Disaster at D-Day: The Germans Defeat the Allies, June 1944

Introduction

Chance – invisible, furtive, and silent – is the vast canvas upon which all the rest of war is painted. Skill, courage, ruse, character, the elements of nature, technology and all the other components of war all operate against the backdrop of chance. Again and again, chance has raised up and brought down empires, snatched laurels from one hand to throw to another, and destroyed the most finely wrought plans.

For most of four millennia of organized warfare, men gave voice to chance as mystery to be anthropomorphized and propitiated as Fortune. Even the Webster’s Dictionary wraps chance in mystery and defines it as ‘something that happens unpredictably without discernible human intention or observable cause’ and ‘the assumed impersonal purposeless determiner of unaccountable happenings.’

The events of D-Day in June 1944 were a masterpiece of the play of chance in battle at every level. The greatest single assault in all history was also the most thoroughly and carefully planned. Almost everything that was humanly possible to do was done. The planners wanted to drive chance into its shadows and give it small scope for action, but chance emerged in the most dramatic way to hold the battle in balance. Chance gave its gifts equally to both sides. To the Allies it drew the Germans’ finest commander, Field Marshall Erwin Rommel, to his home in Germany for his wife’s birthday, the very day of the invasion. He was to be absent when his presence was needed the most. To the Germans chance threw the cloak of invisibility over the movement of the high quality 352nd Infantry Division to the defenses of Omaha Beach days before the invasion. Chance had given the Germans a priceless opportunity to break the Allies strategic plan at Omaha Beach. The presence of the 352nd came within an eyelash of defeating the American landing. Had that happened, it would have ruined the entire strategy upon which the landings were based – the creation of a single large beachhead in which a critical mass of maneuver and logistics base could be established from which to break out and defeat the Germans in mobile warfare.

But chance balanced her gifts. By putting the 352nd where it did, it placed victory within the German grasp. By keeping Rommel from the front, it deprived the Germans of the clarity and drive to close that grasp. The rest was left to the hard-fighting of the troops and the initiative of countless leaders.

A Key to Chance

Chance is knowable for the soldier who looks. And to know chance is to cease entirely to be its victim. One way is for the soldier to plan for all eventualities as the planners of D-Day attempted. The soldier can never drive chance completely out of the picture nor much less master chance, but he can borrow its power now and then. Chance smiles and gives up its secrets, and doubly so when the soldier explores alternate history.¹

Alternate history? Some will argue that alternate history is nothing more than fiction. It certainly shares with fiction the basic fact that it did not happen, a seeming chasm that the rigor of the truth cannot cross. How then does alternate history form a branch of military history given such a fundamental contradiction? It does so in the same way that fiction can illuminate the profound – alternate history can cut to the marrow of military history. Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn, while a classic of fiction, illuminated the human element in slavery that a thousand non-fiction tomes could not hope to equal. As fiction informs life with a concentrated clarity of life’s essence so does alternate history lay bare the essence of critical events in military history.

It does this by playing out what actually did not take place. But there is method to this contradiction. By playing out what actually did not take place, it forces the reader to delve more deeply and profoundly into the reasons why things actually happened as they did. The element of chance then emerges from its hiding. The reader then understands how fragile or ephemeral are the foundations of great events.

This approach is vital because of the powerful tendency to assume unconsciously that events naturally flowed in certain directions and were preordained to happen as they did. This is the ‘Deep Groove’ theory of military history in which events, like a small marble, roll smoothly down a deep and well-planned groove, gaining momentum all the way. It is the most comforting theory for the mediocre in the art of war for it places the fewest demands on them. Chance is not understood, only simply ignored.

It is more than a lazy conceit – it is lethal. The masters of war, however, never fell into that trap and slighted chance’s due. Thucydides observed almost 2,500 years ago that ‘War is the last of all things to go according to programme’ and ‘Consider the vast influence of accident in war, before you are engaged in it. As it continues, it generally becomes an affair of chances, chances from which neither of us is exempt, and whose event, we must risk in the dark.’² Major-General Carl von Clausewitz dwelled upon chance. ‘War is the realm of chance. No other human activity gives it greater scope; no other has such incessant and varied dealings with this intruder. Chance makes everything more uncertain and interferes with the whole course of events.’³

The great generals also, by understanding chance, earned its favor. Napoleon observed, ‘The art of war lies in calculating the odds very closely to begin with, and then in adding exactly, almost mathematically, the factor of chance. Chance will always remain a sealed mystery for average minds.’⁴ Or as Admiral Horatio Nelson put it, ‘Something must be left to chance; nothing is sure in a sea fight above all.’⁵ Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke was more down to earth when he said, ‘I never plan beyond the first battle.’⁶ Von Moltke was not speaking of fecklessly walking into the dark but confidently expecting to seize chance and turn it into a weapon.

