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The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation
The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation
The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation
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The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation

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  • Grammar

  • Punctuation

  • English Language

  • Language

  • Writing Style

  • Academic Pursuits

  • Love Triangle

  • Self-Discovery

  • Betrayal

  • Knowledge Is Power

  • Empowerment

  • Power of Language

  • Academic Rivalry

  • Historical Context

  • Intellectual Curiosity

  • Writing

  • Parts of Speech

  • Communication

  • Sentence Structure

  • Linguistics

About this ebook

The authoritative guide to using the English language effectively, from “the greatest writer on grammar and usage that this country has ever produced” (David Yerkes, Columbia University).
 
The author of The Chicago Manual of Style’s popular “Grammar and Usage” chapter, Bryan A. Garner is renowned for explaining the vagaries of English with absolute precision and utmost clarity. With The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation, he has written the definitive guide for writers who want their prose to be both memorable and correct.

Garner describes standard literary English—the forms that mark writers and speakers as educated users of the language. He also offers historical context for understanding the development of these forms. The section on grammar explains how the canonical parts of speech came to be identified, while the section on syntax covers the nuances of sentence patterns as well as both traditional sentence diagramming and transformational grammar. The usage section provides an unprecedented trove of empirical evidence in the form of Google Ngrams, diagrams that illustrate the changing prevalence of specific terms over decades and even centuries of English literature. Garner also treats punctuation and word formation, and concludes the book with an exhaustive glossary of grammatical terms and a bibliography of suggested further reading and references.

The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation is a magisterial work, the culmination of Garner’s lifelong study of the English language. The result is a landmark resource that will offer clear guidelines to students, writers, and editors alike.
 
“[A manual] for those of us laboring to produce expository prose: nonfiction books, journalistic articles, memorandums, business letters. The conservatism of his advice pushes you to consider audience and occasion, so that you will understand when to follow convention and when you can safely break it.”—John E. McIntyre, Baltimore Sun
LanguageEnglish
Release dateMay 16, 2016
ISBN9780226191294
The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation
Author

Bryan A. Garner

Bryan A. Garner, editor in chief of Black’s Law Dictionary, is the author of more than twenty books, including The Law of Judicial Precedent; Garner’s Modern English Usage; The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation; Quack This Way: David Foster Wallace and Bryan A. Garner Talk Language and Writing; and The Rules of Golf in Plain English. Counting Black’s Law Dictionary and his other books, Garner is among the world’s most widely cited legal scholars and has been cited by every appellate court, state and federal, in the country. He writes a syndicated column for the American Bar Association, which reaches over one million lawyers per month. He cowrote two books with Justice Scalia: Making Your Case (2008) and Reading Law (2012).

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    The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation - Bryan A. Garner

    Bryan A. Garner is president of LawProse Inc. and Distinguished Research Professor of Law at Southern Methodist University. He is the author of the grammar and usage chapter of The Chicago Manual of Style and editor in chief of Black’s Law Dictionary. His many books on language and law include Garner’s Modern English Usage and Legal Writing in Plain English, the latter from the University of Chicago Press.

    The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637

    The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London

    © 2016 by Bryan A. Garner

    All rights reserved. Published 2016.

    Printed in the United States of America

    25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16     1 2 3 4 5

    ISBN-13: 978-0-226-18885-0 (cloth)

    ISBN-13: 978-0-226-19129-4 (e-book)

    DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226191294.001.0001

    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

    Names: Garner, Bryan A., author.

    Title: The Chicago guide to grammar, usage, and punctuation / Bryan A. Garner.

    Other titles: Chicago guides to writing, editing, and publishing.

    Description: Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 2016. | ©2016 | Series: Chicago guides to writing, editing, and publishing | Includes bibliographical references.

    Identifiers: LCCN 2015047425 | ISBN 9780226188850 (cloth : alkaline paper) | ISBN 9780226191294 (e-book)

    Subjects: LCSH: English language—Grammar—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | English language—Grammar—Study and teaching (Higher)

    Classification: LCC PE1106 .G35 2016 | DDC 428.2—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015047425

    This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).

    The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation

    Bryan A. Garner

    The University of Chicago Press

    CHICAGO AND LONDON

    A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations

    Kate L. Turabian

    Student’s Guide to Writing College Papers

    Kate L. Turabian

    Writing for Social Scientists

    Howard S. Becker

    The Craft of Translation

    John Biguenet and Rainer Schulte, editors

    The Craft of Research

    Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams

    From Dissertation to Book

    William Germano

    Getting It Published

    William Germano

    From Notes to Narrative

    Kristen Ghodsee

    Writing Science in Plain English

    Anne E. Greene

    Storycraft

    Jack Hart

    How to Write a BA Thesis

    Charles Lipson

    Developmental Editing

    Scott Norton

    The Subversive Copy Editor

    Carol Fisher Saller

    Legal Writing in Plain English

    Bryan A. Garner

    To Karolyne

    Other Books Written or Edited by Bryan A. Garner

    Garner’s Modern English Usage (Oxford Univ. Press, 2016)

    Grammar and Usage, chap. 5 in The Chicago Manual of Style (Univ. of Chicago Press, 16th ed. 2010)

    HBR Guide to Better Business Writing (Harvard Business Review Press, 2013)

    Quack This Way: David Foster Wallace and Bryan A. Garner Talk Language and Writing (RosePen, 2013)

    Black’s Law Dictionary (Thomson Reuters, 10th ed. 2014)

    Garner’s Dictionary of Legal Usage (Oxford Univ. Press, 3rd ed. 2011)

    Guidelines for Drafting and Editing Legislation (RosePen, 2016)

    Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts, with Justice Antonin Scalia (Thomson/West, 2012)

    Making Your Case: The Art of Persuading Judges, with Justice Antonin Scalia (Thomson/West, 2008)

    The Winning Brief (Oxford Univ. Press, 3rd ed. 2014)

    The Redbook: A Manual on Legal Style (West, 3rd ed. 2013)

    Garner on Language and Writing, with preface by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg (ABA, 2009)

    Legal Writing in Plain English (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2nd ed. 2013)

    The Elements of Legal Style, with preface by Charles Alan Wright (Oxford Univ. Press, 2nd ed. 2002)

    The Winning Oral Argument (West, 2009)

    Ethical Communications for Lawyers (LawProse, 2009)

    Securities Disclosure in Plain English (CCH, 1999)

    The Rules of Golf in Plain English, with Jeffrey Kuhn (Univ. of Chicago Press, 4th ed. 2016)

    A New Miscellany-at-Law, by Sir Robert Megarry (Hart, 2005)

    Texas, Our Texas: Remembrances of the University (Eakin Press, 1984)

    Basic Law Terms (West Group, 1999)

    Criminal Law Terms (West Group, 2000)

    Family Law Terms (West Group, 2001)

    Business Law Terms (West Group, 1999)

    Grammar is the cradle of all philosophy.

    John of Salisbury (ca. 1120–80)*

    English is not a subject. English is everything. For us who speak English, English is everything. English is what we say and what we think.

