The Insecure City: Space, Power, and Mobility in Beirut

THE INSECURE CITY

THE INSECURE CITY

Space, Power, and Mobility in Beirut

KRISTIN V. MONROE

RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS

New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Monroe, Kristin V., 1974– author.

The insecure city : space, power, and mobility in Beirut / Kristin V. Monroe.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978–0–8135–7463–9 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978–0–8135–7462–2 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978–0–8135–7464–6 (e-book (epub)) — ISBN 978–0–8135–7465–3 (e-book (web pdf))

1. Sociology, Urban—Lebanon—Beirut.   2. Public spaces—Lebanon—Beirut.   3. City traffic—Lebanon—Beirut.   4. Violence—Lebanon—Beirut.   5. Urban anthropology—Lebanon—Beirut.   6. Beirut (Lebanon)—Social conditions.   I. Title.

HT147.L4M66   2016

307.76095692'5—dc23

2015021869

A British Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2016 by Kristin V. Monroe

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Please contact Rutgers University Press, 106 Somerset Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901. The only exception to this prohibition is fair use as defined by U.S. copyright law.

Visit our website: http://rutgerspress.rutgers.edu

Manufactured in the United States of America

For my mother, Ann

Contents

List of Figures

Acknowledgments

Note on Language

Introduction

1. The Privatized City

2. The Space of War

3. Politics and Public Space

4. Securing Beirut

5. The Chaos of Driving

6. There Is No State

Conclusion

Notes

References

Index

About the Author

Figures

Figure I.1. Internal Security Forces billboard

Figure 1.1. Map of Beirut in Lebanon and the region

Figure 1.2. Neighborhood map of Beirut

Figure 1.3. Cafe at a Beirut public garden during the late Ottoman period, ca. 1900–1920

Figure 1.4. The Corniche

Figure 2.1. Tent City

Figure 3.1. Lebanese Parties and Colors albums and stickers

Figure 3.2. Traffic sign: No foreign intervention! 1559 prohibited from passing

Figure 4.1. Shark-fin barriers

Acknowledgments

Before reaching this point, I had heard it said countless times that writing a book is a journey, and indeed it has been. I could not have done it alone. I am deeply indebted to the residents of Beirut who shared their time, energy, and stories with me. While some of those I knew and spoke with are mentioned by name in this book, most are not. To all of you, I express my gratitude for your friendship, assistance, and insights.

Throughout the process of developing this book, numerous colleagues at the University of Kentucky provided feedback and support. These include: Karen Rignall, Srimati Basu, Patricia Ehrkamp, Janice Fernheimer, and Carmen Martinez Novo. Sarah Lyon and Mark Whitaker have offered valuable guidance throughout the various stages of developing the book, and I am very grateful for their time, energy, and interest in my work. Many others, including Shannon Bell, Jacqueline Couti, Nazera Wright, Cristina Alcalde, Scott Hutson, Shannon Plank, Hang Nguyen, Paul Chamberlin, Jim Ridolfo, Erin Koch, Lisa Cliggett, and Diane King, offered their support in other ways, most especially by providing me with a community of scholars and friends with whom I could exchange ideas and, importantly, laugh. I thank all my colleagues in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Kentucky for their unwavering collegiality and good cheer.

I am grateful to the American University of Beirut’s Center for Arab and Middle Eastern Studies for providing me with an institutional home during my first research period. Kirsten Scheid and Joy Farmer were exceedingly helpful and wise colleagues and friends during my fieldwork. Mona Harb and Mona Fawaz were always encouraging. I thank Jehan Mullin and Mariko Shimomura for their friendship during those tumultuous years in Beirut. At Northwestern University, I benefitted greatly from the mentor-ship of Micaela di Leonardo and Jessica Winegar and the support of the anthropology department as a whole. Nicole Fabricant has been a close and enthusiastic reader of drafts and has helped me develop my thinking. In different ways and at various points, Farha Ghannam, Setha Low, Aseel Sawalha, Beth Notar, Julie Peteet, and Lara Deeb have offered encouragement that has sustained me through this project.

