Notorious Antebellum North Alabama

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Introduction

OVERVIEW OF MADISON COUNTY’S HISTORY

North Alabama’s history far predates the first cabin of John Hunt or the creation of Madison County. For fourteen thousand years, the region attracted a variety of people. During the Paleo-Indian period, North Alabama became a focal point of early human activity in the Southeast. Clovis culture spearpoints occur in greater densities throughout the Tennessee Valley than in any other part of Alabama, and a distinctive Redstone fluted spearpoint developed in North Alabama or Tennessee and spread eastward to the Carolinas and west into Louisiana. The rich game and ready foraging within the Great Bend of the Tennessee River sustained a large hunter-gatherer population for about five thousand years.

The Archaic period brought massive change. The end of the Pleistocene Ice Age meant that the world warmed and glaciers retreated, and over thousands of years, the climate of North Alabama morphed from one reminiscent of modern Manitoba to the hot and humid environment found today. Along with this general warming, new tools, food sources and trade networks emerged across the continent. Flint and iron ore from North Alabama found itself exchanged for mica from the eastern part of the state and sandstone from Mississippi. Archaic settlements sprang up around riverbanks and coastal regions, where the warmer waters allowed a far greater variety of mussels and oysters to flourish than had been possible during the Ice Age. If the mammoth hunt served as the stereotypical enterprise of the Paleo-Indian, then tossing an empty shell on the midden characterized their Archaic descendants.¹

The oysters could not last forever. During the later Archaic and early Woodland periods, Native diets were increasingly dependent on horticulture and early agriculture. People became tied to their gardens, and regionally distinct artifacts emerged. Unlike the Redstone fluted spearpoint that stretched from southern Appalachia to the Gulf Coast, this regionalism flourished around river basins and tighter clusters of settlements, expressing itself primarily through funerary practices and pottery sherds.

The Copena Mortuary Complex emerged throughout the Tennessee Valley by the Middle Woodland period and marked a drastic transition from preexisting Archaic settlements. Rather than cluster around riverbanks, Copena villages tended to be farther inland, near better soils. They produced intricate pottery and left behind copper jewelry. Even the name ascribed to them, Copena, is a portmanteau of copper and galena (a type of lead ore) and indicates the types of metals they used to decorate their graves. The Copena left behind fifty funerary mounds stretching from Tishomingo County, Mississippi, to Hardin County, Tennessee, to the Guntersville Basin in Marshall County, Alabama. These were smaller mounds than those built by the contemporary Hopewell culture in the Midwest. For example, the most elaborate individual grave uncovered from a Copena mound contained eight objects, while Ohio Hopewell grave mounds contained hundreds of pipes and, in one extreme instance, one hundred thousand freshwater pearls.²

After AD 500, the Hopewellian influence in the Tennessee Valley declined and the Copena culture began to split into two groups: the Flint River culture (eastern branch) and the McKelvey culture (western branch). The Flint River culture adopted Mississippian characteristics by 600, with settlements switching from a series of rounded huts to houses with rectangular floor plans and wall trenches. In contrast, the McKelvey culture began building Mississippian-style platform mounds by the mid-700s. For centuries, the Flint River and McKelvey cultures lived in the remnants of the Copena complex, their artifacts capturing the gradual replacement of the Hopewell by the Mississippians as the dominant force of the Mississippi Basin.

By 800, all the settlements in North Alabama expressed significant Mississippian influence: traditional pottery-making practices that used limestone to temper ceramics gave way to shell-tempered ceramics with increasingly ornate features like loop and strap handles. The mounds changed, the pottery changed and the houses changed, marking a serious cultural shift. Mississippians built two mounds on Hobbs Island and settlements on Tick Island, a small island in Lawrence County destroyed by TVA dam projects in the 1930s. During the early Mississippian period, North Alabama developed close cultural ties to the large Moundville settlements on the Black Warrior River. Rock art reminiscent of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex is located in caves on Redstone Arsenal. The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex was a series of symbols, characters and motifs that pervaded Mississippian sites throughout the southeastern United States.

Yet the settlements in North Alabama continued to shrink in size during the Mississippian period due to climatic factors. By 1500, people abandoned much of northern Alabama and central Tennessee due to a prolonged drought that decimated their crops and drove most of them from their homes and east into the Guntersville Basin or west toward the city-state of Chicaza. By the time Hernando de Soto traipsed through the Southeast, the area existed as more of a frontier between larger Mississippian kingdoms than as a distinctive region in its own right. In fact, de Soto originally followed the Tennessee River southward, but on reaching the Guntersville Basin, his expedition learned that few towns lay farther west and decided to turn southward into the chiefdom of Tuscaluza.³

The diseases de Soto and other conquistadors unwittingly unleashed destabilized most large southeastern Native communities. Throughout the 1520s, conquistadors prodded the maritime edges of North America; Juan Ponce de León and Pánfilo de Nárvaez launched their forays into Florida, while Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón explored the Georgia and South Carolina coasts. Trade between the sea and the hinterland flourished during the Mississippian period, and tragically, European and African diseases traveled into the interior as readily as seal skins and decorative shells.⁴