    L.A. G. Strong, English for Pleasure (1941)*

    Nobody who thinks or writes can be above grammar. It is like saying, I’m a creative genius, I’m above concepts—which is the attitude of modern artists. If you are above grammar, you are above concepts; and if you are above concepts, you are above thought. The fact is that then you are not above, but far below, thought. Therefore, make a religion of grammar.

    Ayn Rand, The Art of Nonfiction (1969)*

    I take the candid approach because it fits my teaching situation. My students understand very well what social status means, so I simply tell them, "If you speak this way, you go in the back door; if you speak this way, you go in the front door." I make it very clear that I neither built the house nor did I designate the doors. In this case, I am merely an agent showing off the real estate. I have the key to the front door, and once the student has the concept of usage levels I have given him the key. The back door is always ajar.

    V. Louise Higgins, Approaching Usage in the Classroom (1960)*

    Contents

    Introduction

    1. The field of grammar

    2. Who killed grammar?

    3. Why study grammar?

    4. Overview of the book

    I. The Traditional Parts of Speech

    5. How did we arrive at the canonical eight?

    Nouns

    Traditional Classifications

    6. Nouns generally

    7. Common nouns

    8. Proper nouns

    9. Count nouns

    10. Collective nouns

    11. Expressions of multitude

    12. Expressions of partition

    13. Mass nouns

    Properties of Nouns

    14. Generally

    15. Case

    16. Number

    17. Gender

    18. Person

    Plurals

    19. Generally

    20. Adding -s or -es

    21. Plurals of proper nouns

    22. Nouns ending in -f or -fe.

    23. Nouns ending in -o

    24. Nouns ending in -y

    25. Nouns ending in -ics

    26. Compound nouns

    27. Irregular plurals

    28. Borrowed plurals

    29. Plural form with singular sense

    30. Plural-form proper nouns

    31. Tricky anomalies

    Case

    32. Function

    33. Common case, nominative function

    34. Common case, objective function

    35. Genitive case

    36. The of-genitive

    37. Genitives of titles and names

    38. Joint and separate genitives

    Agent and Recipient Nouns

    39. Definitions; use

    40. Appositives: definition and use

    Conversions

    41. Nouns as adjectives

    42. Nouns as verbs

    43. Adverbial functions

    44. Other conversions

    Pronouns

    Definition and Uses

    45. Pronoun defined

    46. Antecedents of pronouns

    47. Clarity of antecedent

    48. Pronouns without antecedents

    49. Sentence meaning

    Properties of Pronouns

    50. Four properties

    51. Number and antecedent

    52. Exceptions regarding number of the antecedent

    53. Pronoun with multiple antecedents

    54. Some traditional singular pronouns

    55. Gender

    56. Case

    57. Pronouns in apposition

    58. Nominative case misused for objective

    Classes of Pronouns

    59. Seven classes

    Personal Pronouns

    60. Form

    61. Identification

    62. Changes in form

    63. Agreement generally

    64. Expressing gender

    65. Determining gender

    66. Special rules

    67. Case after linking verb

    68. Case after than or as–as

    69. Special uses

    70. The singular they

    Possessive Pronouns

    71. Uses and forms

    72. Possessive pronouns vs. contractions

    Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

    73. Compound personal pronouns: -self forms

    74. Basic uses of reflexive and intensive pronouns

    Demonstrative Pronouns

    75. Definition

    Reciprocal Pronouns

    76. Generally

    77. Simple and phrasal pronouns

    Interrogative Pronouns

    78. Definition

    79. Referent of interrogative pronouns

    Relative Pronouns

    80. Definition

    81. Gender, number, and case with relative pronouns

    82. Positional nuances

    83. Antecedent

    84. Remote relative clauses

    85. Omitted antecedent

    86. Relative pronoun and the antecedent one

    87. Function of relative pronoun in clause

    88. Genitive forms

    89. Whose and of which

    90. Compound relative pronouns

    91. Who vs. whom

    Indefinite Pronouns

    92. Generally

    93. The indefinite pronoun one

    Adjectives

    Types of Adjectives

    94. Definition

    95. Qualitative adjectives

    96. Quantitative adjectives

    97. Demonstrative adjectives

    98. Possessive adjectives

    99. Interrogative adjectives

    100. Distributive adjectives

    101. Indefinite adjectives

    102. Pronominal adjectives

    103. Proper adjectives

    104. Compound adjectives

    105. Relative adjectives

    Articles as Limiting Adjectives

    106. Definition

    107. Definite article

    108. Definite articles and proper names

    109. Indefinite article

    110. Indefinite article in specific reference

    111. Choosing a or an

    112. Articles with coordinate nouns

    113. Effect on meaning

    114. Omitted article and zero article

    115. Article as pronoun substitute

    Dates as Adjectives

    116. Use and punctuation

    Position of Adjectives

    117. Basic rules

    118. After possessives

    119. Adjective modifying pronoun

    120. Predicate adjective

    121. Dangling participles

    122. Distinguishing an adjective from an adverb or participle

    Degrees of Adjectives

    123. Generally

    124. Comparative forms

    125. Superlative forms

    126. Forming comparatives and superlatives

    127. Equal and unequal comparisons

    128. Noncomparable adjectives

    Special Types of Adjectives

    129. Participial adjectives

    130. Coordinate adjectives

    131. Phrasal adjectives

    132. Exceptions for hyphenating phrasal adjectives

    Functional Variation

    133. Adjectives as nouns

    134. Adjectives as verbs

    135. Other parts of speech functioning as adjectives

    136. The weakening effect of injudicious adjectives

    Verbs

    Definitions

    137. Verbs generally

    138. Transitive and intransitive verbs

    139. Ergative verbs

    140. Dynamic and stative verbs

    141. Regular and irregular verbs

    142. Linking verbs

    143. Phrasal verbs

    144. Principal and auxiliary verbs

    145. Verb phrases

    146. Contractions

    Infinitives

    147. Definition

    148. Split infinitive

    149. Uses of infinitive

    150. Dangling infinitive

    Participles and Gerunds

    151. Participles generally

    152. Forming present participles

    153. Forming past participles

    154. Participial phrases

    155. Gerunds

    156. Gerund phrases

    157. Distinguishing between participles and gerunds

    158. Fused participles

    159. Dangling participles

    160. Dangling gerunds

    Properties of Verbs

    161. Five properties

    VOICE

    162. Active and passive voice

    163. Progressive conjugation and voice

    MOOD

    164. Generally

    165. Indicative mood

    166. Imperative mood

    167. Subjunctive mood

    168. Subjunctive vs. indicative mood

    169. Present subjunctive

    170. Past subjunctive

    171. Past-perfect subjunctive

    TENSE

    172. Generally

    173. Present tense

    174. Past indicative

    175. Future tense

    176. Present-perfect tense

    177. Past-perfect tense

    178. Future-perfect tense

    179. Progressive tenses

    180. Backshifting in reported speech

    TENSES ILLUSTRATED

    181. Conjugation of the regular verb to call

    182. Conjugation of the irregular verb to hide

    183. Conjugation of the verb to be

    PERSON

    184. Generally

    NUMBER

    185. Generally

    186. Agreement in person and number

    187. Disjunctive compound subjects