What Napoleon, Nelson, and von Moltke all had in common was genius. For them, chance was a fair maiden to be won and wooed. Chance to the mediocre, on the other hand, is the mother of two gorgons – chaos and risk – into whose faces they dare not look and from whose gaze they flee in mortal terror. They devise complicated calculations to reduce warfare to mathematics, Napoleon’s comment notwithstanding, to lock chaos and risk safely away. Probably the most notorious example of such mental and moral inertia was the Soviet Correlation of Forces theory in which every soldier and weapon system was assigned a mathematical value. The sums of these values for both sides were then fed into a formula that neatly assigned victory and defeat. What Napoleon, Nelson, and von Moltke did was to not fear chance and her daughters but to embrace them and ride their storms.

But military genius is as rare as its appearance is unpredictable. Field Marshal Alfred Graf von Schlieffen, chief of the German General Staff, was aware of this conundrum when he wrote his 1913 epic Cannae. In citing Hannibal as the rare genius, he also pointed out that his opponent, ‘Terrentius Varro, on the other hand, has existed during all periods of history.’⁷ Von Schlieffen’s comment was an expression of the German General Staff s conclusion depending upon the appearance of individual genius was too chancey. On the other hand, distilling the wisdom of genius and institutionalizing it within an organization such as the General Staff was both possible and a reliable substitute.

German battlefield performance in both World Wars was to prove that concept correct. A hallmark of such performance was the ability to identify the opportunities presented by chance and the will to seize them, embodied in General Staff concepts of initiative and offensive spirit. The Germans knew that chance is wooed boldly. Because of that it would be said late in the Second World War that to know war, one must fight the Germans. Yet the Allies were lot shy suitors by the 6th of June either.

All these threads – from detailed planning to aggressive initiative – came together in chance’s hand on 6 June, 1944, on the beaches of Normandy. This alternate history presents an insight into how lightly those threads were held.

Peter G. Tsouras

Lieutenant. Colonel, USAR (ret)

Alexandria, Virginia

Notes

1. For proper English grammar, the word alternative – meaning another choice or option – should be used. However, the word alternate has established itself in common usage to identify this genre of military history.

2. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.78, c. 404 BC, tr. Richard Crawley (London: J.M. Dent, 1910)

3. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, 1.1, tr. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976)

4. Napoleon, 28 December 1796 in Milan, quoted in R.M. Johnston, ed., The Corsican: A Diary of Napoleon’s Life in His Own Words (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1910)

5. Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson, 9 October 1805, in a memorandum to the fleet off Cadiz before the battle of Trafalgar, quoted in Peter G. Tsouras, ed., The Greenhill Dictionary of Military Quotations (London: Greenhill Books, 2000)

6. Field Marshal Erich Graf von Moltke, Ausgewaehlte Werke, IV, 1925

7. Field Marshal Alfred Graf von Schlieffen, Cannae, (Fort Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1931), Peter G. Tsouras, ed., The Greenhill Dictionary of Military Quotations (London: Greenhill Books, 2000)

Prologue

The rows of American LSTs (Landing Ship Tank) were heading single-file towards the landing beaches, blacked-out and faint against a low quarter moon about to set. It was just after midnight as the entire force stood to General Quarters waiting for the minutes to fall away until H Hour kicked off the andings.

The stillness exploded with the torpedo that burst against the hull of LST 507. She lurched to a stop as fire gushed from one fuel tank to another. Then she blew up. As the horrified men on LST 531 watched, their own ship was struck. She too was swept by flames, exploded, and sank. It was all too easy for the next German E-Boat to make its attack run. The burning ships lit up their sisters all conveniently ambling along in line. Lieutenant von Marwitz chose the one astern of the sinking torch. The boat leapt over the waves as he took it closer and closer before shouting, ‘Torpedo, los!’ The iron fish plunged into the sea, and he pulled the boat to port. He watched and counted one, two, three, four, five … another explosion. He had a kill! Like the others, this ship shuddered to a halt, was engulfed by fire, and blew up. Large pieces of burning debris flew upward and then rained down into the black water.