Two decades later, Tristán de Luna’s short-lived colony near Pensacola recorded abandoned towns around the Alabama River, where de Soto found thriving farming villages. The Spaniards, low on food, took shelter among these ruins while waiting for resupply ships from Mexico. Once de Luna abandoned his designs in Pensacola Bay, the interior Southeast remained outside the immediate concern of European powers and their coastal outposts for decades. During the 1620s, Spaniards launched a handful of further entradas into La Florida, but increasingly, the Spanish exploration of the interior fell to Franciscan monks, a group more interested in building missions in the Panhandle than subjugating the Mississippian city-states along de Soto’s original route.⁵

When Europeans finally returned to the interior, it was for its cheap deerskins and enslaved people. For a century, the Southeast experienced turmoil as groups raided one another to supply European coastal outposts with enslaved enemies. Bands roamed far and wide, coalescing and reforming into new societies along the way. Iroquois raided as far south as the Mississippi Valley, and Chickasaws traveled all the way to the Great Lakes in search of unguarded villages and deer.

By 1720, the peoples of the independent towns and neutral groups had either fled the region, joined with one of the major slaving societies, formed their own confederations for protection or sought shelter at European forts. These strategies were adopted by the most famous Native groups in Alabama: the Cherokee retreated from the worst of the violence in South Carolina and moved farther into the Appalachian Mountains, eventually establishing towns in the northeastern corner of Alabama; the Creek Confederacy began to take shape during the middle of the seventeenth century in response to raids from the Westos and the Chisca; in turn, the Choctaws banded together and developed close ties with early French explorers to better protect themselves from English-allied raiders; and the Chickasaws, whom English Indian Dealers sought out as early as the 1690s, replenished their population by absorbing refugees and adopting enslaved people from their own raids.

Of course, no one group existed as solely victims or victors, raiders or raided. The Creeks formed in response to slave raiding but soon launched their own raids deep into central Florida. The Chickasaws may have been one of the most formidable powers of the Mississippi Valley, but they also suffered attacks by the Osage and the Choctaw. Every Native nation utilized whatever strategy led to survival; they just leaned more heavily on select strategies.⁶

North Alabama remained contested for centuries, existing at the northern edge of the Creek Confederacy, the eastern edge of the Chickasaw homeland and the southwestern edge of the Cherokee settlements. Each group counted a portion of it as their hunting grounds. Gradually throughout the eighteenth century, the Cherokee pushed the Creeks farther south below the Tennessee River. By the time of the American Revolution, Madison and Jackson Counties existed as a borderland between the incoming Cherokee and the established Chickasaw.

After the 1720s, the Native slave trade tapered off as African captives filled the demand for unfree labor. The supply of deer, stressed by a century of nonstop hunting and leather production, withered in the region. Throughout the rest of the eighteenth century, the Natives of the Southeast found themselves trapped in a cycle of debt—unscrupulous English and Anglo-American traders proved more than willing to offer European trade goods on easy credit—yet there were not enough enemies or deer left to satisfy the debts. Increasingly, the Natives paid off their creditors by making concessions of land.

In 1783, when the United States signed the Treaty of Paris and became an independent nation, individual states still possessed conflicting claims with one another. Connecticut had a Western Reserve in northeastern Ohio. Virginia claimed lands that encompassed all of Kentucky and stretched north to Michigan. New Hampshire and New York each claimed the territory between them, which promptly seceded from both and reentered the nation as the state of Vermont.

Two states claimed land in what became North Alabama: South Carolina and Georgia. South Carolina, like most other states, ceded its western strip to the federal government in the late 1780s. Georgia, the youngest and brashest of the original thirteen colonies, refused to cede its western lands and, in 1794, organized a series of controversial sales of the Yazoo Lands (most of modern-day Mississippi and Alabama) to four land-speculation companies: the Georgia Company, the Georgia Mississippi Company, the Upper Mississippi Company and the Tennessee Company. Each of the companies paid around a penny an acre. Many Georgia state legislators participated in the running of the companies and attempted to enrich themselves from the land sales. In 1795, the backlash forced those who approved of the sales from political office, and the new members of the state legislature attempted to rescind the laws allowing the land sales. In the year between the first land sales and Georgia’s attempted negation, much of the land had already been sold to third parties, resulting in a complex legal quagmire that led directly to Georgia ceding all of its western claims in 1802.⁷

Border drama on the Gulf Coast resulted in Spain ceding the most northern portion of its Florida claims in 1795. Three years later, Congress organized this area as the Mississippi Territory and, in 1804, added the adjacent Yazoo Lands. In 1805, the United States signed a treaty with the cash-strapped Chickasaw Nation, offering to pay off $20,000 in debt to its creditors in exchange for a long strip of land stretching from modern-day Paducah, Kentucky, to a triangular cross section in the Great Bend of the Tennessee River.⁸

Later that year, a man named John Hunt and his two sons finished building a cabin near a spring. They were not the first white settlers in the territory that became Madison County; the Criner brothers already had a