    188. Conjunctive compound subjects

    189. Some other nuances of number involving conjunctions

    190. Peculiar nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense

    191. Agreement of indefinite pronouns

    192. Relative pronouns as subjects

    193. There is; Here is

    194. False attraction to intervening matter

    195. False attraction to predicate noun

    196. Misleading connectives: as well as, along with, together with, etc.

    197. Agreement in first and second person

    Auxiliary Verbs

    198. Generally

    199. Modal auxiliaries

    200. Can and could

    201. May and might

    202. Must

    203. Ought

    204. Shall

    205. Should

    206. Will and would

    207. Dare and need

    208. Do

    209. Have

    Adverbs

    Definition and Formation

    210. Generally

    211. Sentence adverbs

    212. Adverbial suffixes

    213. Adverbs without suffixes

    214. Distinguished from adjectives

    Simple vs. Compound Adverbs

    215. Standard and flat adverbs

    216. Phrasal and compound adverbs

    Types of Adverbs

    217. Adverbs of manner

    218. Adverbs of time

    219. Adverbs of place

    220. Adverbs of degree

    221. Adverbs of reason

    222. Adverbs of consequence

    223. Adverbs of number

    224. Interrogative adverbs

    225. Exclamatory adverbs

    226. Affirmative and negative adverbs

    227. Relative adverbs

    228. Conjunctive adverbs

    Adverbial Degrees

    229. Generally

    230. Comparative forms

    231. Superlative forms

    232. Irregular adverbs

    233. Noncomparable adverbs

    Position of Adverbs

    234. Placement as affecting meaning

    235. Modifying words other than verbs

    236. Modifying intransitive verbs

    237. Adverbs and linking verbs

    238. Adverb within verb phrase

    239. Importance of placement

    240. Adverbial objective

    241. Adverbial clause

    242. Only

    Prepositions

    Definition and Types

    243. Generally

    244. Simple, compound

    245. Phrasal prepositions

    246. Participial prepositions

    Prepositional Phrases

    247. Generally

    248. Prepositional function

    249. Placement

    250. Refinements on placement

    251. Preposition-stranding

    252. Clashing prepositions

    253. Elliptical phrases

    254. Case of pronouns

    Other Prepositional Issues

    255. Functional variation

    256. Use and misuse of like

    Limiting Prepositional Phrases

    257. Avoiding overuse

    258. Cutting prepositional phrases

    259. Cutting unnecessary prepositions

    260. Replacing with adverbs

    261. Replacing with genitives

    262. Using active voice

    Conjunctions

    263. Definition and types

    264. Types of conjunctions: simple and compound

    265. Coordinating conjunctions

    266. Correlative conjunctions

    267. Copulative conjunctions

    268. Adversative conjunctions

    269. Disjunctive conjunctions

    270. Final conjunctions

    271. Subordinating conjunctions

    272. Special uses of subordinating conjunctions

    273. Adverbial conjunctions

    274. Expletive conjunctions

    275. Disguised conjunctions

    276. With used loosely as a conjunction

    277. Beginning a sentence with a conjunction

    278. Beginning a sentence with however

    279. Conjunctions and the number of a verb

    Interjections

    280. Definition

    281. Usage generally

    282. Functional variation

    283. Words that are exclusively interjections

    284. Punctuating interjections

    285. O and oh

    II. Syntax

    Sentences, Clauses, and Their Patterns

    286. Definition

    287. Statements

    288. Questions

    289. Some exceptional types of questions.

    290. Directives

    291. Exceptional directives

    292. Exclamations

    The Four Traditional Types of Sentence Structures

    293. Simple sentence

    294. Compound sentence

    295. Complex sentence

    296. Compound-complex sentence

    English Sentence Patterns

    297. Importance of word order

    298. The basic SVO pattern

    299. All seven patterns

    300. Variations on ordering the elements

    301. Constituent elements

    302. Identifying the subject

    303. Identifying the predicate

    304. Identifying the verb

    305. Identifying the object

    306. Identifying complements

    307. Inner and outer complements

    308. Identifying the adverbial element

    Clauses

    309. In general

    310. Relative clauses

    311. Appositive clauses

    312. Conditional clauses

    Ellipsis

    313. Generally

    314. Anaphoric and cataphoric ellipsis

    315. Whiz-deletions

    Negation

    316. Negation generally

    317. The word not

    318. The word no

    319. Using negating pronouns and adverbs

    320. Using neither and nor

    321. Words that are negative in meaning and function

    322. Affix negation

    323. Negative interrogative and imperative statements

    324. Double negatives

    325. Other forms of negation

    326. Any and some in negative statements

    Expletives

    327. Generally

    328. Expletive it

    329. Expletive "there"

    Parallelism

    330. Generally

    331. Prepositions

    332. Paired joining terms

    333. Auxiliary verbs

    334. Verbs and adverbs at the outset

    335. Longer elements

    Cleft Sentences

    336. Definition

    337. Types

    338. Uses

    Traditional Sentence Diagramming

    339. History and description

    340. Benefits of diagrams

    341. Using diagrams

    342. Criticisms

    343. How diagrams work

    344. Baseline

    345. Subject

    346. Predicate

    347. Direct object

    348. Objective complement

    349. Indirect object

    350. Subjective complement

    351. One-word modifiers

    352. Prepositional phrases

    353. Adjective clauses

    354. Adverbial clauses

    355. Noun clauses

    356. Infinitives

    357. Participles

    358. Gerunds

    359. Appositives

    360. Independent elements

    361. Conjunctions

    362. Diagramming compound sentences

    363. Diagramming complex sentences

    364. Diagramming compound-complex sentences

    Transformational Grammar

    Overview

    365. Definition

    366. Scope of section

    367. Terminology of transformational grammar

    368. Tools of transformational grammar

    369. Universal symbols in rules

    370. Tree diagrams

    Base Rules in Transformational Grammar

    371. Parts of speech

    372. Sentence basics

    Nouns and Noun Phrases

    373. Functions of noun phrases

    374. Simple noun phrases

    Determiners

    375. Types of determiners

    376. Numeric and nonnumeric determiners

    377. Multiple determiners

    378. Determiners in noun phrases

    379. Prearticles

    380. Noun phrases with determiner and prearticle

    Noun-Phrase Modifiers

    381. Modifiers

    382. Compound nouns

    383. Combined rules

    384. Number, person, and possession

    Verb Phrases

    385. Introduction

    386. Functions of verb phrase

    387. Principal verbs

    388. Auxiliaries

    389. Auxiliary verbs

    390. Have

    391. Multiple auxiliaries

    392. Be as a principal verb

    Different Types of Principal Verbs

    393. Generally

    394. Middle verbs

    395. Special subtypes

    Adverbials

    396. Adverbials with principal verbs

    397. Simple adverbs

    398. Functions of simple adverbs

    399. Prepositional phrase as adverbial

    400. Noun phrase as adverbial

    401. Adverbials of place, time, and manner

    402. Number and tense of verbs

    Transformations

    403. Deep and surface structure

    404. Transformational rules

    405. Surface transformation

    406. Simple-question transformation

    407. Imperative transformation

    408. Active- to passive-voice transformation and back again

