Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $9.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions
    Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions
    Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions
    Ebook516 pages6 hours

    Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions

    By Pia Resnik

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    This book investigates the interplay of language, emotion and gender in a multilingual context and provides rich insights into the complexities of bilingualism and the field of emotion research, as well as the intersection of both. Combining quantitative and qualitative analyses of data, the book examines multilinguals' verbalisation and perception of emotions in their first language and English, their second language (L2). The research looks at crosslinguistic, intercultural and gender-based differences, thereby highlighting the challenges faced by multilinguals in this context and the potential risks of miscommunication and misinterpretation. Results support the call for a change of paradigm towards a holistic approach to multilingualism and emotion research and highlight the similarities and differences in L2 users of English when expressing their emotions in the different languages. The book will appeal to anyone interested in research on emotions in the context of bi-/multilingualism or second language acquisition, as well as those teaching or learning multiple languages.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherMultilingual Matters
    Release dateJun 18, 2018
    ISBN9781788920056
    Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions
    Author

    Pia Resnik

    Pia Resnik is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of English of the University of Vienna, Austria. Her research interests include all aspects surrounding multilingual users of English, with a particular focus on emotions in multilingual contexts. Recently, she has started investigating the effect of tandem language learning on students’ foreign language enjoyment, foreign language anxiety and learner autonomy, a project she collaborates on with colleagues at King’s College London, UK.

    Related to Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions

    Titles in the series (100)

    View More
    View More

    Related ebooks

    Linguistics For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      Talk To Me

      Sep 6, 2019

      Talk To Me
      4 min read

    • Article

      The Triumph of Email

      Jan 6, 2016

      Email, ughhhh. There is too much of it, and the wrong kind of it, from the wrong people. When people aren’t hating their inboxes out loud, they are quietly emailing to say that they’re sorry for replying so late, and for all the typos, and for missin

      12 min read

    • Article

      Is the Chinese Language a Superstition Machine?: How ambiguity in language can create unique taboos.

      Jan 5, 2017

      Every year, more than a billion people around the world celebrate Chinese New Year and engage in a subtle linguistic dance with luck. You can think of it as a set of holiday rituals that resemble a courtship. To lure good fortune into their lives, th

      9 min read

    • Article

      Is the Chinese Language a Superstition Machine?

      Apr 12, 2018

      Every year, more than a billion people around the world celebrate Chinese New Year and engage in a subtle linguistic dance with luck. You can think of it as a set of holiday rituals that resemble a courtship. To lure good fortune into their lives, th

      9 min read

    • Article

      Found In

      Sep 22, 2023

      Found In
      5 min read

    • Article

      Mind Your Language

      Oct 8, 2021

      if you watched The Matrix, you know that there is no reality – there is only perception. What we don’t all know, however, is the fact that the language we use shapes our perception of the world as well as our behaviour and actions in reaction to that

      3 min read

    • Article

      Secret Military Test, Coming Soon to Your Spanish Class: A powerful, precise language aptitude test is entering civilian life.

      Apr 17, 2014

      Imagine a test that could tell you how good you can ultimately get in any foreign language, from Hindi to Welsh, from Igbo to Spanish, before you’ve even learned how to say “hello” or “please pass the butter.” Très alléchant, non?1 Most adults would

      9 min read

    • Article

      Language Both Enraptures and Deceives Us

      Sep 12, 2019

      The purpose of language is to reveal the contents of our minds, says Julie Sedivy. It’s a simple and profound insight. We are social animals and language is what springs us from our isolated selves and connects us with others. Sedivy has taught lingu

      13 min read

    • Article

      Our Efficient Brains May Explain Language ‘Universals’

      Dec 5, 2017

      Some of the similarities among human languages may have roots in the brain’s preference for efficient information processing, a new study suggests. “If we look at languages of the world, they are very different on the surface, but they also share a l

      3 min read

    • Article

      What Makes a Color Warm?

      Sep 18, 2017

      What Makes a Color Warm?
      4 min read

    • Article

      Language Barrier

      May 30, 2021

      Language Barrier
      7 min read

    • Article

      Language Is The Scaffold Of The Mind

      Sep 26, 2019

      Can you imagine a mind without language? More specifically, can you imagine your mind without language? Can you think, plan, or relate to other people if you lack words to help structure your experiences? Many great thinkers have drawn a strong conne

      6 min read

    • Article

      Why You Need Emoji

      Jul 6, 2017

      The use of emojis has become a global phenomenon. By 2015, over 6 billion emojis1 were being sent every day by over 90 percent of the world’s online population.2 Emoji, today, dwarfs even the reach of English. For some, emojis are prompting warnings

      8 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions

    0 ratings

    0 ratings0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      Multilinguals' Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions - Pia Resnik

      Multilinguals’ Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions

      SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

      Series Editors: Professor David Singleton, University of Pannonia, Hungary and Fellow Emeritus, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland and Associate Professor Simone E. Pfenninger, University of Salzburg, