate the International Year of the Youth announced by the United Nations. The youth were able to interact personally with the Hand of the Cause at all times. His presence and his words inspired hundreds of young people from almost twenty Latin American countries, a conference organiser wrote. Dr Varqá’s visit to Lima turned a crisis into a great victory, lighting the flame of the spirit of more than five hundred young people.²

I later learned that Dr Varqá’s father, the Hand of the Cause Valíyu’lláh Varqá, had come to Lima in the first week of August 1953 in the midst of an intense winter on an exhausting teaching tour taking him to Panama, Quito, Guayaquil, Lima, Santiago, Montevideo and Brazil.³ He came by sea and was received at the main port by a group of eleven believers of the nascent Peruvian Bahá’í community. At that time, only two Spiritual Assemblies were formed in the country. Several meetings were held for Bahá’ís and their friends. The compact local shop functioning as a Bahá’í centre proved not enough to accommodate everyone and therefore talks were held at his Euro Hotel in the Miraflores part of the city next to the sea. For these believers, it was the first time that they were meeting a designated Hand of the Cause of God and they still recall his evident dignity and courtesy. Both Hands visited eight Hispano-American countries during their lifetimes.

The next time I saw Dr Varqá was when I went on pilgrimage in 1996. We shook hands again in Bahjí and he signed my prayer book which I still treasure much. Although, Dr Varqá looked frailer as he was in his eighty-fifth year, yet he was ceaselessly interacting with the dozens of pilgrims. I remember our pilgrim guide taking us to the Office of Ḥuqúqu’lláh to get a glimpse of Dr Varqá in his work environment as the Chief Trustee. I had the impression that his desk had been placed next to his door so that he could see the passing of the pilgrim groups. As pilgrims, we also heard him speak at the building of the International Teaching Centre for the pilgrims.

In a calm but resonant voice, Dr Varqá spoke about the existence of over 10,000 Local Spiritual Assemblies worldwide, and also about the need for personal teaching plans when we return back home. He radiated much kindness throughout his talk and summoned the friends to a greater level of courage and hard work. He spoke with a wonderful spirit from beginning to end, and that spirit stayed with the audience even when he left the auditorium. In a subsequent pilgrimage, I saw Dr Varqá sitting in a small white car at Collins Gate in Bahjí in deep reflection about the Shrine of Baháʼu’lláh from a distance, the place where his grandfather Varqá had stood in 1893, solemnly contemplating and grieving the ascension of the Blessed Beauty that took place the year after his second pilgrimage. He was greeting all the pilgrims and I saw the Hand of the Cause doing what he seemed to enjoy, mingling with Bahá’ís from all over the world.

Despite his advanced age, his loving and all-embracing smile could be seen on his illumined face at all times— the same smile that attracted me to this distinguished personage the first time I met him when I was a youth. Dr Varqá always manifested a natural dignity and nobility while radiating great humility and self-effacement, which is even more praiseworthy given that he came from a distinguished Bahá’í family. Such a pattern of family consecration had its roots during the time of the Báb, continued throughout the ministries of Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, shone during the custodianship of the Hands of the Cause, and ended in a blaze of glory in the service of the Universal House of Justice. Dr Varqá’s grandfather, ‘Alí Muḥammad Varqá, was posthumously elevated to the rank of Hand of the Cause. While he was alive, Dr Varqá’s father, Valíyu’lláh Varqá, was also appointed a Hand of the Cause. Thus, within a space of sixty years this family raised two glorious martyrs and three Hands of the Cause. Certainly, this was a blessed family whose members were characterised by dedication, courage and sacrifice, and whose services spanned over 170 years.

The narrative of their services was miraculously preserved primarily through story-telling and oral accounts more than by any other means hence the continuous referencing to primary and secondary sources. This book contains 101 vignettes documenting this spiritual legacy to the world. To transport our modern minds to a different time and space, care has been taken to interpolate glimpses of Iranian culture, history, geography and even the language. Should we attempt to understand the humanness of Varqá and his son Rúḥu’lláh as well as their grandiosity, it is necessary to refer to the context in which they lived. To encounter those personal traces, those that make us similar to them, we need to consider the external forces to which Varqá and his son Rúḥu’lláh were subjected to, and how they reacted to the crises and victories they faced. The author has attempted his best to represent the contrast between what they actually managed to change and what they could not, despite their efforts. The result of these two contrasts was certainly the result of divine intervention because they passed into history with unsurpassed heroism and brilliance.