    Spotting Ambiguities

    409. Identification

    410. Lexical ambiguity

    411. Surface-structure ambiguity

    412. Deep-structure ambiguity

    413. Active- and passive-voice diagrams

    III. Word Formation

    414. Generally

    415. Criteria for morphemes

    416. Free and bound morphemes

    417. Stems and affixes

    418. Inflectional and derivational suffixes

    419. Compounding

    420. Conversion

    421. Shortened forms

    422. Elongations

    423. Reduplicative forms

    424. Loan translations

    425. Acronyms and initialisms

    426. Neologisms

    IV. Word Usage

    Introduction

    427. Grammar vs. usage

    428. Standard Written English

    429. Dialect

    430. Focus on tradition

    Troublesome Words and Phrases

    431. Good usage vs. common usage

    432. Using big data to assess linguistic change

    433. Preventive grammar

    434. Glossary of troublesome expressions

    Bias-Free Language

    435. Maintaining credibility

    436. Gender bias

    437. Other biases

    438. Invisible gender-neutrality

    439. Techniques for achieving gender-neutrality

    440. Necessary gender-specific language

    441. Sex-specific labels as adjectives

    442. Gender-neutral singular pronouns

    443. Problematic suffixes

    444. Avoiding other biased language

    445. Unnecessary focus on personal characteristics

    446. Unnecessary emphasis on the trait, not the person

    447. Inappropriate labels

    Prepositional Idioms

    448. Idiomatic uses

    449. Shifts in idiom

    450. Words and the prepositions construed with them

    V. Punctuation

    451. Introduction

    The Comma

    Using Commas

    452. With a conjunction between independent clauses

    453. After a transitional or introductory phrase

    454. To set off a nonrestrictive phrase or clause

    455. To separate items in a series

    456. To separate parallel modifiers

    457. To distinguish indirect from direct speech

    458. To separate the parts of full dates and addresses

    459. To separate long numbers into three-digit chunks

    460. To set off a name, word, or phrase used as a vocative

    461. Before a direct question inside another sentence

    462. To set off etc., et al., and the like at the end of a series

    463. After the salutation in an informal letter

    Preventing Misused Commas

    464. Not to separate a subject and its verb

    465. Not to separate a verb and its object

    466. Not to set off a quotation that blends into the sentence

    467. Not to set off an adverb that needs emphasis

    468. Not to separate compound predicates

    469. Not to use alone to splice independent clauses

    470. Not to use after a sentence-starting conjunction

    471. Not to omit after an internal set-off word or phrase

    472. Not to set off restrictive matter

    473. Not around name suffixes such as Jr., III, Inc., and Ltd.

    474. Not to separate modifiers that aren’t parallel

    The Semicolon

    Using Semicolons

    475. To unite two short, closely connected sentences

    476. To separate items in a complex series

    477. In old style, to set off explanation or elaboration

    Preventing Misused Semicolons

    478. Not where a colon is needed, as after a formal salutation

    479. Not where a comma suffices, as in a simple list

    The Colon

    Using Colons

    480. To link matter and indicate explanation or elaboration

    481. To introduce an enumerated or otherwise itemized list

    482. To introduce a question

    483. Use a colon to introduce a question

    484. After the salutation in business correspondence

    485. To separate hours from minutes and in some citations

    486. Without capitalizing the following matter needlessly

    Preventing Misused Colons

    487. Not to introduce matter that blends into your sentence

    Parentheses

    Using Parentheses

    488. To set off inserted matter that you want to minimize

    489. To clarify appositives or attributions

    490. To introduce shorthand or familiar names

    491. Around numbers or letters when listing items in text

    492. To denote subparts in a citation

    493. Correctly in relation to terminal punctuation

    494. To enclose a brief aside

    Preventing Misused Parentheses

    495. Not before an opening parenthesis

    The Em-Dash (or Long Dash)

    Using Em-Dashes

    496. To set off matter inserted in midsentence

    497. To set off but emphasize parenthetical matter

    498. To tack on an important afterthought

    499. To introduce a specification or list

    500. To show hesitation, faltering, or interruption

    Preventing Misused Em-Dashes

    501. Not using more than two in a sentence

    502. Not after a comma, colon, semicolon, or terminal period

    The En-Dash (or Short Dash)

    Using En-Dashes

    503. In a range, to show tension, or to join equivalents

    Preventing Misused En-Dashes

    504. Not in place of a hyphen or em-dash

    505. Not with the wording it replaces

    The Hyphen

    Using Hyphens

    506. To join parts of a phrasal adjective

    507. To mark other phrasal-adjective and suffix connections

    508. In closely associated compounds according to usage

    509. When writing out fractions and two-word numbers

    510. To show hesitation, stammering, and the like

    511. In proper names when appropriate

    512. In some number groups or when spelling out a word

    513. With l- suffixes (e.g., -like) on words ending in -ll

    Preventing Misused Hyphens

    514. Not after a prefix unless an exception applies

    515. Not in place of an em-dash, even when doubled (--)

    516. Not with an -ly adverb and a participial adjective

    517. Not in a phrasal verb

    The Apostrophe

    Using Apostrophes

    518. To indicate the possessive case

    519. To mark a contraction or to signal dialectal speech

    520. To form plurals of letters, digits, and some abbreviations

    Preventing Misused Apostrophes

    521. Not to form other plurals, especially of names

    522. Not to omit obligatory apostrophes

    Quotation Marks

    Using Quotation Marks

    523. To quote matter of 50 or fewer words

    524. When using a term as a term or when defining a term

    525. When you mean so-called or but-not-really

    526. For titles of short-form works, according to a style guide

    527. To show internal quotation using single marks

    528. To signal matter used idiomatically, not literally

    529. Placed correctly in relation to other punctuation

    Preventing Misused Quotation Marks

    530. Not for a phrasal adjective

    531. Not to emphasize a word or note its informality

    The Question Mark

    Using Question Marks

    532. After a direct question

    Preventing Misused Question Marks

    533. Not after an indirect question

    The Exclamation Mark

    Using Exclamation Marks

    534. After exclamatory matter, especially when quoting others

    Preventing Misused Exclamation Marks

    535. Not to express your own surprise or amazement

    The Period

    Using Periods

    536. To end a typical sentence, not a question or exclamation

    537. To indicate an abbreviated name or title

    538. Placed properly with parentheses and brackets

    539. To show a decimal place in a numeral

    Preventing Misused Periods

    540. Not with an abbreviation at sentence end

    Brackets

    Using Brackets

    541. In a quotation, to enclose matter not in the original

    542. In parenthetical matter, to enclose another parenthetical

    543. To enclose the citation of a source, as in a footnote

    Preventing Misused Brackets

    544. Not in place of ellipsis dots when matter is deleted

    The Slash (Virgule)

