A Southern Music: Exploring the Karnatik Tradition

Book 1

The Experience

‘When I paint my object is to show what I have

found and not what I am looking for.’

– Pablo Ruiz y Picasso

1

Music

A Narrative

No one journeys through life alone. From nowhere almost, a companion joins in and keeps step right through – music.

Whether flowing out of the hollow of the bamboo or taking complex forms in the musical imagination, music has been and remains an integral part of human existence. It mirrors every moment of a person’s life, not just one specific time. It is life itself. Music is something intimate, a friend, guide, teacher, protector, challenger, aphrodisiac, stimulator and much more. Even in those who believe that they are tone-deaf or not musically inclined, certain songs and tunes rouse emotions.

We know this, but what is music? A difficult question, because how do we view something so intimate with detachment? Can it be defined? Even more importantly, does it need to be defined? But whether it needs to be defined or not, it certainly needs to be understood; so important it is to our beings. It needs to be understood in order to give us a concept of what it is we hold so close. It also needs to be understood because, by understanding something so vital to us, we understand something of ourselves.

The specific combination of sounds that becomes music can be explained in technical terms, but to the receiver, it is a stimulus – an intricate stimulus. It is not the sounds themselves, but what they do to us that makes those sounds ‘music’. The senses define something to us as music.

So the sounds need to have a certain quality to be called music. This ‘quality’ is not a technical property of the sounds, but acoustic and emotive. It is in and through this that we discover the musicality of sounds, discover music. One may argue that, in order to make this interaction happen, there has to be a technical relationship between the sounds that are generated and our aesthetic receptors. While this may be true, when we respond to music, we are not responding to or sensing the technical quality, we are sensing the acoustic and emotive quality. It is in this experience of being made and being experienced that music may be said to ‘happen’, or be created. I use the word ‘created’ advisedly: music lies not in the sounds, but in the way they arise, unfold and travel to the receiver like great creations. The receiver includes the person generating the sounds. We are all receivers, the maker of the music as much as the listener.

Is music the creation of human activity? All of us say that birds sing, but do they? What is it about the chirping of some birds that makes it a song? It is the human relationship with what we believe is ‘song’. The idea that the bird sings is ours, not the bird’s. Its sounds are related to its own existence and life cycle, perhaps hormonal changes or physical reactions. The bird does not intend to make music. A mating call, for instance, is a signal to prospective partners. Does this sound need to be beautiful? For their purposes, probably. But what is beautiful to us is not necessarily beautiful to the bird; we are defining the beauty of the sound as we perceive it. Whatever acoustic, emotive or biological stimulus the bird responds to, it is not to the music in the sound – at least not as we understand music to be. When humans respond to the music in a bird’s song, we are being conditioned by our experience of music in life. Music in nature is not nature’s music. It is by human yardsticks that we determine beauty, symmetry, essence and the like.

Even among humans, what is considered music today is completely different from what was considered music a thousand years ago. There is a claim that animals, birds and plants respond to music. If they do, what music are we referring to? Would we say that they too evolve in their response to music? The claim that non-human life too responds to music has been debated by scientists with no clear conclusion.

But the veracity of that claim is not the issue here. The fact remains that the response, or lack thereof, of any other being does not impact the creation of music. Music is a human activity and so is its experience. It is not an accident, but a conscious expression of life defined within the human sphere. Many would say that music, indeed art itself, deals with a person’s personal feelings conditioned by experience. The reader may feel that I find this assertion acceptable.

Let us break this assertion down. With both the artist and the conscious connoisseur, the experience of art can leave the sphere of personal feeling. Art removes one from the site of personal sense to that of an impersonal sense of experience. This is not a sterile or self-fulfilling movement, but an immensely wholesome and fulfilling one. Let me explain. The individual is drawn completely into the world of the art, and there develops a personal relationship with it. The personal nature of the experience lies within this created space, yet it remains impersonal because the felt experience is not just about the individual’s own conditioned feelings as much as it is about the quality of the art being experienced in itself. This experiencing of the art is definitely far more than a manifestation of personal human feelings or needs.

In the construction of this essay, I have placed two types of experiences that art can give us: one that is about ourselves, and another that is purely about the created. Both exist, of course, and all of us experience them. There are two elements that play a role in defining the experience: the art form itself and the receiver. Not all forms of art intend to transport the receiver beyond the realm of his or her personal self. Some forms cater squarely to the personal nature of one’s being. But there are art forms that intend to move every individual beyond the space of personal feeling towards one of created emotion: the space of the created art. In order to experience music beyond personal confines, the receiver also needs to be a serious seeker of art and aware of the art itself. Without that insight, the receiver may not be able to inhabit that created space, for the music will be received as personal feeling alone, and to that extent be incomplete. At the same time, a truly evolved connoisseur may be able to draw out a sense of emotional abstraction from an art form that is primarily aimed at personal emotion, purely by her attitude towards it. The seriousness and appropriate attitude towards understanding art have to be cultivated by every art seeker.

