Understanding William S. Burroughs

SERIES EDITOR’S PREFACE

The Understanding Contemporary American Literature series was founded by the estimable Matthew J. Bruccoli (1931–2008), who envisioned these volumes as guides or companions for students as well as good nonacademic readers, a legacy that will continue as new volumes are developed to fill in gaps among the nearly one hundred series volumes published to date and to embrace a host of new writers only now making their marks on our literature.

As Professor Bruccoli explained in his preface to the volumes he edited, because much influential contemporary literature makes special demands, "the word understanding in the titles was chosen deliberately. Many willing readers lack an adequate understanding of how contemporary literature works; that is, of what the author is attempting to express and the means by which it is conveyed." Aimed at fostering this understanding of good literature and good writers, the criticism and analysis in the series provide instruction in how to read certain contemporary writers—explicating their material, language, structures, themes, and perspectives—and facilitate a more profitable experience of the works under discussion.

In the twenty-first century Professor Bruccoli’s prescience gives us an avenue to publish expert critiques of significant contemporary American writing. The series continues to map the literary landscape and to provide both instruction and enjoyment. Future volumes will seek to introduce new voices alongside canonized favorites, to chronicle the changing literature of our times, and to remain, as Professor Bruccoli conceived, contemporary in the best sense of the word.

Linda Wagner-Martin, Series Editor

CHAPTER 1

Understanding William S. Burroughs

A scene occurs early in David Cronenberg’s film adaptation of Burroughs’s Naked Lunch (1991) in which the characters representing Beat icons Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac sit together drinking coffee in a diner booth and debate their aesthetic approaches to writing. The film transforms them into virtual caricatures of themselves as Kerouac vociferously espouses his spontaneous prose philosophy of first thought, best thought and Ginsberg nervously sputters about his need to neurotically agonize over every single word. As the Burroughs character (Bill) arrives, Ginsberg asks him if rewriting truly constitutes a sin as Kerouac so dogmatically proposes. Bill calmly responds, Exterminate all rational thought. That is the conclusion I have come to. Bill’s response, of course, proves paradoxical because to arrive at a conclusion implies the very rationality that Bill’s first sentence so succinctly disavows. Essentially this response, which in no way answers faux-Ginsberg’s question, pinpoints the major problems that a reader will experience upon first delving into the universes of William S. Burroughs. Like the philosophy of Jacques Derrida or other poststructuralists, the theoretical side of Burroughs seems, at times, to eat its own tail like an ouroboros as it strips meaning away until a gaping black hole of nihilistic relativism seems to be all that remains in its wake. However, like Derrida’s deconstruction, Foucault’s genealogy, or Deleuze and Guattari’s schizoanalysis, Burroughs’s fiction, which itself often functions as philosophy, not only devalues traditional centers of meaning but also offers a new praxis that attacks power at its most fundamental level—language itself—and offers humanity possibilities of liberation. There is, therefore, a logic of sorts to the extermination of rational thought, albeit a new kind of logic for the postmodern and even the posthuman stage of social and human evolution. As Burroughs always maintained, he wrote for the space age, the age when humanity leaves all its old concepts of civilization, identity, and the body behind to embrace new evolutionary potentials.