Several individuals were instrumental in forging my path as a scholar including Bill Hoynes at Vassar College, and, later, Nina Berman and Denise Spellberg at the University of Texas at Austin helped to shape my theoretical outlook and historical perspective. At Stanford, I benefitted from the support and guidance of Sylvia Yanagisako and James Ferguson. Their inquiry about our social world, theoretical interrogation, and analytical rigor are qualities I attempt to model in my own pursuits. I learned invaluable lessons in ethnographic writing and analysis from Renato Rosaldo. I thank Shelly Coughlan and Ellen Christensen for their assistance, and I am also grateful for the colleagueship of Tania Ahmad, Oded Korczyn, Zhanara Nauruzbayeva, Yoon-Jung Lee, Mun Young Cho, Jocelyn Chua, Sima Shakhsari, Aisha Beliso-De Jesus, and Kutraluk Bolton. Tiffany Romain’s incisive comments and suggestions made me a better writer and her calm spirit gave me ballast. Mukta Sharangpani was always a beacon and gave me a sense of both home and sisterhood during those years.

The research from which this book emerges would not have been possible without the generous financial support of several institutions and agencies. These include Stanford University’s Department of Anthropology and the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad grant (2004–2005), a Geballe Dissertation Fellowship from the Stanford Humanities Center, and a summer research grant (2010) from Northwestern University’s Dispute Resolution Research Center at the Kellogg School of Management. The University of Kentucky College of Arts and Science’s start-up funding for new faculty enabled me to conduct follow-up research in summer 2013; the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation’s Career Enhancement Fellowship allowed me to focus full-time on writing during the 2013–2014 academic year; and a College Research Activity Award from the University of Kentucky’s College of Arts and Science provided support for the book’s production.

I would also like to thank my editor, Marlie Wasserman, for her support of this book project, and the staff at Rutgers University Press for their assistance throughout the publishing process.

Finally, I wish to thank all my friends and family, without whom I could not have accomplished this goal. Annette Muller’s enthusiasm for and faith in my work and thinking have been a source of inspiration over the last decade. During a late night conversation outside her San Francisco apartment long ago, Robin Li set me on this path, and it is one that I could not have imagined for myself. I am always grateful for her wisdom, warmth, and, imagination. This book is dedicated to my mother, Ann Monroe. In this venture, as in all others I have undertaken in life, she has offered boundless support and love. Her belief in me has motivated my work and given me the confidence to travel to new places and take on new challenges. I thank Louay Faissal for his patience, endurance, and assistance in making this idea of writing and finishing a book a reality. This book bears witness to a journey that runs parallel to this project, the one—from Beirut to Lexington, Kentucky, and all the stops along the way—that brought us together. The light and laughter of our daughter Maysan and the arrival of Noor have made the final stages of this journey more beautiful, engaging, and fun.

Note on Language

People I met in Beirut spoke mainly in Lebanese dialect, English, and French and very often a mix of languages. I have used an extremely simplified system for transliterating the Lebanese Arabic dialect, omitting all indication of long versus short vowels as well as distinctions between hard and soft letters. I trust that specialist readers will be able to use the context to follow my transliteration. Names of places and people adhere to their official or common spellings. All translations of Arabic- and French-language textual materials are my own unless otherwise noted.

THE INSECURE CITY

Introduction

AN AMERICAN IN BEIRUT

My first knowledge of Beirut came from television news about Terry Anderson, a U.S. hostage captured during the Lebanese civil and regional war by Hizbullah militants in 1985 and held in captivity for six years.¹ Anderson grew up in a town near where I spent my childhood and local news coverage during the years of his captivity regularly featured members of his family, most especially his sister and her efforts to gain his release. Thus, my first image of Beirut was one of war. Years later, when I was a graduate student, a professor, knowing of my interest in issues of class and urban space in the Middle East, suggested I visit Beirut. After a preliminary visit in 2003, I was struck, as any visitor is, by Beirut’s vibrancy and diversity, the coexistence of so many different ways of living: peddlers with carts overloaded with seasonal produce sharing the street with global corporate retail outlets; a woman in conservative Islamic dress having coffee with a friend wearing a revealing outfit; sleek high-rise residential buildings being constructed alongside timeworn two-story houses. But I was also struck by the class and status aspects of urban public life and culture and was surprised to find that studies of class in Lebanon were relatively few as issues related to political sectarianism have long been the primary subject of scholarly inquiry. From the start, then, even as Lebanese told me you’ll never figure out how social class works here or we don’t really have social class here, I set out to explore how class and status mattered in the space of Beirut. As I describe later, my further focus on mobility, as a particular way of using space, came from living in the city and the concerns of people I met.