    Using Slashes

    545. To separate alternatives (but never and/or)

    546. To separate numerical parts in a fraction

    547. Informally, to separate elements in a date

    548. Informally, as a shorthand signal for per

    549. To separate lines of poetry or of a song

    Preventing Misused Slashes

    550. Not when a hyphen or en-dash would suffice

    Bullets

    551. To mark listed items of a more or less equal ranking

    Ellipsis Dots

    Using Ellipsis Dots

    552. To show that an unfinished sentence trails off

    553. To signal rumination, musing, or hesitation

    554. To signal an omission of matter within a quotation

    555. With following period, to show omission at sentence end

    556. With preceding period, to show omission after sentence

    Preventing Misused Ellipsis Dots

    557. Omitting space or allowing a line break between dots

    558. Beginning a quotation with ellipsis dots

    Select Glossary

    Notes

    Sources for Inset Quotations

    Select Bibliography

    Acknowledgments

    Word Index

    General Index

    Pronunciation Guide

    Introduction

    1   The field of grammar.

    In its usual sense, grammar is the set of rules governing how words are put together in sentences to communicate ideas—or the study of these rules. Native speakers of a language learn them unconsciously. The rules govern most constructions in any given language. The small minority of constructions that lie outside these rules fall mostly into the category of idiom and customary usage.

    It [the doctrine of usage] asserts that Good use is the general, present-day practice of the best writers. One bone we could pick would be with that best. How are they the best writers except by using the words in the best ways? We settle that they are the best writers because we find them using their words successfully. We do not settle that theirs is the right, the good usage of the words because they use them so. Never was there a crazier case of putting the cart before the horse. It is as though we were to maintain that apples are healthy because wise people eat them, instead of recognizing that it is the other way about—that it is what the food will do for us which makes us eat it, not the fact that we eat it which makes it good food.

    —I. A. Richards

    The Philosophy of Rhetoric

    There are many schools of grammatical thought—and differing vocabularies for describing grammar. Grammatical theories have been in upheaval in recent years. Seemingly the more we learn, the less we know. As the illustrious editor in chief of the Oxford English Dictionary wrote in 1991: An entirely adequate description of English grammar is still a distant target and at present seemingly an unreachable one, the complications being what they are.¹ In fact, the more detailed the grammar (it can run to many large volumes), the less likely it is to be of any practical use to most writers and speakers.

    Grammar should be an attempt to describe the English language as it is actually used—beginning with the facts and not with ingrained biases about what should and should not be considered grammatical. But that’s not the whole story. Describe English, yes—but whose English? The traditional view of English grammar is that it should record the linguistic habits of refined speakers and writers: the best English, or standard literary English shorn of dialect and idioms that typify the language of uneducated speakers. It is the type of English, in other words, that marks its user as an educated speaker or writer. It can be found in the pages of reputable newsmagazines and nonfiction books (and much fiction, too, but less reliably so because of the utility of dialectal usage in dialogue and experimental usage within narrative).

    Not everyone aspires to the standard language—and as a result our culture becomes more varied and interesting. But anyone who does aspire to it will find that it can be cultivated, partly through wide reading of serious writing and partly through close study of its techniques. Although nobody speaks or writes standard literary English infallibly—just as nobody behaves or exercises judgment infallibly—good English exists as certainly as good behavior and good judgment do.

    2   Who killed grammar?

    During the 141 years from 1711 through 1851, grammars were among the most popular books published in English. There were hundreds of them. Seemingly every English-speaking household had, at a minimum, a Bible and a grammar. Lindley Murray, sometimes called the father of English grammar,² sold some 15 million copies of his English Grammar and other literary books from 1795 to 1840.³ In 1851, Goold Brown’s humongous Grammar of English Grammars appeared, occupying 1,102 pages on the subject.

    For the rest of the 19th century, the teaching of grammar was fairly stable. The top names in school grammars after 1850 were John Seely Hart,⁴ Allen Hayden Weld,⁵ Thomas N. Harvey,⁶ Simon Kerl,⁷ and William H. Maxwell.⁸ The dawn of the 20th century saw the rise of the first scholarly grammars and college grammars, still along the line of traditional grammars but somewhat more elaborate and standardized. Among the leading texts through the mid-20th century were those by Henry Sweet,⁹ George Lyman Kittredge and Frank Edgar Farley,¹⁰ Otto Jespersen,¹¹ Janet Rankin Aiken,¹² and George O. Curme.¹³

    A campaign against traditional grammar had started by the early 20th century. In 1910 a leading commentator wrote:

    What was the meaning of the reaction against the study of formal Grammar of the Lindley Murray type? The main count against it was that it failed of practical results; failed as a communicable art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety,—to quote the Murray definition. The endless formalities of rule and precept were found to be wasteful burdens of knowledge unrelated to practice.¹⁴

    What was not then known was that nothing better would replace traditional grammar—at least nothing better that might still be comprehensible to the educated public in general, and nothing related to the teaching of composition.

    By the early 20th century there was a drumbeat of dissatisfaction with the doctrine of grammatical correctness. Things like the parts of speech and sentence diagramming were criticized—mostly among expert linguists, not practical teachers. New schools of thought arose, each with its own nomenclature and classification system.¹⁵ That trend has only continued in the years since.

    Between charges that it was not being taught and should be taught and charges that it was being taught and should not be, grammar has had a very bad time of it for more than a quarter of a century.

    —Bertrand Evans

    Grammar and Writing

    Some saw growing standardization as outright dogmatism, and in 1927 Charles Carpenter Fries, in his Teaching of the English Language, urged the overthrow of the traditional view¹⁶ of correctness as determined by the rules of conventional school grammars. He wanted to jettison past methods: "For more than a century good English has been one of the major concerns of our educational system. . . . [Yet] we do not by any means agree as to what this good English is."¹⁷ Fries was an influential voice, and over time—with the backing of the National Council of Teachers of English—the grammatical putsch succeeded.

    By the mid-20th century, the structural linguists—also known as generative grammarians—rose with a wholly new way of describing the English language: transformational grammar. Unlike traditional grammar, this new discipline was not a didactic system to help students use good grammar—in fact, the linguists no longer believed in good grammar or in using grammar as a vehicle for teaching English composition. They came to believe that if a native speaker utters a sentence, it is necessarily appropriate to the speaker’s dialect. They sought to record linguistic structures and describe syntax dispassionately and scientifically—usually with no preference for Standard Written English over regional and class dialects.