As von Marwitz and the other E-Boat crews celebrated their good hunting in their favourite Cherbourg bar that evening, the remaining American transports were in flight back to Plymouth. Only small craft remained in the area to rescue survivors in the water. Over a thousand sailors and soldiers had been lost – in an exercise, the D-Day rehearsal of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division staged on that deadly morning of 27 April off the Slapton Sands Amphibious Training Center.

The Allies immediately clamped a lid of secrecy over the disaster so effectively that not even the Germans learned of the extent of their own victory. Among the small circle of Allied officers with a need-to-know, even the most rational man could not but feel the chill dread of premonition. But most soldiers are not rationalists at heart. They are believers, even if down deep, in fate. And this night’s omen was evil.

Slapton Sands

1944

CHAPTER 1

The Chess Pieces Fill the Board

The Armies

In year of invasion 1066, the English waited nervously all Summer for Duke William of Normandy’s invasion fleet to find that necessary but elusive combination of calm seas and fair winds to carry it to England. Almost nine hundred years later, the German conquerors of Western Europe were waiting with equal nervousness for the invasion fleet manned by the British and their Canadian and American cousins to leap upon them through that same rare combination of benign seas and winds. If the settings had a certain reverse similiarity, the fighting men were much the same from one age to another. But now they drove Tigers and Shermans and carried Garands, MG-42s and the Sten and were to fight as Desert Rats, Leibstandarte, The Big Red One, Das Reich, Screaming Eagles, Red Devils, Stonewallers, and Leek Mich am Arsch.

By late 1943 the compass of the war was swinging to the long-promised and often-postponed Allied assault on Hitler’s Fortress Europe. For the Allies, the decision to invade into the teeth of Hitler’s vaunted Atlantic Wall defences had been fixed. American resolve, made confident by numbers and resources, finally had overcome British attempts to delay the awful moment. For the British, it had not been a lack of courage but experience of bitter defeats at the hands of the Wehrmacht and knowledge that resources were limited. They had but one army to risk. After five years of war, no Army replacements could be obtained without devouring the substance of the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy.

The Germans

The Germans had also exhausted their resources in the West. The Luftwaffe (Air Force) and Kriegsmarine (Navy) had been broken by the superior production capabilities and manpower of the Allies. The Luftwaffe no longer dared conduct even reconnaissance flights over the British Isles, and the Kriegsmarine’s major weapon, the submarine, had lost the Battle of the Atlantic. The once mighty Luftwaffe, increasingly shorn of operational units, transferred more and more idled ground personnel to Luftwaffe Field Divisions, infantry by my other name, and not very good infantry, under Army operational control. At the opposite end of the scale, Luftwaffe resources had been poured into creating more Fallschirmjäger (Parachute) divisions, elite formations of high spirit and skill, equipped even more lavishly than the Waffen SS by Reichsmarshal Hermann Göring’s vanity.

As the prospect of the ultimate decisive battle approached, both the Germans and the Allies began to build-up their forces along both sides of the English Channel. Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, Supreme Commander West (Oberbefehlshaber West – OB West), had made his case in November 1943, that significant reinforcements were vital if Germany was to have a chance to defeat the coming invasion. For two years his command had served as a comfortable billet in the sweet plenty of La Belle France and as a replacement pool for the ravenous Eastern Front. Hitler accepted the logic, and reinforcements irregularly started moving West. Coastal defence divisions of over-and-underaged men, the partially unfit, and pressed Soviet prisoners of war (Ostruppen) had become a large part of von Rundstedt’s command. In the new year of 1944, veteran infantry divisions began arriving. All too often they were burnt-out husks from the Eastern Front, to be rebuilt around their veteran cadres with new conscripts. Such a formation was the 352nd Infantry Division commanded by Generalleutnant (Lieutenant General) Dietrich Kraiss. His veterans, employing that unique German talent for reconstitution, quickly transformed a large draft of Saxon eighteen-year-olds from the Hanover area into a tough, cohesive division.