Aesthetics

Coming back to the idea of defining and understanding music, there is a specific word that comes to mind: aesthetics, from the Greek ‘aisthetikos’. Unless we spend some time with this word, it will be impossible to formulate ideas regarding music. We use aesthetics to describe personal tastes and sensibilities, or in the context of pretty, beautiful or pleasant things. A culturally conditioned sensibility. What is aesthetic to an Indian may not be so to a Russian. If we hold to this understanding, it will make a discussion on music a non-starter. We need to rethink – or rather think more deeply about – our understanding of aesthetics.

Aesthetics is primarily about the senses, as in aesthesia. But it is not about what you sense, but how to sense. This may seem illogical; how is it possible to tutor one on how to sense? But this is exactly what aesthetics is about. In aesthetics, one is not overly worried about an individual’s preferences, but more about the object that has generated a certain feeling in him. The point of reference is not the person but the object. Greek words ending with ‘tikos’ relate to a body of empirically arrived ideas, that is, through serious observation and experience.

Therefore, aesthetics is a body of philosophy that tries to understand the aspects of an art form that give it its identity and content. Aesthetics in arts is about the understanding of art. It would include an understanding of intent, structure, form, changes, developments and history, thereby also examining why an art form is what it is. Aesthetics does not judge art on the basis of taste. Through this understanding, one tries to discuss and critique art.

It is also possible for an individual to hold a personal liking for an aspect of something – music, for instance – and yet understand that what is liked is aesthetically destroying the essence of a specific aspect of the music. Here I have presented aesthetics as an objective rather than a subjective idea.

Now if we look at music in terms of aesthetics and see it as a combination of sounds that gives us an aesthetic experience, we have a completely different understanding of music. At a personal level, it gives us pleasure through our senses, but from an objective point of view, it is a combination of sounds that have been given a certain form, content and organization, which has an impact on the senses. Aesthetics is the understanding of this form, content and organization. Let us look at beauty within this context. It has a personal manifestation and a sense beyond the personal. We need to go beyond the personal in order to grasp the idea of beauty. Similarly, we must develop the capacity to critique music on the basis of the aesthetics that define it, rather than our personal sensibilities. In the course of these essays, I will strive to write from this impersonal, objective stand, not my personal predispositions, instincts or sensibilities.

Instinct in Musical Experience

The human response to music is initially instinctive. As soon as we hear any form of music, there is an involuntary reaction, a flicker of recognition, an acknowledgement of an earlier association reflected in a deep breath. The standard understanding of instinct is that it is an involuntary response, independent of reason or experience. How much of ‘instinct’ is genetically coded – can it even be? The amorphous nature of ideas such as art and knowledge makes such associations futile, in fact irrelevant. For the sake of social parity, it is better left alone. We already have communities claiming greater intelligence based on prejudiced and discriminatory science. But this I can say: even if instinct is an unpremeditated and unrehearsed prompting, it is finessed by the sounds that we heard in our homes and the environments in which we grew up. These stimuli connect the subconscious mind with our past experiences. Every lived experience places a layer of impressions on our mind, and we build on it right through life – layers of resultant opinions, likes and dislikes. Our initial response to the stimuli of music emerges from all these.

Conversely, when we hear music that does not relate to any of our experiences, most often, the immediate response is of unease. This is rare, as more often than not, the mind makes immediate connections with our previous experiences of music. But when it does happen, there is discomfort and even dislike for the strange music. If we hear it over and over, new connections are created, which may allow us to build a relationship with the musical form that had seemed unfamiliar, even unwelcome.

Purely at the level of feelings and memory, music triggers images and emotions that also establish our relationship with it. We must realize that these responses are more about us than the music. When music reiterates feelings that touch us at a deep level, it seems closer. It reminds us of places, people, thoughts and dreams and can sift even the most distant event from our memory. Music transcends melody and rhythm; it is a deeply personal emotive experience that connects to our life through our senses. This is what makes music meaningful in our normal life. Beyond comprehension, grammar and form, what makes music intimate is its ability to reveal ourselves to us. Therefore, when a person likes or dislikes a form of music, there are possibly many layers of cause and effect encompassing the musical, social and, of course, the personal. From this personal space of an instinctive response, with its subtle ambient texturing, the aesthetic moves on to the larger created space of shared art. But I want to take a step back now, to the ‘original’ moment of response to music.

The Fleeting Moment

I wonder whether there exists something else as well – something that lies just before the ‘instinctive’ response. Is there a slice of a moment, a space so thin as to be invisible almost, where stimuli and sense intersect? In this minuscule time frame exists an experience that does not admit of even the narrowest baggage of conditioning. But this space passes quickly, so quickly that we may not even realize that it was ever there. There are times when a stimulus appears all of a sudden – like a beautiful ray of sunlight from behind a mountain when we least expect it – and for a moment, there is just ‘pure sense’. That slice of a moment precedes the recognition of the ray of light as beautiful or even as sunlight.