    Transformational grammar was a descriptive method based on a theory first proposed by the linguist Noam Chomsky in 1957.¹⁸ Chomsky sought to describe how people produce and understand original sentences without formally learning rules for grammatical structures. According to his original theory, native speakers assimilate the natural rules of the language and internalize them. Transformational grammar attempts to describe those internal rules by first looking at a sentence’s structure and then deriving a formulalike rule or a tree diagram to show how a sentence or sentence part is formed. Sporadic, mostly unsuccessful attempts to teach grade-school children English using transformational grammar were made during the 1960s and early 1970s. Today it is taught mostly in colleges and graduate schools. Outside linguistics, transformational grammar is used mostly in computer-language-processing applications. It has an alien look and feel to traditionalists, but it can convey interesting insights into how the language works (see §§ 365–413).

    In the late 20th century, it was common for the high-school and college courses that still taught grammar to treat it on dual tracks: traditional grammar plus transformational grammar.

    Since then, no clear consensus has been reached, and the more advanced grammars have become so specialized and jargon-filled as to be incomprehensible to all but other specialists. In the mid-1980s, the literary critic Christopher Ricks observed that many modern grammarians express themselves in a manner as inviting as a tall wall bottled-spiked.¹⁹ About the same time, Robert W. Burchfield, then editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, said that this impenetrable grammatical gobbledygook had led to an unrelieved intellectual apartheid that left most educated speakers of English disastrously uninformed and uninstructed.²⁰

    Small wonder that the subject is hardly studied today—given that many of these moderns call themselves grammaticographers who study grammaticology.²¹ And small wonder that the grammatical heyday of the 18th and 19th centuries remains a dim memory on the literary landscape—an implausible past in which grammars were exceeded in sales only by the Bible.

    In 1952 a bewildered and frustrated Harry C. Warfel, professor of English at the University of Florida, wrote Who Killed Grammar?, in which he detailed the demise of the subject in American secondary schools and colleges—laying blame mostly at the feet of Fries.²² Together with other linguists, Fries had succeeded in divorcing grammatical learning from the pedagogy of English composition. The sad saga was updated and elaborated in an excellent 2003 book by David Mulroy: The War Against Grammar.²³

    In any event, grammar was never killed—even if it was wounded. It is very much alive, as evidenced by the interest you’re showing at this very moment. Your own learning about grammar will help hasten its recovery.

    3   Why study grammar?

    Perhaps the most important reason for learning about grammar is that language is basic to almost everything we do—and the more nearly you can master it, the more effectively you’ll think, speak, and write. You’ll be more aware of ideas and how they’re expressed. You’ll make finer distinctions. A knowledge of grammar is fundamental to critical thinking.

    We cannot know too much about the language we speak every day of our lives.

    —Simeon Potter

    Our Language

    You’ll also find that a knowledge of grammar and usage opens up doors for you. Without it, your opportunities in life would be limited. That’s true in any culture and with every language—and it’s true of English-speaking countries. If you’re an ambitious speaker of English, you’ll want to learn Standard Written English. You’ll find a richer appreciation of English literature, and you’ll benefit in ways both tangible and intangible—ways that you can’t possibly appreciate until you’ve gained the knowledge.

    An illustrative story: Many biographers of Abraham Lincoln have noted his early preoccupation with Samuel Kirkham’s English Grammar in Familiar Lectures (1820). When he first heard about the book, Lincoln walked six miles to get a copy.²⁴ He burned pine shavings in a blacksmith shop so that he could read it at night.²⁵ He committed whole sections of the book to memory, often wheedling friends into quizzing him.²⁶ He wanted to learn to speak well and write well. And so he did: he is widely considered the foremost orator and writer ever to have served as president of the United States.

    The title page of the very copy of Kirkham’s English Grammar used by Abraham Lincoln. Mounted inside the front cover is a promissory note for $30 witnessed by Abraham Lincoln as agent.

    Courtesy: Library of Congress

    Another story—a little less sublime: A professor acquaintance of mine had a college student who was determined to teach Greek philosophy. But the student couldn’t pass his first semester of Greek. The professor told the student what his problem was: he didn’t know the first thing about English grammar. (Other profs had said he just lacked innate ability.) After taking a couple of courses in English grammar, which he found challenging, the student tried again and succeeded with distinction. In fact, he went on to study medieval Latin as well. That competence, combined with his mastery of Greek, was decisive in getting him a good college teaching post the same year he earned his Ph.D. Today his academic career is flourishing. Both he and his advisers declare that English grammar paved the way.

    Your own path will be unlike those. It will assuredly be unique. But one thing is certain: in the long term, your acquiring Standard Written English will only help you reach your most ambitious goals. Wear it lightly. Be practical, not pedantic. Seek to be astute in the way you handle language. In addition to speaking well and writing well, learn to listen well. You’ll perceive more. And listen sympathetically.

    4   Overview of the book.

    As traditionally understood, grammar is both a science and an art. Often, it has focused—as part I of this book does—on parts of speech (or word classes). Each part of speech performs a particular function in a sentence or phrase. Traditional grammar has held that there are eight parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.²⁷ Some grammars have added a ninth: articles.²⁸ But as you’ll soon discover (see § 5), reckonings vary.

    The first 285 sections of this book deal with the traditional eight; each part of speech is discussed in some detail. The purpose here is to sketch some of the main lines of English grammar using mostly traditional grammatical terms.

    Part II deals with syntax: the rules governing the arrangement of words and phrases into sentences. Traditional grammarians classified sentences into four types according to their purposes (statements, questions, directives, and exclamations), as well as four structural types according to the structure of clauses (simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex). More modern grammarians have isolated seven fundamental patterns into which English sentences can be classified by word order. Part II explains these ideas along with the basics of sentence diagramming and the newer sentence trees of transformational grammar.

    In part III we take up the subject of word formation, also known as morphology: the study of how small word-units known as morphemes compose words.

    The multifariously detailed questions of English usage occupy part IV. The customary forms and meanings of words and phrases are constantly and often imperceptibly shifting. Some speakers and writers push words in new directions, often unconsciously; others resist and reject these innovations, often (in the long run) to no avail. But undesirable linguistic changes needn’t—and shouldn’t—be immediately acquiesced in. The usage glossary here presented gives a snapshot of the language as it stands today: a compilation of editorial judgments that experienced copyeditors make routinely.

    More than that, though, part IV contains an unprecedented degree of empirical evidence in the form of Google ngrams, which reflect big data as applied to Standard Written English. These ngrams show the relative frequency in print of two or more competing forms. So let’s say that someone is arguing that *between him and I should be accepted as standard—there are such people.²⁹ And let’s say that our disputatious friend cites outlier instances in literature of *between him and I (it should be between him and me, of course—each pronoun being the object of a preposition). An ngram will show relative frequencies in massive amounts of literature—more than 5.2 million books from 1500 on—to assess the truth or falsity, or maybe just the plausibility, of the contention. It’s also possible to calculate ratios of use through time. Here’s what we find:

    1820 Ratio of Frequency in Printed Books: 93:1

    2008 Ratio of Frequency in Printed Books: 53:1

    Even a ratio of 3:1 would be enough to establish serious predominance—and perhaps enough to declare (depending on the usage involved) the less-frequent form nonstandard. But anything more than 20:1 is powerful, objective evidence that the traditionally stigmatized form is in no position to be declared Standard Written English. In fact, many of the instances of its appearance in the database are probably owing to discussions of its ungrammatical nature.