The arrival of the striking power of the German ground forces, the panzer divisions of the Army and the Waffen SS, was the real proof of Hitler’s determination to defend his western conquests. Among them were the greatest of Germany’s armoured formations. Pride of place was claimed by the 1st SS Panzer Division ‘Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler’ originally built from Hitler’s SS bodyguard regiment. Deadly, ferocious, and utterly ruthless, Leibstandarte was also the mother of unparalleled warriors, sent as cadres for many new divisions. The 2nd SS Panzer Division ‘Das Reich’ was twin brother to Leibstandarte, both destined to fight in I SS Panzer Corps commanded by SS Gruppenführer (Lieutenant General) Sepp Dietrich. A long-time crony of Hitler since their days in Munich, Dietrich was a veteran of the Freikorps and a veritable Mars. The other major SS formation scheduled for the West was SS Gruppenführer Paul Hausser’s II SS Panzer Corps with 9th SS Panzer Division ‘Hohenstauffen’ and the 10th SS Panzer Division ‘Frundsberg’.

From Leibstandarte volunteers, sown like dragons’ teeth, the new 12th SS Panzer Division was raised, filled with enthusiastic, fit, and indoctrinated teenagers from the Hitler Youth organization, hence its honorific of ‘Hitlerjugend’. Trained to a strange high pitch of soldierly skill, comradeship, Nazi idealism, and brutality, the enlisted men averaged only seventeen-and-a-half years old. Also newly raised was the only panzergrenadier division in the West, the 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division ‘Götz von Berchlingen’, bearing the name of the grizzled German knight who defied his emperor’s new taxes with the defiant taunt, ‘Leek mich am Arsch!’, in other words the 17th SS Panzergrenadier ‘Kiss My Ass!’ Division.

The Army’s panzer might was represented with its two best-equipped divisions: 2nd Panzer Division and the Panzer Lehr Division, the latter raised originally from the panzer arm’s demonstration regiments. The command of Panzer Lehr had fallen to one of the stars of the Afrika Korps, Generalleutnant Fritz Bayerlein. Another veteran of North Africa, the surrendered 21st Panzer Division, was reconstituted around a core of convalescent veterans of that gallant unit.

The Allies

The Allies were also gathering their armies. The British had kept a number of divisions at home as a garrison for the beleaguered island in case of invasion. If they had seen combat, such as the 3rd Division had, it had been four years before in the short campaign that ended at Dunkirk. Any combat experience lad dissipated with time and the endless drafts taken to form new units. The Canadian 3rd Division had a special injury to brood over while it trained. Their sister division, the Canadian 2nd, had been decimated at Dieppe in 1942, in the Allies’ experiment to test the feasibility of seizing a great port to support an invasion.

Most of the American divisions quickly arriving in Britain in the early months of 1944 were similarly inexperienced in combat. The first division to land was the National Guard 29th Infantry Division, ‘The Blue and Gray Division’, from Virginia and Maryland. Its 116th Infantry Regiment was descended from Thomas Jackson’s immortal Stonewall Brigade. These ‘Stonewallers’ from small central Virginia towns were the first to practice amphibious operations at the seaside training centre at Slapton Sands in Devon.

All of this untested metal was to be tipped with six tempered veteran British and American divisions transferred from the Mediterranean Theatre. The 8th Army sent four of its most experienced and effective units. The most famous were the Desert Rats of the 7th Armoured Division, the Red Devils of the 1st Airborne Division, and the 50th (Northumbrian) Division, ‘our old friends’, as Rommel was to say to Bayerlein later. The 51st (Highland) Division had a more bitter relationship with Rommel. Descended from one of the finest divisions in the First War, the 51st had been cut off from the British Expeditionary Force’s retreat to Dunkirk and been forced to capitulate after a desperate struggle at the port of St. Valery. Their conqueror had been a rising general with an uncanny gift for armoured warfare, Erwin Rommel. The 51st Division was raised again from its second line of battalions and served with the 8th Army from Alamein onwards, extracting some payment for St. Valery. These Highland Scots were of a nation of grimly natural fighters and had bided their time in their stoic Presbyterian way for four years to put paid to the whole score.