Response to stimuli is not linear – pure sense, instinct and cognitive response – though it may often appear in that order. Music can give us a pure sense experience that lasts for a merest moment as also, equally, for a long time, coming much after instinctive and cognitive reactions. I would like to connect this experience with what I referred to earlier as an ‘impersonal’ sense of experience. Impersonal and pure senses are not counter-indicative. In this state, the experience is at the cusp of the sensual, and the music is devoid of the individual’s own identity. This is not only rare, but also requires that the experiencer be an aesthetically evolved person. It is interesting that an individual has to reflect the instinctive and be simultaneously immersed in the cognitive to finally live in the art itself. The final state is that of the true aesthete.

Serious engagement with music cannot be dependent on instinct. It has to be cultivated through aesthetic study. The receiver grows from unconscious predisposition to conscious disposition. The highest form of conscious disposition, though, is completely unselfconscious.

The reason that instinctive experience lasts for only a fraction of a second is that we react to the stimulus of music by creating identities and categorizing it. This is an essential function of our mind that gives us a sense of security. This identification process gives us the strength to say ‘I recognize’ or ‘I know’. Quite often, a classical musician will say, ‘This film song sounds like such-and-such raga.’ The opposite too can happen. A lay listener could say, ‘This raga sounds like that film song.’ These are examples of creating associations based on known qualities. These associations are relevant to both the listener and the musician. Both do exactly the same thing, the only difference being that the understanding of music comes from their differing roles and the intensity of engagement. When a musician sings, he is creating identities based on his conditioned comprehension. It is therefore very important to understand how these connections with identity define the essential character of each musical form. After all, it is musicians who define the music. It is their mind that fashions the form, shapes its essence.

The Musician and the Self

I would like to look at these interconnections in two ways: first, when they are created by organic and evolutionary processes though enhanced by individual expression, and second, when they are the result of the musician’s own battle for self-identity. In evolutionary change there is no doubt a role for the individual self, but the role is governed by the threads that have been handed down to him. In the self-oriented change, that thread is lost.

When we look at history, we find that the process of identity recognition led to the development of various schools of thought. We can philosophize about the need for this process, but the fact remains that it exists. The reiteration of an identity by successive contributing musicians establishes a form. This does not mean that the identity is a closed box of inflexibility, for the possibility of change, improvisation and evolution continues to exist. Inside every impression, there lies a possibility of redefinition.

A living thought is never idle; it is being constantly redefined and rejuvenated, and over a period of time, is perceived as an original idea. The beauty lies in the fact that there exists a continuum within every level of thought when it is a part of the organic evolutionary process. This continuum is created because thinkers recognize the essential elements that build the form and create their own story from them. After a while, there appear different versions of the same story, each keeping the core characters and principles intact. Each story also changes when handled by different storytellers, thereby increasing the depth, with the core remaining intact. This is what I call tradition, and many of the organic changes in Karnatik music seem to have evolved through this fascinating metamorphosis.

The word ‘tradition’, of course, can be interpreted in so many different ways that we seem to understand it as something that a large number of people have done repeatedly over a period of time. Understanding what tradition is becomes especially relevant in the context of classical art forms. In the world of Karnatik music, we use the word tradition, or sampradaya, to justify almost every act for which we have no explanation. This is essentially an escape route. Tradition is not a repetitive act; it is change that retains within it the essential threads that define the whole. Every banyan tree is different; in many ways, each tree is so unique that it can be defined individually. Banyan trees have also changed through millions of years of evolution, and yet, all of them share certain qualities. These are the elements which, when put together, define a banyan tree. This is tradition.

When we do not view it in this manner, we battle with problems of identity and form. Is identity then just the will of a person? Can the will of every individual create divergent forms? In this case, the identity we are battling is not music, but ourselves. In the search for self-identity, we are willing to ignore or not seek the threads that have been handed down. This is a problem we face not just in contemporary music, but right through musical history.

There have been musicians and musicologists of various periods who, in the battle within their own selves, have changed tradition. It is not an issue of what is right and what is wrong, but something we need to comprehend, so that we may gauge what we have lost, gained or changed. Where a certain change that is not in sync with the musical evolutionary thought is implemented and even accepted, the music is adapted in order to include it. And very soon, the new adaptation becomes tradition. Sometimes, as individuals, we do not spend enough time to understand the evolutionary process, and make decisions on the basis of influences that are outside it. I would prefer not to use the terms ‘internal’ or ‘external’, as every influence is a result of the interaction between the two. But it is important to understand the form, change and development of thought in an art form in order to absorb external influences, and yet retain the essential elements that make the music. When there is a lot of external influence on a musician lacking internal introspection, the end result is a musical direction that is disconnected. The acceptance or the lack of that is not the issue, but the aesthetic repercussions of such directional changes is a matter of concern.

Convention, Tradition and Sampradaya

These terms are interchangeably used in the context of music. Conventions are accepted norms that are followed by the community, and tradition is viewed as ideas that are repeated and passed down. We have already discussed the nuanced view of tradition. In Karnatik music, the word sampradaya means both conventions and traditions. The differentiation between the two is probably thought of as irrelevant – the result of which is a situation where all changes are considered to be within the spectrum of sampradaya. This gives all musicians the right to claim something as their sampradaya, while simultaneously abdicating the responsibility of comprehending these traditions, if at all they exist. This is a licence that we wield to establish our connection with the past.

