Religion and Human Flourishing

Religion and Human Flourishing

Adam B. Cohen

Editor

Baylor University Press

© 2020 by Baylor University Press

Waco, Texas 76798

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Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-4813-1285-1

Mobi ISBN: 978-1-4813-1326-1

ePub ISBN: 978-1-4813-1287-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020017776

This volume came out of a conference on religion and human flourishing sponsored by the Templeton Foundation, conducted at Harvard University in 2018. Attending scholars represented world-renowned universities, including Yale, Notre Dame, UC Santa Barbara, Oxford, Arizona State University, University of British Columbia, University of Texas, Harvard, Chapman, Cambridge, Hope College, and Baylor, as well as the London-based think tank Perspectiva. Attendees of the conference have all made profound contributions to the academic study of religion, and we are honored to present their essays in this volume. The Templeton Foundation also provided funding that supported this volume.

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Contents

Contributors

Introduction

Adam B. Cohen

I

1. Meanings and Dimensions of Flourishing

A Programmatic Sketch

Miroslav Volf, Matthew Croasmun, Ryan McAnnally-Linz

2. Virtues, Vices, and the Good Life

A Theologian’s Perspective on Compassion and Violence

Celia Deane-Drummond

3. Status Viatoris and the Path Quality of Religion

Human Flourishing as a Sacred Process of Becoming

Jonathan Rowson

4. Spiritual Well-Being and Human Flourishing

Conceptual, Causal, and Policy Relations

Tyler J. VanderWeele

II

5. Religion and Human Flourishing in the Evolution of Social Complexity

Harvey Whitehouse

6. The Next Generation

Evolutionary Perspectives on Religion and Human Flourishing

Dominic D. P. Johnson

7. Religions Help Us Trust One Another

Adam B. Cohen

8. Religion’s Contribution to Prosociality

Azim F. Shariff

III

9. Religion’s Contribution to Population Health

Key Theoretical and Methodological Considerations

Christopher G. Ellison

10. Offender-Led Religious Movements

Identity Transformation, Rehabilitation, and Justice System Reform

Byron R. Johnson

11. Some Big-Data Lessons about Religion and Human Flourishing

David G. Myers

12. Smart and Spiritual

The Coevolution of Religion and Rationality

Laurence R. Iannaccone

13. The Economics of Religion in Developing Countries

Sriya Iyer

14. On Balance

Azim F. Shariff

Notes

Index

Contributors

Adam B. Cohen is a professor of psychology at Arizona State University. His research examines how religious differences function as cultural differences and suggests that religion is profoundly influential in shaping self-construal and strongly affects intergroup relations. He is an author of Generating Generosity in Catholicism and Islam: Beliefs, Institutions, and Public Good Provision.

Matthew Croasmun is associate research scholar and director of the Life Worth Living Program at the Yale Center for Faith and Culture and lecturer in humanities at Yale College. He is author of The Emergence of Sin: The Cosmic Tyrant in Romans and co-author with Miroslav Volf of For the Life of the World: Theology That Makes a Difference.

Celia Deane-Drummond is a senior research fellow and the inaugural director of Laudato Si’ Research Institute at Campion Hall, University of Oxford. Her research, writing, and teaching focus on constructive systematic and moral theology in their relation to the biological and human sciences. She is the author of Theological Ethics through a Multispecies Lens: The Evolution of Wisdom, Volume 1.

Christopher G. Ellison is the Dean’s Distinguished Professor of Social Science and a professor of sociology at The University of Texas at San Antonio. His work looks at the role of religious involvement in mental and physical health and well-being, religion, and family life, and the role of religion in the lives of African Americans and Latino Americans. He is an editor of Religion, Families, and Health: Population-Based Research in the United States.

Laurence R. Iannaccone is professor of economics and director of the Institute for the Study of Religion, Economics, and Society at Chapman University. His research publications apply economic theory to the study of church participation, conversion, extremism, and other aspects of religion and spirituality.

Sriya Iyer is a University reader in economics at the University of Cambridge. She has used the tools of economics to offer insights into one of the most religiously diverse countries in the world in her book The Economics of Religion in India.

Byron R. Johnson is Distinguished Professor of the Social Sciences and professor of sociology at Baylor University where he is also the founding director of Baylor’s Institute for Studies of Religion. He is a leading authority on the scientific study of religion, the efficacy of faith-based organizations, domestic violence, and criminal justice and an author of The Quest for Purpose: The Collegiate Search for a Meaningful Life.

Dominic D. P. Johnson is professor of international relations at the University of Oxford. His research focuses on the role of cognitive psychology, evolutionary biology, and religion in human conflict and cooperation behavior. His most recent book is God Is Watching You: How the Fear of God Makes Us Human.