Joining the British divisions was the pride of the U.S. Army: the Big Red One of the 1st Infantry Division and the ‘Hell on Wheels’ 2nd Armored Division, the first American armoured division to be raised and the one Patton had trained himself. Both had been blooded and honoured in North Africa and Sicily. The British 50th and U.S. 1st Divisions had been selected for the invasion due to their successes in amphibious operations, a cause of bitterness among the troops who felt they had done enough when others had done nothing.

Aside from the infantry and armoured divisions, the Allies massed two full airborne corps for the invasion, the British I and the American XVIII. The Red Devils of the 1st Airborne Division had won a considerable reputation in North Africa and Sicily as had the American 82nd Airborne Division under commanders like Major Generals Robert ‘Roy’ Urquart and Matthew Ridgway. Each veteran division was joined by an eager but inexperienced twin: the British 6th Airborne with flying Pegasus on its division flash and the American ‘Screaming Eagles’ of the 101st Airborne.

The Commanders

Rommel

Hitler and the Allies instinctively chose to command in the great battle two champions whose fates had already intertwined: Generalfeldmarshal (Field Marshal) Erwin Rommel, ‘The Desert Fox’ and General Bernard Montgomery. ‘Monty’. Rommel with his small Afrika Korps had come closer than any man in history to severing the jugular of the British Empire. His first command in the invasion of France in 1940 had seen him carve out a reputation in command of the 7th Panzer ‘Ghost’ Division as a master of modern armoured warfare. In North Africa he was to make the world his audience, and the British soldier one of his greatest admirers for his brilliance no less than his chivalry. So thoroughly had he won the moral ascendancy over the enemy that British commanders were driven to forbid the common use of the term ‘a Rommel’ used to describe any action particularly and imaginatively well-done. Even Churchill had recognized the difference when he said to the House on 27 January 1942, with El Alamein still unwon: ‘We have a very daring and skilful opponent against us, and, may I say across the havoc of war, a great general.’

Montgomery

Montgomery was to change all that and not by forbidding his men to respect a gallant enemy. Montgomery chose to reestablish the British soldier’s faith in himself and his commanders. A thorough professional, he had distinguished himself by commanding the 3rd Division in a demanding rearguard action in the retreat to Dunkirk. He also possessed the uncanny sense of instilling a sense of trust in him, he turned around the 8th Army, defeated Rommel at El Alamein and chased him across North Africa. His successes in concluding the North African campaign, and in Sicily and southern Italy made him the darling of the British people and their army. After years of shameful defeats, he embodied victory.

The Commanders’ Appraisal of the Situation

With an eerie coincidence, both Rommel and Montgomery submitted their first appraisals of the strategic requirements of their new commands to their political masters on 31 December 1943. Both men brought a fresh approach and a master’s touch and both rejected the bases of existing plans and assumptions. Rommel had just finished an exhaustive inspection of the fortifications of the so-called Atlantic Wall that ran from Holland to the Bay of Biscay. Rommel’s report read:

We can hardly expect a counter-attack by the few reserves we have behind the coast at the moment, with no self-propelled guns and an inadequate quantity of anti-tank weapons, to succeed in destroying the powerful force which the enemy will land. We know from experience that the British soldier is quick to consolidate his gains and then holds on tenaciously with excellent support from his superior air arm and naval guns, the observers for which direct the fire from the front line.

With the coastline held as thinly as it is at present, the enemy will probably succeed in creating bridgeheads at several different points and in achieving a major penetration in our coastal defences. Once this has happened it will only be by the rapid intervention of our operational reserves that he will be thrown back into the sea. This requires that these forces should be held very close behind the coast defences.¹

These observations were based on his personal observations of the crippling effectiveness on German operations of overwhelming Allied air power.

Montgomery had just reviewed the plans prepared in London for the invasion at Churchill’s personal request. His report read:

My first impression is that the present plan is impracticable. From a purely Army point of view the following points are essential:

∘    The initial landings must be made on the widest possible front,

∘    One British army to land on a front of two, or possibly, three corps.

One American army similarly.

∘    The air battle must be won before the operation is launched. We must then aim at success in the land battle by the spread and violence of our operations.²

Advantages and Disadvantages?