Many of the practices that we follow come under the category of convention, which are often the result of a single musician’s actions. Once this is followed by her students and emulated by other musicians, it comes to be established as a sampradaya. These conventions (sampradaya) are often at loggerheads with tradition (sampradaya), but reconciliation is not what we seek. We accept convention as being a part of the whole traditional system. It is interesting that we do not see conflict. This is due to two main reasons: first, the stature of the musician who created this convention supersedes logical analysis. Second, its wide, inherited acceptability creates a sense of collective history, which secures our belief systems in the antiquity of the music itself.

Conventions are also generated due to social, religious and political influences, necessitated by the need for acceptability within a context. These changes can either be true to the musical tradition or divergent, but the context makes them acceptable. Religious beliefs too play an important role in influencing art forms. These lead to complete changes in the essence of the music as the very survival or the popularity of the art is challenged.

For example, Tamil ritual theatre forms today present stories from contemporary themes to sustain viewer interest. One could view these as superficial changes, as the form, style and presentation are retained. But techniques used to portray contemporary stories may lead to changes in storytelling methods. In my view, even when the context demands a change, it is important for artists to be sensitive to the form and intent of the art form. In a challenging environment, though, it is very difficult to strike a balance. This is similar to the challenges faced by people working in traditional textiles and trying to modify their designs and products for today’s customers. This directly influences design tradition, but the need for survival is a serious and essential concern.

One wonders whether there is another way of dealing with this problem. Can we bring society around to rediscovering the beauty of the traditional form rather than compromising the form to meet social needs? It is far from easy, of course, to negotiate the complexity of evolving social tastes and preferences. As an integral part of social thought, religion directly influences artistic expression. The birth of most art forms came from the search for the mystical and unknown, a fascination with nature’s mysteries, creation and connection to the gods. It is true of every civilization that many conventions are borrowed from religious beliefs and accepted into artistic tradition. Usually, these changes result in a major realignment in the art form.

Tradition in musical evolution is the result of the movements of the past leading to change in the present, while retaining the essential core elements. It may be influenced by individuals and the social context, but all these are secondary to the integrity of the musical form. Individual changes and conventions are driven by the need of the individual or by factors of survival, which take precedence over the art form. History reveals that all these various changes – whether traditional, individual or social – interact with each other. In the unravelling of this complex basket of interactions lie the form, structure and intent of an art form.

In my opinion, for the better understanding of music as it is today, it is imperative that every musician explores the idea of sampradaya. This involves sieving through collective organic thought, and individual and socio-political conventions. This process of introspection will also come to define every musician’s own musical thought. Being part of the organic history of music is the way to retain qualities that give each musical form its unique identity. This becomes even more relevant in an age when we have stimuli from so many different sources. These stimuli, without doubt, influence our orientation towards Karnatik music. In this environment, unless we comprehend our music as a continuous river that travels in time, adapting and changing to different environments, we will not be one of the travellers on that river. We may create a dam and divert the water, but this will change the natural flow. It is up to each one of us to decide how we want to experience music and, by experiencing it, contribute to its journeys.

2

The Intent of Music

What does music mean to me?

This is a question that every music lover engages with. The connections between the music and the listener are both intellectual and emotional. These create preferences for different forms of music, different hierarchies and gradations in our mind. These hierarchies are not fixed; they can meander and change in the course of our lives, with certain constants holding their ground.

In spite of these gradations, it is still perfectly possible for two totally different forms of music to generate equally strong emotional responses. The excitement generated, for instance, from listening to a song by the Beatles can be the same as that from a composition in the raga kadananakutuhalam. The cultural background, instruments, system and intonation in those two are completely different, yet they evoke a similar experience. Technically, of course, it is possible to establish commonalities. Be that as it may, the almost similar emotional response generated by two distinct musical forms remains intriguing. This sometimes results in the naïve belief that the intent of all music is the same.

We do need to investigate the following questions: If we can relate emotionally to different forms of music in the same way, what is it that sets apart one form from the other? Is all music then the same? Are all the differences that we perceive based purely on our conditioning? These thoughts lead us to a deeper investigation of the nature of music, the role of music in society and what it means to an individual.

Let us attempt such an investigation. Our emotional response to music is driven by the senses. As discussed in the previous essay, various factors contribute to that response. Many people believe that, irrespective of the form of music and its nature, or what may be called the ‘kind’ of music, its most important function is to touch our hearts. For some, the important thing about music is the ‘excitement’ it generates, or some other such response. It is important to remember that the kind of music we listen to also connects with and reflects our own character and psychological state at a given point of time. Depending on one’s emotional state, some kinds of music may prove to be deeply affecting, even disturbing.

Quite apart from that emotional charge, every form of music has its own historical and contemporary role based on the social and cultural scaffolding that society has raised around it. Here, the role of music is the result of the nature of its origin, its journey and its function within the social construct. This social and externally positioned intent drives its form, governs its nature and performance, and controls the environment in which it operates. We must note that sometimes the scaffolding is constructed even as the music is evolving. When this occurs, the intent that existed before the social framework could begin to evolve in a different direction.