With the same satisfaction that the author shared, thirty five years ago, with Dr Varqá the modest thirty-page article on Rúḥu’lláh and his father, he now submits this expanded work in the hope that the light of their blessings, traversing epochs and eras, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá promised, illumines and confirms the reader, whatever time he or she lives in.

Boris Handal

Sydney, Australia

September 2020

²Enrique Sanchez Jr, personal communication to the author.

³Boris Handal, Eve Nicklin: She of the Brave Heart (Charleston, South Carolina: CreateSpace, 2011).

Acknowledgements

This book would not have been possible without the exceptional support of Bahá’í institutions, colleagues, friends and family members. I would like to thank the Research Department and the Audio-Visual Department of the Bahá’í World Centre, as well as the Archive Department of the US Bahá’í National Centre and George Ronald Publisher for providing several of the photos included in the book. Old photos are mostly public domain unless indicated. I want to show my appreciation as well to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Australia for their logistic support, nurturing and encouragement. I also would like to express my gratitude to Dr Melanie Lotfali and Dr Felicity Rawlings-Sanaei for their careful editorial work including proofreading. I must also acknowledge Dr Iraj Ayman, Dr Moojan Momen, Dr Wendi Momen, Dr Stephen Lambden, Nur Mihrshahi, Dr Soroush Sedaghat, the Vargha family, Greg Dahl, Adren and Camelia Alinejad for their assistance with translations, historical research and general commentary. Adren Alinejad assisted with the cover design. Marta and Vicente Lopez also contributed with important historical and photographic information. Also thanks to Farzad Naziri and Habib Hosseiny for translating Rúḥu’lláh’s letter to his aunt and the personal supplication, respectively.

Many friends such as Enrique Sanchez Jr, Gary Khamsi, Martha and Vicente Lopez, Shahnaz Talebzadeh, Farhad Radmehr, Mirna Leon, Dr Farid Tebyani, Dr Ron Tingook, Dr Omar Brdarevic, Gloria Sadeghi Mogharabi, Michael Day, Dr Janet Khan, among other believers, wrote their touching impressions about the Hand of the Cause of God Dr Varqá. Many thanks also to Allan Waters for letting me quote from his article about Dr Varqá’s contribution to the Institution of Ḥuqúqu’lláh and to Vafa Lalehzari for his most valued technical support with the photographs and particularly with the narrative literacy. Hoda Seioshansian and Mary Victoria were very helpful by assisting in the translation of some of Varqá’s poems. Without my wife Parvin’s encouragement and trust, this book would never have been produced.

To the Kazemzadeh family in the persons of Monireh Kazemzadeh and Marina Banuazizi for providing so generously historical information to enrich the narrative, I should express my deepest gratitude. To Ian Andrew from Leschenault Press for going the extra mile to meet my publishing requirements. My thanks also go to Juxta Publishing for giving permission to use the beautiful portrait of Rúḥu’lláh drawn by Jill Hatcher. Similarly, I would like to acknowledge the English translations of Rúḥu’lláh and Varqá’s poetry published by Julio Savi, Faeze Mardani, John Hatcher and Amrollah Hemmat. Likewise, I am grateful to Pedro Donaires for drawing the plane of the Anbar prison and the maps of Iran. The facsimile of Rúḥu’lláh’s calligraphy is reproduced with permission from the Bahá’í World Centre. Finally, I am thankful to the National Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Australia for passing review of the manuscript.

A Short Note on Bahá’í Orthography

Readers are advised that to a feasible extent the author has used the transliteration standard adopted by Shoghi Effendi in 1923 for Bahá’í literature in the Persian and Arabic language. The system was adapted from the standards set by the Tenth International Congress of Orientalists held in Geneva in 1894.

Due to the lack of a uniform system before Shoghi Effendi’s ministry, the writing of Bahá’í terms was inconsistent. For early texts, this book has kept as much as possible the integrity of the original source although at times the correct transliteration has been used to assist with the flow of the narrative. Hence, the spelling of some terms in this book remains as in the original sources. For instance, the word Bahá’í sometimes is spelt as Bahai or Baha’i in some early publications.

In order to facilitate the understanding of some oriental words the table below outlines the variations of some Bahá’í terms that the reader may come across. In some cases, for practicality reasons, the most popular form of the name has been kept such as Varqá instead of Varqa, Vargha and Wargha, or Tehran instead of Tihrán.

Glossary