Ryan McAnnally-Linz is the associate director of the Yale Center for Faith and Culture and a lecturer in humanities at Yale College. He has written in multiple fields, including systematic theology and humanities education.

David G. Myers is a Hope College psychology professor and coauthor of introductory and social psychology texts. His writings also have related psychological science to happiness, intuition, and faith.

Jonathan Rowson is the director of the London-based Perspectiva, a new research institute seeking to highlight the importance of the connections between systems, souls, and society in a range of complex problems. He is the author of Spiritualise: Cultivating Spiritual Sensibility to Address 21st Century Challenges and The Moves That Matter: A Chess Grandmaster on the Game of Life.

Azim F. Shariff is Canada 150 Research Chair in Moral Psychology at the University of British Columbia (UBC) where he is also an associate professor of psychology and director of UBC’s Center for Applied Moral Psychology. His work focuses on the intersection of morality with religion, cultural attitudes, and social and technological trends. He is the author of more than fifty scientific papers.

Tyler J. VanderWeele, Ph.D., is the John L. Loeb and Frances Lehman Loeb Professor of Epidemiology at the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health and the founding director of the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard University. His research concerns methodology for distinguishing between association and causation in observational studies as well as the empirical study of the determinants of human flourishing and of religion as a social determinant of health. He is an author of Explanation in Causal Inference.

Miroslav Volf is the Henry B. Wright Professor of Theology at the Yale Divinity School and the founding director of the Yale Center for Faith and Culture. He is the author of Flourishing: Why We Need Religion in a Globalized World.

Harvey Whitehouse holds a statutory chair in social anthropology and is the director of the Centre for the Study of Social Cohesion at the University of Oxford. A founder of the interdisciplinary cognitive science of religion field, he has published three books on modes of religiosity and is currently completing a new work on the subject, The Ritual Animal: Imitation and Cohesion in the Evolution of Social Complexity.

Introduction

Adam B. Cohen

It is fair to say that people in times not too long past looked to religion as the chief indicator of their flourishing. They might ask their priest or rabbi or imam, or they might look to religious texts or to their religious communities to see if they were living their lives in the right ways. If not, they might have been encouraged to lead a more religious life, so as to flourish more. But time has marched on, and we no longer take it for granted that religion can help us flourish, or can tell us what it means to flourish. Today more than ever we might move religion to the sidelines, or even consider whether religion is detrimental to our flourishing.

Religion may have consequences for humanity at multiple levels, from the health or well-being of individuals to relationships within and among groups to the development and maintenance of social institutions to cultural evolution. What is the relation of religion to flourishing? Can religion help us to flourish or tell us whether we are flourishing, or does religion interfere with our flourishing?

These are deep and nuanced questions, which bear careful theological and philosophical thought, and careful empirical examination. This volume undertakes to determine the quality of evidence for and against claims that religion contributes to human flourishing.

The essays in the present book grew out of a conference organized as part of the Humble Approach Initiative, funded by the JTF and conference held at Harvard in Nov–Dec of 2018. The participants gathered to discuss the broad question of religion’s relationship to human flourishing, and the diversity of thought they represent is readily obvious in the diversity of approaches on display in their essays. The contributors generally hold that religion is causally consequential—whether positively or negatively—at each of level of analysis from the very small to the very large. But their essays show that there are gaps in our knowledge and point to the kinds of theoretical and empirical research initiatives that would have potential to provide definitive answers to a range of important questions.

If we are to talk about religion and flourishing, one of the first things we need to figure out is how to even frame these questions, theologically and philosophically. All faith traditions claim for their systems of belief goals and intrinsic goods that can be incompatible with self-interest. Religious definitions of health and wholeness may be broader than those of the secular world. Research that takes seriously uniquely religious aspects of human flourishing as desired outcomes may be needed as well as ever greater methodological rigor in future investigations of causal connections. Not least, this volume considers how theological and philosophical perspectives might shape such future research as well as how such research might benefit religious communities.

The first section of the book takes up these foundational theological and philosophical questions.

Of course, to proceed with our inquiry we should establish what precisely is meant by flourishing (religion is not necessarily a settled term either, but for our purposes the broad sense of faith traditions will serve). This definitional groundwork is laid by Miroslav Volf in Meanings and Dimensions of Flourishing: A Programmatic Sketch. Volf aims to clarify the meaning of flourishing by integrating three perspectives from Western tradition, arguing that a flourishing life is a life that is being led well (agency), that goes well (circumstances), and that feels right (emotions).

Next, Celia Deane-Drummond, in Virtues, Vices, and the Good Life: A Theologian’s Perspective on Compassion and Violence, further takes up the basic philosophical and theological question of human flourishing’s meaning. As a Roman Catholic theologian, she is most interested in cultural change toward values that encourage rather than inhibit the good life, understood as the common good, so meaning the good for all and the good for each.