The word ‘intent’ is, therefore, essential to an understanding of why music takes on a certain form. Unravelling this is rendered difficult by various factors including tradition, convention and the personal choices of individuals. Nevertheless, this investigation and the resultant discovery open our mind to why it is that we can get so deeply involved with a specific art form over others. Consider for a moment the structure of a house and that of an office. Both buildings will host human beings, but the very nature of why they were built governs the use of the space and material, as well as factors like structure and accessibility.

What is the purpose of an art form? It can vary from being religious, playing a supportive role to other art presentations, community building, societal and personal events, or it could be a form that in its intent is purely art itself. All these have a direct impact on the form and development of the art. As socio-political formations evolve, so does the art form; it constantly adapts in its own subtle manner to these changes. Critically and analytically understanding the various societal roles of an art form is necessary if we are to identify the ways in which the form has changed over the years. It is imperative that this examination be separated from studies of emotional responses, since it is clear that diametrically opposite art forms can evoke similar emotions.

Sometimes, as an art form is influenced by social, political or religious factors, it can modify and even change character in order to adapt to the circumstances. Of course, when I say the art form ‘changes’, I am referring to the role of the form’s practitioners. This can, at times, lead to a blurring between two art forms – the result of an overlapping of intent between the two. These modifications can lead to an overlap in the emotions that they evoke. The cognitive relationship between an individual and two art forms can then come together. This leads to dichotomous responses and perceptions and can go on to a realignment within the form and structure of the art. It is, therefore, neither feasible nor quite correct to analyse the journey and evolution of a form of music at an emotional level, as that will lead to emotive correlations between completely divergent stimuli without reference to the larger and more complex causes of this similarity and its significance.

Another aspect of the social nature of music is that each form has its audience groupings, the nature of which is defined by cultural backgrounds, exposure and social divisions – the field ripe for the creation of hierarchies. The role of the form in society and the generic perceptions of it define its access to people as well as the size of audience groupings. It is also true that musical forms that have very clear community roles tend to have larger audiences. The social composition of the group too is usually defined by the origin and nature of the music. Classifications exist within and between these communities, so there is no avoiding these complex social formations.

Certain art forms are considered by their practitioners and patrons as ‘elevated’, by others as elitist. Other forms are held in disdain by the so-called elite, even regarded as crass or uncultured. These differences are often determined by social hierarchy, depending on the communities that nurtured and supported the art. This differentiation too needs to be excised from the discussion in order to pursue the question of intent. Sophistication, a sense of culture and refinement, is a subjective perception. For the British in the seventeenth century, Indians as a category were uncultured. What was the basis of this notion? It was nothing more than the wholly false notion that culture as practised in British society was superior. Today most Indians, especially those living in urban India, nurse similar perceptions of what is crude and what is sophisticated. For instance, in Tamil Nadu, most people tend to be overtly expressive and have heightened emotional reactions. Unsurprisingly, many socalled English-educated sections of society are uneasy with such responses. What does this show? Just this, that these sections are influenced by Western notions of what is cultured and nurse the classist illusion that holds unrestrained emotional expressiveness as being somehow inferior.

The idea of sophistication also seems to imply it is something that requires a higher order of sensitivity, a certain cultural plinth reflective of the higher social echelons. This leads to the conviction that the art and culture practised, preserved and propagated by this class is of a higher standard than that of those in the ‘lower’ levels of society. It is significant that this idea is not the hallmark of the relevant ‘class’ alone; it is prevalent in the social environment as a whole. People who have improved their financial position tend to imitate the behaviour of those already at that level of society, and enthusiastically support the preferred art forms in order to be regarded as part of that category of taste and discrimination. The support and appreciation of these art forms are considered hallmarks of an evolved human being. In reality, this is a social phenomenon. The appreciation of all art forms is a product of cultivated association. Art forms are not to be compared with one another.

Obviously, the intent governing the formulation of the art form will drive its evolution, just as the social factors do too. A notable and noticeable feature in the evolution of an art form is internal stylization. Stylization is only relevant within each art. The process of evolution – the differentiation from previous interpretations – results in the separation of various styles based on internal comparison. The word ‘internal’ here refers to the fact that these changes occur within the spectrum of the art itself. This does not take away from the fact that all such changes are also being guided by ‘external’ dynamics that come from society.

Let us now look at the various forms of music in south Indian society and try to understand their role within the larger canvas of the arts.

Folk Music

I am reminded of a conversation I had with Dr Harold Powers, the well-known ethnomusicologist from Princeton University, many years ago. He said, ‘The classifications of folk and classical are purely social. As musical forms are appreciated by more people in the higher sections of society, the music transforms into classical and the aesthetic is reconstructed.’

This was the first time I heard of this interpretation. Like any classical musician, until then, I had assumed that folk forms are less systematized or developed and are intended to so remain. This leads me to the big question: what is folk?

We refer to forms like kootthu (a theatre form from Tamil Nadu) or even Yakshagana as ‘folk’, implying that they belong to a less evolved genre. This is misleading. Almost all performance art forms that we describe as folk are highly evolved – in the sense of what in actual fact constitutes the art form, and not perceptions about it. It might then be asked: why then the categorization, why refer to these form as folk music? I think Dr Powers’s remark was extremely insightful.