A host of sad and disruptive events, which I explore more fully throughout the book, unfolded during my research, which was undertaken in three phases: October 2004 to June 2006, summer 2010, and June 2013. My first and most extended period of research coincided with the initial stages of violent political unrest that began just prior to and in the wake of the assassination of former prime minister Rafiq Hariri in early 2005. These were difficult times. Nearly every month, a political figure or journalist was assassinated by a car bomb. Other bombs exploded in commercial or industrial locations of the predominantly Christian parts of Beirut and its suburbs. Security measures and blockades sprung up near anticipated targets. Schools were closed an inordinate number of days in 2005. Apart from the optimism that existed for those allied with the anti-Syrian March 14th political coalition upon the full withdrawal of the Syrian army from Lebanese land in April 2005, the overall mood in the city that year was both depressed and anxious. In early 2006, intersectarian tension was on the rise, and it flared up in Beirut during the controversy over the publication of cartoons satirizing the Prophet Mohammad by a Danish newspaper. And, just a few weeks after my return to the United States in mid-June 2006, times grew far worse. In July 2006, in retaliation for Hizbullah’s capture of two Israeli soldiers, Israeli bombs began to land first in southern Lebanon and then in South Beirut and elsewhere around the country. I watched the images from the United States, from safety, and read the news and e-mail missives with apprehension. I learned that the apartment where I had lived was now a temporary refuge—opened by a friend and the new tenant—for a Palestinian family fleeing their home, which was located near Dahiya (literally the suburb in Arabic but used to refer to the southern suburbs of Beirut), the area under heaviest assault. By the war’s end in August 2006, immense infrastructural damage blighted the entire country, but most extensively Dahiya and southern Lebanon. Thousands of people were displaced. The Israeli Defense Force’s indiscriminate ground and air strikes, according to Human Rights Watch, resulted in the deaths of approximately 900 civilians.²

It would be difficult for me to measure, or to isolate, the ways in which these events shaped my research. They shaped the project completely. Closures in and of the city, which occurred following an explosion or had to do with security measures, were the cause for the delay or cancellation of interview appointments. In the weeks following Hariri’s assassination, I was cut off from any formal or informal research activities. Lebanese were fearful about what violence would occur next, much of the nation was in mourning, and the practices of everyday life came to a halt. And then regular life would begin again, but Beirutis, I quickly learned, resumed their activities with an awareness that beneath the surface of normality lay the possibility for everything to come apart again. This kind of cycle, of violence-stop-pause-resumption, punctuated the months of 2005 and 2006 after an assassination or bombing attack occurred. Between the bombs, there existed what anthropologists Roma Chatterji and Deepak Mehta (2007) call the recovery of the everyday. Anxiety, born from anticipation about what might happen next, resided in this everyday. During this period in Beirut, there were moments when the agenda of research was neither a practical choice nor a compassionate one.

The bombs, and the anxiety, did not stop people from living, of course. And thus, while the first period of my research showed me a Beirut in distress, it also cheered me with its warmth, its humor, and its energy. In juxtaposition to the threat posed to the public and the dejection felt by Beirutis at the return of violence and political sectarian strife to their city’s streets, scenes of everyday public sociality showed another side. This is the side of Beirut that sociologist Anthony Giddens (1984) would describe using the term co-presence, or face-to-face interaction. It is an aspect of Beirut’s public life that goes beyond the trope of Lebanese as resilient in the face of challenges and that counters Richard Sennett’s (1974) description of the isolating, stale and empty public that has come to characterize the modern, Western city. More specifically, it is the side of Beirut that includes a descending basket on its way from an upper floor of an apartment building to the market on the ground floor. An apartment dweller leans out over the veranda and calls down to the store worker a list of things needed for a recipe or meal already in progress. The items are placed in the basket, and it goes up to the veranda. Money is then put in the basket, and it is sent back down to the store. Everyone is satisfied. Moments like these, those I only observed and those that I also took part in—for instance, the paying of all my bills in person to employees from the electricity, internet, and water companies who came to the door of my apartment—are not only charming to the outsider but seem to serve as a kind of salve for Beirutis living with the history, presence, and anticipation of conflict and divides among its people.

The stops and starts, the horrific spectacle and aftermath of bomb explosions, and the return of political sectarian strife to the public realm could be described as challenges to the conduct of research. At the same time, however, such a description would be ill-fitting in the sense that these events were experiences that came to constitute the research itself. And, often, challenges having little to do with the political crises appeared more formidable. For example, the cultural capital I possessed, initially as a researcher from Stanford, held sway only to a limited degree in many social and professional settings in Beirut. Another kind of capital, which is issued in the form of connections or relations to a particular person, was usually valued much more by people with whom I sought to set up meetings and interviews. Getting my foot in the door usually required being able to mention that I was in some way connected to a person whom a potential interviewee knew and trusted. Some interviews, like the one I conducted with the head of the traffic-police division, required weeks of advance effort, during which I met with people sequentially. One person would bestow on me access to the next and so forth until I had worked my way up the chain of command. This is also the process by which I secured interviews at Solidere, the corporation responsible for rebuilding the downtown area. This practice of establishing and finessing connections or favors through face-to-face interaction is also a topic I take up in the book with regard to people’s sentiments about everyday forms of corruption. Knowing someone who knows someone was often my only means of gaining access to professionals such as architects, engineers, academics, representatives of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and government officials. While this description may fit any number of research locales, Lebanon’s relations of patronage, which are often mobilized to circumvent state authority, heightened the necessity of being tied to and circulating through stratified networks of influence.