Aside from the theoretical implications, the above-mentioned scene from Cronenberg’s Naked Lunch also gestures toward the almost impossible task of separating biography from theoretical interpretation in the case of William S. Burroughs. Creating a literal cinematic adaptation of Naked Lunch would require such extreme sex and violence (as well as the combination of the two) that it would prove incapable of distribution except perhaps in the extreme horror underground—even films such as Pier Pablo Pasolini’s Salò; or, The 120 Days of Sodom (1975)—a twisted but still tamed down version of the Marquis de Sade’s The 120 Days of Sodom (written 1785; published 1904)—or Alejandro Jodorowsky’s Holy Mountain (1973) do not reach the surrealistic heights of depravity that a faithful adaptation of Naked Lunch would necessitate. Therefore Cronenberg took inspiration from both Burroughs’s novels and his life to craft a still disturbing and gruesome exploration of the writing process, addiction, desire, and control. Like many Burroughs scholars, Cronenberg proved incapable of focusing just on the literary text itself. This study intends to skirt this pitfall into which so much Beat criticism falls: pure biographical criticism. This, by no means, seeks to denigrate the importance of such research, but such works can skew the lens through which these texts are interpreted. A few critics—Robin Lyndenberg, Timothy S. Murphy, Chad Weidner, and Jimmy Fazzino, in particular¹—have attempted purely theoretical readings of Burroughs with little reference to biography, but among the rather sizeable universe of Burroughs criticism, such efforts remain rare. Several things exacerbate this problem. First, Burroughs’s works, particularly his early ones, draw heavily on his life in a myriad of ways. Second, the Beat Generation remains so closely associated with confessional literature (or the roman à clef—a fictionalized autobiography) that it incites a natural tendency to read Burroughs’s works in a similar manner. Finally, the vastly different editions of his works, especially the ones from the 1950s and 1960s, seem to demand a biographical explanation of the textual deviations, as Oliver Harris’s impeccable scholarship on these texts has demonstrated. While the biographical and archival aspects of Burroughs criticism remain crucial, they can sometimes overshadow the texts themselves and the powerful theoretical potential that exists within them. Therefore this study will take a somewhat hybrid approach that focuses primarily on the texts while still positioning them within Burroughs’s life and overall project, for, as Burroughs always maintained, his books all really constitute one single gigantic work. Each individual textual reading will feature a short introductory section that situates the text within Burroughs’s life and overall canon and provides details about alternate editions. Subsequently the text will be allowed to speak for itself with only passing references to biography.

Burroughs represents a crucial figure for understanding the various waves of postmodernism that began occurring in the 1950s because his literature, his philosophy, and his life have continued to inspire generation after generation of writers, artists, musicians, and philosophers. Therefore his writings and the persona he cultivated prove essential to understanding contemporary American fiction (as well as genres beyond that). Burroughs’s work serves as a bridge between various artistic schools (from surrealism to cyberpunk and beyond), and he—perhaps more than any other author—established the postmodern form of literature and even presaged and influenced the poststructuralist philosophers. Drawing from sources as diverse as surrealism and the avant-garde, hard-boiled crime fiction, pulp science fiction, satire, and the picaresque tradition, Burroughs created a unique, hybrid voice unlike anything before that explores topics as diverse as power, sexuality, language, and identity. While Samuel Beckett’s absurdist works and the French nouveau roman (new novel) authors were performing similar narrative experiments, Burroughs would push such experimentalism into profoundly new territory where the nature of meaning must be reconsidered on the most fundamental of levels—he would, in effect, break the mold of the novel. Inspired largely by the lectures and writings of Alfred Korzybski, the father of general semantics, Burroughs’s entire oeuvre constitutes of an attack on dualistic, Aristotelian, either/or binary forms of thought by using strategies that confuse these simple yet oppressive demarcations. They infuse chaos and multiplicity by always focusing on abject characters that defy the subject/object dichotomy. Ultimately Burroughs hoped to chart a path beyond the evolutionary dead end of the human body. He argued that the human does not represent the apex of evolutionary history but instead is an impasse, a cul-de-sac that prevents the forward progress of evolution. Humanity is perhaps nothing more than basic organic compounds afloat in primordial soup compared to the beings (or perhaps nonbeings) that they might become. Burroughs wanted to take the readers beyond the limits of language and the body and to expand their minds to encompass the infinite; the reader has only to take his hand.

Like a sheep-killing dog: The Early Years in St. Louis, Los Alamos, and Cambridge

Despite his fascination from an early age with criminals, junkies, and fringe individuals (abject characters), Burroughs hailed from an affluent background. His parents’ house was in a gated community of St. Louis. There William Seward Burroughs II was born at home on February 5, 1914. As Barry Miles explained, Burroughs’s father, Mote, was reticent, remote, rather difficult to talk to, but he did introduce his sons to guns and hunting, thus instigating Burroughs’s lifelong love of guns. The women in Burroughs’s young life provided a more profound influence on him than his father: his mother and his nanny helped shape and traumatize him into the man he would become. These women instilled in Burroughs a belief in telepathy and the occult. Burroughs’s mother, Laura Burroughs née Lee, was rumored to be gifted with psychic powers, and his nanny, who he called Nursy, began to expose Burroughs to occult spells and ideas. Burroughs claimed that he formed this hysterical attachment to Nursy (Miles, William Burroughs 22). She rewarded his love with the first major traumatic event of his life. Burroughs went through many different sessions of psychoanalysis (not to mention reaching clear status as a Scientologist) but could never distinctly remember the event. From the evidence his analysts were able to glean, it appears that Burroughs was made to watch Nursy and her boyfriend having sexual intercourse. In addition Burroughs apparently may have been forced into performing fellatio on the boyfriend. Some critics have even posited that this oral rape as a child unconsciously caused Burroughs to almost entirely exclude oral sex even from his most graphic sex scenes. Burroughs never quite fit in and seemed strange to most of his family and neighbors; Burroughs recalled one wealthy man in St. Louis say that he looked like a sheep-killing dog (24).