Both men were allotted similar roles under a theatre commander. Montgomery was appointed commander of the 21st Army Group which would conduct the Allied invasion. He would personally command the British 2nd Army under Lieutenant General Sir Miles Dempsey and the American 1st Army under Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. Two later armies would follow his army group, and a separate American army group would be formed. His superior was General Dwight Eisenhower who commanded all Allied forces in the European Theatre of Operations and would have overall command of all ground, air, and sea forces in the invasion. Rommel was given command of Army Group B consisting of the 7th and 15th Armies, on a front from Holland to the Loire River. Two other armies in southern France (1st and 19th) were formed into Army Group G. Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, Eisenhower’s counterpart, had overall command of all German forces in the West. Neither Montgomery or Rommel would have direct command over the theatre naval and air forces.

The remarkable similarities in their situations ceased at this point. Montgomery worked within one the most cooperative and efficient alliances in history and within a chain of command that functioned rationally. Although he had professional disagreements, some of them bitter, with his peers and colleagues, the system consistently supported his efforts to plan and prepare for the invasion. He was given the widest latitude and initiative. Rommel, on the other hand, worked within a system that had been both morally and professionally distorted by the evil genius of Adolf Hitler. His chain of command theoretically ran from the German High Command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht – OKW) through von Rundstedt at OB West to himself at Army Group B. The reality was that the unity of command of his army group was badly compromised. He could not move a single division without Hitler’s, express permission. Hitler involved himself in every detail and muddied the concept of operations to meet the invasion. Rommel did not even control most of the panzer divisions held in reserve to counterattack the landing. That was the domain of the Commander of Panzer Forces West, General Geyr von Schweppenburg, who reported to von Rundstedt.

The great issue that the Germans were not able to resolve before the invasion was the concept and timing of the counterattacks that would drive the invasion into the sea. Rommel was adamant that the operational reserves should be held closely behind the coast. Allied air power would harry and bleed those held deeper inland as they tried to move, so delaying them that they would arrive too late and too understrength to defeat the invasion. Von Rundstedt and von Geyr, having never commanded under conditions of enemy air superiority, tended to discount Rommel’s warnings. They maintained that the panzer reserves should be held deeper inland so as to be able to move to any sector of the threatened front. Hitler never endorsed one or the other position decisively, The result was that Rommel was given control of only three panzer divisions: Panzer Lehr, 21st Panzer, and 12th SS Panzer. He wanted to put them all behind the coastal defences in Normandy between the Rivers Vire and Orne. Again Hitler intervened to micromanage affairs, by ruling that Rommel could only move one division, 21st Panzer, directly behind the front. It was not until late May that Rommel was able to extract from Hitler permission to move Hitlerjugend to the Norman coast as well. However, the Führer was adamant that Panzer Lehr remain inland in the area between Chartres and Le Mans.

In divining the location of the invasion, the great question facing the Germans and one the Allies took great pains to keep from them, Rommel was at first convinced by the conventional wisdom that the invasion would come the shortest distance across the Channel, straight at the Pas-de-Calais area. The Pas-de-Calais not only offered a short road into the Reich itself but was site of the vaunted, mysterious ‘wonder weapon’ that Hitler had promised would make the English weep for peace. Naturally the Allies would strike there. But is the winter turned to spring, Hitler’s vaunted intuition seemed to make a comeback. He sensed more than analyzed that Normandy might be the site of the invasion or at least a major diversion. Rommel’s increasing familiarity with his sector had also changed his mind to the degree that he thought at the very least the Allies would conduct major airborne diversionary landings in Normandy. Infantry divisions that had been going consistently to reinforce the 15th Army at the Pas-de-Calais now began to be assigned to 7th Army. The 91st Airlanding Division was moved to the Cotentin Peninsula, and in March the 352nd Infantry Division was assigned to the Calvados coast, the area between the Vire and the Orne and the responsibility of Generalleutnant Erich Marcks, commander of LXXXIV Corps. Rommel also specifically ordered that Kraiss’ division take over a section of the coastal defences manned by one of the weaker coastal defence divisions. Hitler’s interest was the key to approving the move of 21st Panzer and 12th SS Panzer Divisions up behind the coast to support Marcks’ corps.

Montgomery would have been appalled at Rommel’s difficulties. It would have been cruel to have informed Rommel, on the other hand, of Montgomery’s scope for action. Essentially Montgomery threw out the plans already prepared for the invasion. Using every bit of authority he had been given to plan, prepare, and conduct