Jonathan Rowson, in "Status Viatoris and the Path Quality of Religion: Human Flourishing as a Sacred Process of Becoming," asks how we might conceive of the relationship between our ultimate societal ends and our available institutional means, in ways that help clarify how we should live. He introduces a theoretical and empirical research initiative (what does it mean to grow as a person and why does it matter for society?), highlights some little understood individual differences (e.g., mental complexity and levels of maturation) that are not often taken into account in the context of flourishing, and introduces a way of thinking (constructive-developmental) that is unhelpfully dispersed across myriad forms of scholarship and practice.

Rounding out the section on conceptual foundations, Dr. Tyler VanderWeele, in Spiritual Well-Being and Human Flourishing: Conceptual, Causal, and Policy Relations, situates the question of whether religion contributes to flourishing across a number of different levels: the individual, different communities, competing notions of the good, and the final end of the human person.

The next section of the book turns to the empirical dimension and encompasses perspectives ranging from anthropology to biostatistics to evolutionary biology to psychology. The scholars represented here consider whether we can ever say that membership in faith communities is not only tethered to but also responsible for personal weal, and ponder whether a decades-long attempt to use the tools of social science to investigate how religion functions at various stages of life has brought us any closer to understanding how religious belief and practice produce spiritual capital on which people can draw in times of exigency and crisis. As a set, these chapters clarify what individual differences and environmental variables (whether related to neighborhoods or nation states) we need to take into account in advancing claims that religion is causally consequential when it comes to flourishing, which in turn raises the question of whether we have the right theoretical models and enough empirical work over long enough periods to examine causal influences.

The first few chapters take quite a distal approach, informed by evolutionary views of religion. Professor Harvey Whitehouse, in a chapter entitled Religion and Human Flourishing in the Evolution of Social Complexity, explains that religion has undoubtedly contributed to the evolution of social complexity. Specifically, the role of religious rituals in the rise of civilization has implications for human flourishing.

Following nicely on Whitehouse’s work on ritual, Dominic Johnson writes on The Next Generation: Evolutionary Perspectives on Religion and Flourishing. Professor Johnson argues that religious beliefs and behaviors pose an evolutionary puzzle because they are costly; however, there are material benefits that can exceed these costs, resulting in net benefits overall. He further proposes that the costs themselves can in fact represent the benefit, via signaling; consequently, religion has (in the past) and may continue (today) to contribute to human flourishing, as measured by Darwinian fitness (survival and reproductive success).

The next two chapters focus on religion, trust, and prosociality—issues which are often proposed to have helped in the cultural evolution of religion. In Religion’s Role in Building Trust, I show that people from different religious groups trust one another to a surprising extent, and that costly signals of religion increase trust, even between people who are from different religions.

Professor Azim Shariff then poses the question of Religion’s Contribution to Prosociality. Shariff provides an overview of a meta-analysis on religion and prosociality, considering both self-reported and objective measures of prosocial behaviors, whether there is evidence for causality, and whether religious prosociality is parochial.

The third and final section of the book follows in the empirical mold by moving to more sociological and economic levels of analysis. Chapters 9–12 focus on religion and flourishing in terms of health and well-being at the individual and group levels. Chris Ellison begins with Religion’s Contribution to Population Health: Key Theoretical and Methodological Considerations. Ellison has three main objectives: (1) to provide a cursory review of some key elements of the literature; (2) to outline some of the key explanatory pathways or mechanisms via which religion may influence health and well-being; and (3) to identify several important directions for further exploration that will help to clarify whether, and to what extent, religion actually influences health and well-being.

Next, Dr. Byron Johnson, in Offender-Led Religious Movements: Identity Transformation, Rehabilitation, and Justice System Reform, looks to offender-led religious movements in prison as a concrete example of how faith and wellness can relate. He shows that these movements have the capacity to provide participants a strong identity, an alternative moral framework, and a set of embodied practices that emphasize virtue and character development.

Closing this unit, David Myers draws out Some Big-Data Lessons from religion and human flourishing. Myers presents evidence that helps determine whether religious engagement is associated with misery, or the good life; greed, or prosocial generosity of time and money; self-serving pride and bigotry, or virtues such as humility and forgiveness; stress and illness, or health and longevity; happiness and life satisfaction, or repression and depression. Big data from varied sources reveal a curious religious engagement paradox: religious engagement correlates negatively with human flourishing across aggregate levels (when comparing more versus less religious countries or American states), and positively across individuals (especially within relatively more religious places).