    Or consider a related construction—one I heard a television broadcaster use just as this book was being readied for publication—*Him and I are good friends. Because both pronouns are subjects of the plural verb are, they should both be in the subjective case. A few language commentators will hear such instances and opine that this phrasing has become standard. They may go so far as to say that English is gradually losing its declension of pronouns altogether—a highly indefensible position. Let’s see what the ngram tells us about instances of He and I are (educated usage) and *Him and I are (uneducated usage)—from 1500 to the present day:

    2008 Ratio of Frequency in Printed Books: 109:1

    The frequency ratio of 109:1 in printed books just from the latest year we can now use, 2008, provides powerful evidence that Standard Written English is hardly on the brink of a shift toward acceptance of the nonstandard form.

    This previously unavailable big-data tool allows us to gauge questions of English in a way never before possible, so that judgments about standard forms are based on something more than one person’s lifetime of reading and study, however reliable that may have been. Some 67 of these ngrams appear in part IV, where they are further explained. You may well find that they make part IV compulsively browsable.

    Part V consists of a full restatement of the principles of English punctuation. Each principle is illustrated with verbatim examples drawn from writers of high repute. No writer, of course, is infallible in either usage or punctuation, but these sentences illustrate sound instances of punctuation. And the illustrations’ great variety contributes piquancy to what is often a dry topic.

    The select glossary (see pp. 401–89) isn’t to be overlooked. Learners of any subject—your author included—benefit tremendously from treating it partly as an exercise in vocabulary-building. Learning the terminology of grammar represents a huge step toward mastering the subject as a whole. Hence I have gone into more detail in the glossary than many readers might have expected. Try browsing through it from time to time as you’re reading or consulting the book. You’ll find that the terminology is like good wine: once you get a taste for it, you’ll start picking up the nuances.

    Throughout the text are inset quotations in shaded boxes. You’ve already encountered some. These quotations are intended to enrich the discussions with insights from writers and commentators of the past—most of them linguists and grammarians whose statements reinforce the basic message of the book: that linguistic study can be both practical and enjoyable. For the precise sources of these quotations, see pp. 491–95.

    In most but not all ways, this book conforms to the recommendations found in The Chicago Manual of Style. I take a somewhat different stance, for example, on commas after years in month-day-year-style dates, recommending their omission when the date is used adjectivally (§ 458); on en-dashes, recommending them for expressing tension or pairing as well as for numerical ranges (§ 503); and on ellipsis dots, recommending a space before the first of four dots if the elision occurs in midsentence as opposed to after a sentence’s end (§ 555). Naturally, all the grammatical discussions and usage recommendations line up closely with chapter 5 of the Chicago Manual—given that I am the author of that chapter.

    Beware the naysayers who tell you that learning Standard Written English will stifle your creativity or cause you to write correct but bloodless prose. This common concern is a slight one at best. The truth is that without Standard Written English, it will be all but impossible to produce incredibly clear, beautiful, alive, urgent, crackling-with-voltage prose.³⁰ That’s not a bad description of what you might ultimately aim for—though the first step is straightforward and simple clarity.

    Pursue your interest in words and in writing well—together with their many settled conventions. You may find that you’ve changed the direction of your life. As one of my multilingual friends likes to say, fall in love with language, and it will love you back.

    I. The Traditional Parts of Speech

    5   How did we arrive at the canonical eight?

    The traditional grammarian’s approach to parts of speech is often attributed to an ancient of some renown: Dionysios Thrax, who lived in the second century B.C.¹ In Téknē Grammatiké (or The Grammatical Art), he listed eight parts of speech: noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb, conjunction. These categories were long accepted by Greek, by Roman, and later by European grammarians—and there were scores of them (hence only some highlights here).

    The Roman grammarian Aelius Donatus, who lived in the fourth century A.D., wrote Ars Grammatica—a book that gained great popularity into the Middle Ages. His eight parts of speech were slightly different from those of Dionysios:

    Both classified nouns and adjectives together—Dionysios because the two have the same kinds of inflectional endings in Greek, Donatus presumably because he was influenced by predecessors such as Dionysios. But Donatus dropped articles (Latin has none) and separated interjections from adverbs.

    A zoologist who divided animals into invertebrates, mammals, and beasts of burden would not get very far before running into trouble. Yet the traditional grammar is guilty of the same error when it defines three parts of speech on the basis of meaning (noun, verb, and interjection), four more on the basis of function (adjective, adverb, pronoun, conjunction), and one partly on function and partly on form (preposition). The result is that in such an expression as a dog’s life there can be endless futile argument about whether dog’s is a noun or an adjective.

    —W. Nelson Francis

    Revolution in Grammar

    The Donatus model was followed by other early influential grammarians, such as Priscian, who lived in the fifth century A.D.³ So influential was Priscian that he gave us the phrase to break Priscian’s head, meaning to use bad grammar. In Renaissance England, a schoolboy learning Latin might be scolded when he mistranslated a phrase from English into Latin, No, William, you’re breaking Priscian’s head!

    So influential was Latin grammar in England that English grammars were sparse until the 18th century. But Shakespeare’s main rival, Ben Jonson (1572–1637), wrote a grammar that was published in 1640,⁴ three years after his death. Jonson counted in our English speech . . . the same parts with the Latins⁵—that is, eight. His list was that of Donatus (though Jonson’s direct influence was Priscian). But then he added another: articles.⁶

    When English grammars began to proliferate in the 18th and 19th centuries, there was great variability in grammarians’ counts of parts of speech. In 1711, James Greenwood repeated Donatus’s fourth-century roster.⁷ Others of the time replicated it.⁸ Still other grammarians, however, counted only four—among these being John Entick,⁹ Thomas Dyche,¹⁰ Anne Fisher,¹¹ and James Harris.¹² Some had the number swell to nine (by adding articles, as Ben Jonson had done in 1640)¹³ or ten (by adding adjectives).¹⁴ There was simply no consensus.

    Not until 1761 did any grammarian settle on the eight that became the canonical parts of speech in English. He was the same man who discovered oxygen: Joseph Priestley (1733–1804). In his Rudiments of English Grammar, he listed these:

    • noun

    • adjective

    • pronoun

    • verb

    • adverb

    • preposition

    • conjunction

    • interjection¹⁵

    Even so, it took another 80 years or so for those eight to be firmly accepted—perhaps because the categories fluidly relate to form and function. That is, some words are called nouns because they usually function that way, but of course they can often function as adjectives and verbs as well. And any part of speech can function as an interjection. So it’s not a perfect taxonomy.