Outside the professional arena, with respect to my entrée into Lebanese society more generally, I encountered similar, though less tangible kinds of limitations that too shaped my research. First, through formal tutoring arrangements and informal viewing of Lebanese television programs and everyday conversations, I had to Lebanize the formal Arabic I had studied and spoken for years in classrooms. Second, the fact that I chose to live alone and had neither real nor fictive ties to a Lebanese family meant that I was fairly unmoored in a society where family life is the basis of the social fabric. On Sundays, when Beirutis spend the day with their extended families and most commercial life shuts down, being out in the city was a lonely, traffic-free excursion. All of us from outside Lebanon—the foreign migrant workers, ex-pats, students, and researchers—we the family-less would encounter one another on the near-empty streets. I also found developing relationships with Beirutis from outside the middle class to be a challenge. While I have a working-class background, my level of education, the fact that I was a foreign student/researcher living outside my home country, and the way that I could afford to live as middle class in Beirut situated me squarely in a middle-class world. I took steps to try to expand this world by, for example, doing volunteer work with two different organizations working with underprivileged Lebanese youth, volunteering with an agency helping process paperwork for Sri Lankan workers trying to get home after the Asian tsunami in January 2005, and trying actively to forge research relationships with working-class residents of the city through acquaintances and contacts.

Alongside these limitations, however, I also experienced a certain kind of public access. As a mixed-race African American woman, I did not stand out when walking down the street in Beirut. Before I spoke, I was assumed by Lebanese to be of North African heritage but possibly part Lebanese, as I would come to learn through countless conversations that ensued after I began speaking my non-native Arabic in taxis, stores, restaurants, offices, and the like. Blending into the landscape of the city enabled me to move around without being outwardly perceived as being from outside the Arab world. I could therefore travel without being immediately marked as a Westerner, as many other researchers and visitors from the West typically are. In parts of Dahiya, Beirut’s southern suburbs largely secured by Hizbullah, the way I look afforded me with a kind of right of entry that was often denied to other Westerners identified as such by Hizbullah security members positioned on the streets.

Another kind of access came in a different form. While I was foreign and Western, a perceived ally perhaps of the policies pursued in the region and Lebanon by the U.S. government, I did not possess a political or sectarian affiliation and my history came from elsewhere. In this sense, not being Lebanese endowed me with a certain kind of perceptual and geographic privilege to draw my own cartographies of the city and nation. As they were not historically constituted through experiences of violence and fear, my mappings were necessarily distinct from those that might be drawn by a native of Lebanon, a survivor of the long civil and regional war, or a person whose home had been destroyed by Israeli bombs. For me, the terrain was more open. As a foreigner and outsider, I was also furnished with a look in. I was, time and again, told by Lebanese how and who the Lebanese are: that is, all Lebanese are like X or the Lebanese don’t care about X, or X behavior is typical Lebanese.

In addition to observing and participating in public space and in informal conversations in taxis, buses, and on the streets, I conducted interviews with a diverse group of residents of the city, including foreign workers, as well as representatives from both state and nongovernmental agencies and institutions involved with urban planning, traffic safety and enforcement, and civil society. I also gathered and analyzed historical materials from newspapers housed in the libraries of the American University of Beirut and Saint Joseph’s University, the Lebanese National Archives, the Centre d’Etudes et le Recherche sur le Moyen-Orient, and at the archives of the newspapers An-Nahar and L’Orient le Jour.

YOU HAVE TO LOOK MORE BROADLY AT THE ISSUE OF TRAFFIC

During a conversation I was having in 2005 with Reem, a woman in her early forties who worked as an administrator at a university in the northern Beirut suburb of Louaize, we were talking about the hassles of living in Beirut. It was the topic of traffic that set her off. Look, she interrupted when I began to ask her about the new traffic lights being put up in the city, "you have to look more broadly at the issue of traffic; it tells you a lot about what is happening in our society. People are