Our perception of folk art is purely social and is class-based. The audience groups for these art forms are drawn from rural environments, or the underprivileged and lower-income groups. These folk performances, usually held in temples or at local congregations, are integral to the social or religious calendars of the communities. These art forms are used to represent traditional narratives that connect with living social beliefs and practices. They are sustained by a community of artists whose training in these forms is traditionally carried on by families or communities that have grown into these art forms for centuries.

A superficial observation of these arts would lead us to untrue and simplistic conclusions. To arrive at an understanding, we must address grammar and theory. Grammar and systems can be written or oral. Even written grammar was not handed down to us as the final word. It is the result of gradual changes in practice. Therefore, the perceived prerequisite that a classical form must have a written grammar is not, strictly speaking, appropriate. While folk art forms do have a well-developed grammar and organized system, these are not necessarily written down as formal theory. The learning process, which is practice passed down the generations, may be more by observation than a codified training methodology. Therefore, students imbibe the inherent grammar, theory and systems at a subconscious level. The theoretical base has evolved over a period of time, in which practitioner, listener, student and society have been interacting. It would therefore be erroneous to believe that these forms do not have a developed theory. What we could say is that, in some performing arts, the line of theorization and the schools of musicology are active partners to practice; while in others these are not developed as separate areas of study.

Some forms are part of ritual performances. This is an interesting and important dimension where these forms have an aesthetic structure, presentation and system, but their intent is an integral part of a community’s religious practice. Therefore, when we take them out of the context of a ritual rite or requirement, and present them as an individual art presentation within our modern perception of performance, they lose an integral part of their identity. At the same time, we cannot exclude the distinct possibility of the transformed nature of their out-of-context, but nonetheless authentic, presentation creating an altogether new aesthetic identity and intent. The creation of Bharatanatyam from Sadir (its form in the days when it was practised only by the devadasis), which was a ritual-related yet distinct art form, is a case of transformed existence. It is also very likely, as in the case of Sadir, that even while functioning within its ritualistic ‘home’ environment, the art form had evolved into something more than a ritualistic offering. The seeds for this evolution are anterior to its ritualistic identity. Sometimes changes are forced upon them, and that is when these forms, no longer a part of their roots in ritual practice, can find their very survival under threat.

So then, what is folk music?

Folk music refers to music or songs that are part of a community’s lore – lullabies, songs sung during festivals or during important events in life, like birth, weddings and funerals.

There is no audience, as that term is commonly understood, to receive this expression of music. The receiver and the giver together express aesthetic intent through their emotional state. Anybody who is part of the community that has inherited a specific song can render it. This natural expression through music of elemental emotions at landmark occasions can be said to fall within the description of folk music. This music does not have a subconscious system that governs its identity, but is defined by the community’s own context and cultural history. Therefore, let us be careful, respectful and mindful when we classify music as ‘folk’.

Film Music

In the Indian context, this is the musical expression that dominates our sense receptors. Radio and TV channels present cine-music through the day. Its popularity is as unquestioned as it is unprecedented. Films are made in almost every Indian language, and their songs hover on people’s lips. It is impossible to be part of contemporary society in India today and escape the sounds of film music. The reach of cinema is, of course, the central reason.

Cinema is the most dominant form of artistic expression globally, and especially so in India. As a direct result, film music too is unmistakably the driving force of popular musical aesthetics. But film music did not materialize in a vacuum. Interestingly, and even incredibly, in its earlier and formative phase, film music depended heavily on classical music. Its melody and rhythms were derived from classical music and many actors, who sang their own songs those days, were either classical musicians or had received training in classical music.

Over time, this changed and music for films evolved into a separate genre. Just as stories, storytelling methods and techniques changed in Indian cinema, so did its music. Film music is a versatile and amorphous form that constantly reinvents and reinterprets itself in response to the major influences of the day. In that sense, film music does not have to retain any specific musical quality – a fact that makes its identity difficult to define. The only constant in film music is its highly resilient and adaptive relevance within the context of the cinema.

It is important to note here that dance is a very important part of music in Indian cinema. The role of music in the context of cinema makes for an interesting study. It is part of our cultural history and not a recent interpolation – a natural extension of the symbiotic connection between drama, music and dance in the Indian cultural context. Theatre in ancient Indian art presentations included all these forms of expressions. Ancient Indian theatre art was inseparable from music and dance. This is reflected both in ancient Sanskrit and Tamil literature. Today Koodiyattam, Yakshagana and Bhagavata Mela are living examples of this tradition. Even Indian theatre in the early part of the twentieth century followed this practice, with actors using songs and dialogues to express themselves. Therefore, music and dance in our cinema are a continuation of our cultural history, very much a part of our theatrical tradition.

What is the role of music in cinema?

It is very clear that its role is to support, enhance and express emotional situations. Every song is positioned to provide the viewer with a deeper experience of a particular moment in the story or the character’s state at specific moments. Therefore, songs appear to express love, sorrow, longing, separation and so on. Beyond this, music also plays a subtle role as a background score within scenes, between dialogues and during silent moments. In fact, the more ‘frightening’ scenes would impact the viewer far less if there were no sound, no music to enhance the visual. The music that we hear enhances, even constitutes, the visual experience. The dance sequences in the movies also help express the same changes.