Eventually Burroughs was sent away to school in New Mexico, where he conducted his first writing experiments with an essay he published in the school paper entitled Personal Magnetism and a story that he named Autobiography of a Wolf, which was told from the viewpoint of the wolf, something his teachers could not comprehend—they maintained that it should be called Biography of a Wolf. Here Burroughs began to fully realize his homosexual desires and was later expelled from the school. After finishing his high school degree, he enrolled in Harvard, eventually receiving a degree in the arts. During this time he also began to visit New York City, where he quickly became acquainted with the gay subculture. Upon graduation Burroughs began receiving his legendary allowance of two hundred dollars a month, which enabled him to live more comfortably than many of the friends he would make later; that is, until he started his junk habit. While he never received any further degrees, he did briefly study anthropology at Columbia University and medicine in Vienna. His studies in art, anthropology, and medicine helped shape his interests from his early works through the end of his life. In fact Burroughs’s early trilogy of works (Junky [1953], Queer [written 1951–53; published 1985], and The Yage Letters [1963]) read almost like anthropological explorations that range from the underground world of New York City to the jungles of South America. While in Europe Burroughs met a Jewish woman in Vienna named Ilse Klapper who was attempting to avoid capture by the Nazis. To help save her, Burroughs married her in a completely Platonic fashion and aided her in escaping to the United States, where the pair eventually divorced.

From the Libertine Circle to the Beat Generation: New York to Tangier

Back in the United States, Burroughs’s erratic and nonconventional behavior began to worry his parents. Infatuated with a man, Burroughs cut off the top joint of his little finger with a pair of scissors to impress the man—the old Van Gogh kick as Burroughs termed it. After trying to but also subsequently avoiding enrolling in the military (his parents claimed mental instability), Burroughs landed in Chicago, where he worked as an exterminator, an occupation that provided the title for two of Burroughs’s publications as well as inspired the character of William Lee in Cronenberg’s adaptation of Naked Lunch. In Chicago Burroughs became friends with David Kammerer and the object of his infatuation, Lucien Carr. Their antics got Burroughs evicted from his apartment, and Carr’s parents sent him to study at Columbia University in New York City in the last in a long string of attempts to get him away from Kammerer, who followed anyway as did Burroughs since he had nothing holding him in Chicago.

In New York Burroughs continued his friendship with David Kammerer, who in turn continued his pursuit of Lucien Carr after his subsequent flight from Chicago and matriculation at Columbia University. Fueled by rebel poetry such as Arthur Rimbaud’s Une Saison en Enfer (A Season in Hell, 1873) and the philosophy of William Butler Yeats’s philosophical work A Vision (1925, 1937), Carr soon met the first-year student Allen Ginsberg, the son of a poet father and schizophrenic mother, both communists, from Paterson, New Jersey (the home of William Carlos Williams, a major influence on Ginsberg). Ginsberg was attracted to Carr on both an intellectual and a sexual level, and Carr introduced him to the bohemian corners of New York City. During these forays Ginsberg became acquainted with Kammerer and his friend William S. Burroughs. Eventually Carr brought Jack Kerouac, a former Columbia student and football player who had already written several unpublished novels, into the group. With the addition of Kerouac, the so-called Libertine Circle was complete, but the relationship between Kammerer and Carr set the group on a path toward tragedy from the beginning.