With Professor Myers’ wrestling with varying levels of analysis as a basis, the two penultimate chapters bring economic perspectives to bear on religion and flourishing. Larry Iannaccone, in Smart and Spiritual: The Coevolution of Religion and Rationality, argues that a capacity for sacred stories represents a biologically grounded capacity for being fascinated, entertained, and persuaded—all vital elements in economic exchange. Sacredness here suggests the capacity’s ability to extend our sense of reality beyond that which we perceive as natural, normal, and strictly material, and must be capable of transcending (and thereby constraining and reshaping) our rational, self-interested impulses.

From a more particular economic vantage, Dr. Sriya Iyer explores The Economics of Religion in Developing Countries. Iyer reports on research which examined how religious organizations provide and change their religious and nonreligious services in response to the competition for adherents and inequality. This study draws on the first Indian economic survey of religious organizations, called the India Religion Survey, between 2007 and 2010, which focused on various organizations’ welfare service provision. Iyer further develops a theoretical economic framework drawing upon industrial organization and game theory to argue that the strength of religious beliefs may be related to economic inequality, religious competition, and nonreligious service provision.

As a concluding reflection on the entire project, Azim Shariff reflects On Balance on whether religion promotes—and detracts—from flourishing. Shariff takes seriously the possibility that the degree to which religion positively contributes to human flourishing is only one side of an important question. After summarizing what the social scientific research says about both the positive and negative effects of religion, Shariff discusses the challenge of weighing these various features to draw a balanced conclusion about whether, and how, religion contributes to human flourishing. 

Given all the cross-disciplinary richness on display here—theological and philosophical conceptualization; empirical observation of biological and social relations; individual, societal, and economic levels of analysis; and overall careful reflection on the positive and negative effects of religion on flourishing—we all hope that this book will have broad appeal, to both academics and nonspecialists. Scholars and lay people alike are interested in religion, and many more still are interested in how to lead a good and meaningful life—how to flourish. The rigorous science, and impact on popular culture, of the positive psychology movement attest to this. The collaborative undertaking represented by this book will further attest to the perennial importance of the questions of religious belief and the pursuit of the good life, and hopefully become a standard for further exploration of such questions. Seldom has such an impressive group of scholars come together to take a nuanced approach to a complex question with such intellectual alacrity. The significance of the book is in its collecting and synthesizing the work of all these scholars, so anyone (in or outside the academy) interested in religion and flourishing has access to a much broader and deeper overview than would be possible if the study were produced from within a singular disciplinary silo. Whatever we may determine about the role of religion in human existence, it is certain that flourishing necessitates community; it is fitting that this exploration reflects just that.

1

Meanings and Dimensions of Flourishing

A Programmatic Sketch

Miroslav Volf, Matthew Croasmun, Ryan McAnnally-Linz

I

One of the major challenges in the current research about human flourishing—about the good life, happiness, well-being, the true life, the life worth living, and other designations under which the topic is discussed—is lack of agreement on what we mean by flourishing and its many near synonyms. The disagreement is not surprising. For there is no way to determine objectively what it would mean for human beings to flourish. The reasons for this are many, but first among them is that flourishing is a normative idea; it names what kind of beings humans ought to be and provides the orienting criteria—the tables of value, to use Friedrich Nietzsche’s phrase—for what they ought to desire and how they ought to live.

Given the normative character of human flourishing, it follows that the sciences have both an indispensable and limited role in helping clarify what we mean by flourishing. For no amount of knowledge about what was, what is, and what is likely to be can determine what ought to be. Various sciences can and should inform our reflection on the meaning of flourishing, but they cannot set its basic meaning. They must, rather, assume it. When it comes to flourishing, the main role of the sciences is to enlighten us about human behavior (in a given culture) and identify the most effective means by which we can come to flourish in the way we have on other grounds (or no grounds at all) determined that we ought to.

If we were to give up on privacy and allow all data about us to be collected—all our correspondence and other interactions, data about our health, the history of our purchases, all the books we’ve read and comments about them we’ve made, etc.—a complex algorithm would be able to come up with an exceptionally accurate account of our behavior, even know us in many regards better than we know ourselves; it would fairly reliably predict what we would do in many situations. But the one thing it wouldn’t be able to tell us is what we ought to do. The algorithm could tell us what we actually desire and what we find desirable, even what we aspire to find desirable, but it couldn’t tell us what we ought to desire. The same is true of science.

To get clarity on the meaning of flourishing, we need to engage not so much in scientific research as in philosophical and religious reflection. The great philosophers—from Socrates to Simone Weil—present us with the most rigorous forms of reflection on the meaning of flourishing. The great religious traditions—from Hinduism and Judaism to Christianity and Islam—offer the most enduring communities of living and attentive reflecting about alternative visions of flourishing. And of course, traditions