Does this mean that film songs do not have an intrinsic value? Do not people hear the songs even before they see the movie and continue to play them, later, independent of the film? Of course they do, and this is significant. The intrinsic musical value of the songs cannot be denied. But the fact remains that if the movie did not exist, these songs would never have been composed. Sometimes we even relate songs to actors and identify voices of certain playback singers with certain actors. This too is a result of the relationship between music and cinema. Enjoying film music for its beauty is definitely possible, but the intent of its creation still remains rooted in cinema.

Namasankirtana and Bhajan

These religious musical performances, specific to Hinduism, are prevalent all over India and form a very important part of the religious fabric of society. Parallels in other religious streams include choral singing in Christianity, qawwalis in the Sufi tradition and shabadkirtan in Sikhism.

Three great saints – Shridhara Ayyaval, Bodhendra Sarasvati and Sadguru Svami of Marudanallur – who lived between the late seventeenth and early nineteenth centuries in south India, propagated the practice of Namasiddhanta, or chanting the lord’s name. Another saint-singer, Sadashiva Brahmendra, contributed to its spread. The basis of this movement was the belief that chanting the lord’s name was the easiest way to moksha. This developed into a tradition where songs were sung in praise of the various gods and goddesses. Therefore, Namasankirtana was encouraged, developed and spread to involve people in the collective singing of the lord’s name. This was an important tool to keep Hindus together and spread Hinduism.

Over many centuries, Namasankirtana has gained a very important place in the lives of south Indian Hindus, especially the brahmin community. It is believed that this musical tradition was originally structured by Bodhendra Sarasvati, though the present format is credited to Sadguru Svami, who evolved a performance practice that is still current, using compositions written by saints from various parts of the country. The performance practice was standardized and the range of composers greatly enlarged. This made Namasankirtana acceptable to people of different languages as it included the abhangs of Tukaram, kirtanas of Purandaradasa and Annamacharya, the bhajans of Mirabai, ashtapadis of Jayadeva, tarangas of Narayana Tirtha and the outpourings of Tamil composers like Arunachala Kavi.

Namasankirtana presentations in the south have one main singer, with one or two additional singers who support and provide chorus, accompanied on the violin and mrdanga. Sometimes the tabla and dholak are also included in the percussion ensemble.

It must also be mentioned that Namasankirtana seems to have evolved in Tamil-speaking regions during the Maratha rule (seventeenth to nineteenth century) since the kirtan tradition had long been popular in west India.

Collective bhajan singing is but an extension of the Namasankirtana tradition. In collective bhajan renditions, there is usually a group that leads the community in singing compositions on various gods and goddesses. The result is a highly charged atmosphere. Sometimes people go into a trance. There is no audience here; every individual is a participant who contributes to this religious fervour and the increased devotional and emotional heightening that many experience.

What is the role of music here? It is obviously to contribute to the religious experience. The music is such that everyone can sing; the tunes are simple and repetitive. One does not need musical training to sing along in this tradition, only religious fellow feeling. The focus is on the lyrics, which are largely eulogies to gods and their names. The multiple repetition of lines heightens the experience.

Namasankirtana involves a trained group of musicians who render religious songs to a group of believers. Therefore, there is a performance-like aspect to it. Yet the audience will join in at specific points as directed by the lead singer. Even if these are presentations by trained musicians, their role is similar, since the lyrics focus on religious fervour, the names of gods, mythological stories or spiritual messages dressed in beautiful music. The focus is on giving oneself up to a religious experience triggered by singing the lord’s name and being entranced by the stories and the philosophical import of the songs. The singer provides this with the fervour with which he sings.

Harikatha

Harikatha or kathakalakshepam arose in the nineteenth century with the migration of kirtankars such as Ramachandra Bava and Morkar Bava from Gwalior to Tanjavur. This is a beautiful form of storytelling that remains vibrant in many parts of south India. It is a musical presentation where mythological, religious and spiritual stories come to be narrated. The main presenter uses history, music, poetry, mythology, philosophy and contemporary experiences to communicate the story. The aim is to convey through stories what is regarded as the moral, religious and spiritual values expressed in Indian philosophy to a listener. The storyteller is usually accompanied by musicians. The story is woven within a prescribed traditional format, but the choice of songs and narration are left to the exponent. During the course of the narration, the performer constantly cross-refers to various other mythological stories, quotes and treatises to emphasize the religious idea. The intent of traditional Harikatha – as the name suggests – is to relate the ‘story of the lord’. These stories convey various aspects of the lord’s character, deeds and benevolence. The compositions, by various poets and composers, are not necessarily presented as a whole. Specific sections are selected to convey emotions, messages of moral values that are woven into the movement of the story. This makes the Harikatha exponent a multifaceted personality with innumerable talents – a linguist, musician, scholar, historian, didactician and, of course, storyteller par excellence – with the ability to switch from one role to another during the performance.