    The influential Robert Lowth counted nine in 1762 by adding articles;¹⁶ John Fell followed those nine in 1784;¹⁷ so did George Neville Ussher in 1785¹⁸ and the highly influential Lindley Murray in 1795.¹⁹ But more grammarians of that period counted ten by adding participles to the mix: Rowland Jones in 1771,²⁰ Ellin Devis in 1775,²¹ Ralph Harrison in 1777,²² Caleb Bingham in 1785,²³ E. Harrold in 1804,²⁴ Lady Eleanor Fenn in 1790,²⁵ John Hutchins in 1791,²⁶ Caleb Alexander in 1792,²⁷ Thomas Coar in 1796,²⁸ Duncan Mackintosh (with his two daughters) in 1797,²⁹ Daniel Staniford in 1797,³⁰ Jane Gardiner in 1799,³¹ David Gurney in 1801,³² Alexander Crombie in 1802,³³ and John Comly in 1803.³⁴ These grammarians were doubtless aware of one another’s work to one degree or another.

    Some Americans were mavericks. In 1782, Robert Ross wrote The American Grammar with the help of Aaron Burr (the president of Yale College and father to the future vice president and killer of Alexander Hamilton). They counted eight parts of speech in both English and Latin but then speculated: Since all Discourse must be about Things, their Properties, Actions, and Relations; were it not for long established Custom, we might divide Speech into four Parts, viz. Noun, Adnoun [i.e., adjective], Verb, and Participle.³⁵ Two years later, Noah Webster, more famous as a lexicographer than as a grammarian, counted six parts of speech.³⁶ But he was long-lived, and in his final grammar nearly 50 years later, he counted seven—the conventional eight minus interjections.³⁷ The most extreme examples were James Brown, who in his 1820 American Grammar counted thirty-three,³⁸ and William S. Balch, who in 1838 counted only two (nouns and verbs).³⁹

    This little survey only skims the surface. By 1801 there were 297 different listings of English parts of speech accounting for a total of 58 varieties.⁴⁰ By the 1840s, however, a consensus was gradually emerging for Priestley’s eight:

    • noun

    • pronoun

    • adjective

    • verb

    • adverb

    • preposition

    • conjunction

    • interjection⁴¹

    The variants gradually became outliers among mainstay school grammars.

    Even in recent years, though, the categories aren’t fully settled: modern grammarians have set the number at three,⁴² four,⁴³ six,⁴⁴ seven,⁴⁵ eight (the traditional number),⁴⁶ nine,⁴⁷ ten,⁴⁸ eleven,⁴⁹ twelve,⁵⁰ and nineteen.⁵¹ One says there is no definitive answer.⁵² In this way, parts of speech are rather like the biologist’s species and genera: they are human constructs that aren’t immutable.

    In the discussion that follows, we examine the canonical eight with full knowledge that the classifications aren’t airtight.

    Nouns

    Traditional Classifications

    6   Nouns generally.

    A noun is a word that names something, whether abstract (intangible) or concrete (tangible). It may be a common noun (the name of a generic class or type of person, place, thing, process, activity, or condition) or a proper noun (the name of a specific person, place, or thing—hence capitalized). A concrete noun may be a count noun (if what it names can be counted—as with horses or cars) or a mass noun (if what it names is uncountable or collective—as with information or salt). A noun-equivalent is a phrase or clause that serves the function of a noun in a sentence {to serve your country is honorable} {bring anyone you like}. Nouns and noun-equivalents are collectively called substantives or (especially throughout this book) noun elements.

    7   Common nouns.

    A common noun is the generic name of one item in a class or group {a chemical} {a river} {a pineapple}. It is not capitalized unless it begins a sentence or appears in a title. A common noun is usually used with a determiner—that is, an article or other word (e.g., some, few) that indicates the number and definiteness of the noun element {a loaf} {the day} {some person}. Common nouns are often analyzed into three subcategories: concrete nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns. A concrete noun is solid or real; it indicates something perceptible to the physical senses {a building} {the wind} {honey}. An abstract noun denotes something you cannot physically see, touch, taste, hear, or smell {joy} {expectation} {neurosis}. A collective noun—which can be viewed as a concrete noun but is often separately categorized—refers to a group or collection of people or things {a crowd of people} {a flock of birds} {a herd of rhinos}. See § 10.

    8   Proper nouns.

    A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing {John Doe} {Moscow} {the Hope Diamond}, or the title of a movie {Citizen Kane}, a play {Death of a Salesman}, a book {Oliver Twist}, a newspaper or magazine {The New Yorker}, a piece of music {U2’s All Because of You}, a painting {Mona Lisa}, a sculpture {The Kiss}, or any other publication, performance, or work of art. Proper nouns may be singular {Mary} {London} or plural {the Great Lakes} {the Twin Cities}. A proper noun is always capitalized, regardless of how it is used—unless someone is purposely flouting the rules {k.d. lang}. A common noun may become a proper noun {Old Hickory} {the Big Easy}, and sometimes a proper noun may be used figuratively and informally, as if it were a common noun {like Moriarty, he is a Napoleon of crime}. Proper nouns may be compounded when used as a unit to name something {the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel} {Saturday Evening Post}. Over time, some proper nouns (called eponyms) have developed common-noun counterparts, such as sandwich (from the Earl of Sandwich) and china (the porcelain, from the nation China). Articles and other determiners are used with proper nouns only when the last part of the noun is a common noun or the determiner provides emphasis {the Savoy Hotel} {Sam? I knew a Sam Hill once}.

    9   Count nouns.

    A count noun has singular and plural forms and expresses discrete, enumerable things {dictionary–dictionaries} {hoof–hooves} {newspaper–newspapers}. As the subject of a sentence, a singular count noun takes a singular verb {the jar is full}; a plural count noun takes a plural verb {the jars are full}.

    10   Collective nouns.

    A collective noun denotes an aggregate of individuals or things but is itself grammatically singular in form {group} {team} {flock} {herd}. For purposes of verb and pronoun agreement, however, collective nouns may be treated as either singular or plural, depending on whether the emphasis is on the constituent members acting as a unified whole {the committee meets on Tuesday to announce its decision} or, less commonly in American English (AmE), individually {the committee are debating their decision}. The general preference in AmE is to treat collective nouns as singular; the opposite is true in British English (BrE). But when collective nouns appear in expressions of multitude (see below), they are generally treated as plural.

    11   Expressions of multitude.

    In constructions such as a bunch of amateurs, a collective noun expresses multitude, rather than signifying a unified group. Grammarians call collective nouns functioning this way quantifying collectives. (But some of the most common expressions of multitude use quantifying determiners in place of collectives: number, lot, couple, and few don’t function like collective nouns in other contexts.) Such constructions place the quantifying collective or determiner between an indefinite article (a or an) and a postmodifying of-phrase using a plural or mass noun {a host of problems} {a group of doctors} {a set of stemware} {a lot of questions}.

    As with collective nouns generally, syntax with expressions of multitude is governed by meaning and not by strict grammar—a phenomenon known as synesis or notional concord. (See § 186.) So while lone collective nouns typically signify the group as a unit and hence are treated as singular, nouns of multitude are distributive: verbs and pronouns must agree in number with the noun following of, not the singular noun of multitude preceding it.

    If the noun following of is plural (as

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