Carr and company helped the studious, shy Ginsberg emerge from his shell, and the group began truly living the bohemian lifestyle: drinking in bars, wandering the night, experimenting with drugs, and debating their new philosophy and theory of art. Burroughs remained more on the fringe of the group because he was older and more withdrawn, but his role in the fate of the Libertine Circle would prove essential. Eventually Kammerer’s adoration for Carr reached stalker levels, and he repeatedly attempted to lure Carr into sexual intercourse despite Carr’s heterosexuality. Finally, on one ill-starred night, the two got into a drunken argument in Riverside Park, and Carr stabbed Kammerer with his boy scout knife. Carr arrived at Burroughs’s door and recounted the events of the murder. Burroughs urged him to confess to the police and try to get off on an honor killing plea. Instead Carr found Kerouac, and the two spent the day going to the movies, among other activities, before Carr finally turned himself into the police. Carr was arrested for manslaughter, and Burroughs and Kerouac were picked up for abetting the murderer. Burroughs was lucky enough to have wealthy parents who bailed him out.

During his Libertine Circle phase, Burroughs also met a woman named Joan Vollmer, a roommate of Edie Parker, who became Kerouac’s first wife. The two’s apartment became a run-down salon of sorts for the emerging Beat Generation and was the location for many of their meetings, in which Joan often played a pivotal role. Still not at home with his sexuality, Burroughs eventually sparked up a relationship with the smart, witty young woman, and the pair lived together long enough to become common-law married and to sire a son: William S. Burroughs Jr., who was already doomed while in utero to a lifetime of addiction, pain, and loss. While living in New York, both Burroughs and Vollmer became drug addicts, Burroughs to morphine (and other opiates) and Joan to Benzedrine, a methamphetamine available in the form of inhalers that needed no prescription—William S. Burroughs Jr. was born addicted to Benzedrine. Wanting to embrace his relationship with Joan, Burroughs traveled to Mexico to get an official divorce from Klapper. During his absence Vollmer had a psychotic break, which did not prove permanent, and was committed to the infamous Bellevue Hospital. The worried Burroughs promptly returned to New York and then moved to Texas along with Joan and her daughter, who she had conceived during a previous relationship. In Texas they became a kind of nuclear family as Burroughs tried his hand at farming in the area.

In Texas Burroughs tried to make it as a legitimate farmer but ended up planting marijuana between the rows to supplement his income. During this time Burroughs reunited with his old friend Kells Elvins, with whom he would write his earliest mature work, Twilight’s Last Gleaming. Herbert Huncke came to work on the farm during this time—Huncke was the Time Squares hustler and addict who introduced Kerouac to the idea of being beat. Burroughs also began taking trips across the Mexican border for sexual encounters with young men, a practice that Joan always overlooked, and he earned himself the moniker of Willy le Puta, or Willy the fag.

After Texas the family moved to New Orleans, where Burroughs became a marijuana dealer. His time in New Orleans led to his famous depiction as Old Bull Lee in Kerouac’s On the Road (1957). Eventually, fleeing arrest in New Orleans, Burroughs and his family moved to Mexico, where the great tragedy of Burroughs’s life would occur. While the murder of David Kammerer in his earlier life no doubt affected Burroughs, it was the death of his common-law wife in 1951 that would haunt him until the end of his life. Joan’s death has always been shrouded in mystery; it has remained a controversial issue because of the differing accounts of the shooting that were given by Burroughs, Gene Allerton, and Eddie Woods, who were all witnesses of Joan’s demise (T. Morgan 194–96). Burroughs had arranged to sell a gun to raise money, and he and Joan had been drinking throughout the afternoon (Miles, William Burroughs 57). Including Burroughs’s own description of the event, Barry Miles provides one account: Bill opened his travel bag and pulled out the gun. ‘I suddenly said, It’s about time for our William Tell act. Put a glass on your head.’ They had never performed a William Tell act but Joan, who was also very drunk, laughed and balanced a six-ounce water glass on her head. Bill fired. Joan slumped in her chair and the glass fell to the floor, undamaged (57). Burroughs suffered little legal recrimination for the killing, but the event would haunt him throughout his life. Joan’s death caused Burroughs to rewrite an early version of Junky (originally entitled Junk in manuscript) and set the trajectory for the rest of his career’s battle with control (57–58). Cutting Joan out of the novel almost completely was one of the changes Burroughs made to Junky before its publication. Despite Ace Books’