As far as the role of music in Harikatha goes, the focus is on the lyrical content of the compositions. While we cannot deny the musical ability of many great Harikatha exponents, the fact remains that their focus is on the meaning of the lyrics and not on the musical value of their presentation. Harikatha exponents give special emphasis to the lyrics; the music is subservient to the story.

Western Popular Music

Many forms of popular Western music over the last century can be traced to the African American community in the United States. From its Spirituals came Gospel and Blues. From these rose rhythm and blues (R&B) and the earliest forms of jazz, American folk music, country music, rock ’n’ roll and bluegrass. Hip Hop arose from later forms of jazz, and all forms of rock progressed from rock ’n’ roll. Many musical forms developed among the African American community were an expression of social inequalities and an assertion of identity; it was musical entertainment that also empowered.

The fact that a lot of modern popular music arose from social and religious protests, especially among the African American community, has influenced its lyrical content. Right through history, these forms have been used to express protest, rage against oppression, proclaim freedom and strength. Whether it is slavery, war, sexuality or gender inequalities, popular music has brought these issues boldly into public purview. This was especially evident during the 1960s and 1970s when musicians such as Pete Seeger, Woody and Arlo Guthrie, Bob Dylan, John Lennon and CSNY used their music to raise awareness of social issues. David Crosby, Graham Nash, Pete Seeger and Arlo Guthrie were even seen recently during the Occupy Wall Street protest of 2012. Out-and-out popular singers have composed songs that speak about various issues – Michael Jackson on race, for instance.

At the same time, the role of stage performances, music videos and discos give us an insight into another important facet. For performers like Elvis Presley or Michael Jackson, the dance and the physicality of the presentation were as important as the music itself. Similarly, the audience’s involvement in that visual experience is an equal part of the music. In fact, they are inseparable.

Popular music is part of the popular dance culture. Discos and dance floors constantly play many popular numbers, and the music, along with the lighting, is part of the experience. Dancing is an integral part of many of these musical forms, and the intent of the music is very closely knit with participatory dance. The exhilaration from this experience is a very important intent of the music. Therefore, these forms of music generate a sense of excitement in an individual, which the lights and the atmosphere of the performance enhance.

Music videos too interpret the music to give the viewer a visual experience of intrigue, thrill and excitement. The whole package together is the experience. This interrelationship between the visual interpretations, innovative lighting and music is what makes popular Western music interesting. Here the function is not just music itself but the larger experience built on dance, lights and music. This also makes the music participatory, leading to a communal experience. Once again, the origins of these musical forms seem to have a role in this subtext. One must note that dance and physicality refer here not only to a forceful dance expression, but includes even the slowest and subtlest moves that popular music evokes.

As we can see, there are two very strong elements that unite Western popular music. Depending on the genre and the performer, the weightage of the two aspects vary, but they do, nevertheless, exist. Some believe that popular music has not been used as a powerful social tool over the last couple of decades and has completely focused on movement, with electronic and dance music dominating.

There are some forms of non-classical Western music that do not fall into this category and need to be understood and treated differently. Jazz, for example, has evolved to become art music, which we shall discuss next, while blues and Hip Hop remain a social musical expression.

Over the last century, Western popular music has become an important part of the listening culture of urban south India. In its popularity, it is now only second to cinema music. There are many Western music bands in the south playing different genres, some even trying to create the ‘same music’ using south Indian languages.

Karnatik Music as Art Music

Karnatik music is a most interesting form in its function within the social fabric and its own evolution. What makes it so is that its function is based on the musical aspects that constitute its existence. These are: raga, tala, composition and improvisation.

The function of the musician is to express the various melodic and rhythmic aspects of the music with a complete understanding of its aesthetics and grammar. The musician is neither conveying a social message nor helping interpret a certain theatrical act or delivering a religious experience. The experience begins and ends with the musicality of the form. Like many musical forms, Karnatik music has a complex religious history. But I do believe that even while it was practised in courts and temples in different presentations, it had collectively far more than the immediately perceived religious, social or political intent. The history of the music and its aesthetic formations naturally moved the music beyond its social and religious context. Some ritual practices of which Karnatik music was a part were such that they encouraged an art music temperament. The music, as a collective musical identity, has always had a strong art music orientation despite its various socio-political contexts and practitioners. Within the modern context, Karnatik music has a presence separate from the temples and courts. But this is only an extension of the collective art music identity that the form had developed in those spaces. Over the centuries, Karnatik music evolved to explore the abstract areas of melody, rhythm and prosody, creating an aesthetic unit that is experienced as a whole. Karnatik music, like other art music forms, has also developed a line of study in theory that constructs and deconstructs the music.

There is no denying the fact that most lyrics in the Karnatik music repertoire are religious in nature. This creates a serious overlap of experience for the listener. The challenge of perception is when compositions with religious import are rendered in art music presentations. This is due to two factors. One, many compositions that were created for the art music repertoire found their way into other forms, like Harikatha, due to the religious nature of their lyrics. Two, many poems that were religious outpourings also found their way into Karnatik music.

The role of lyrics, meaning and syllabic form will be discussed separately. But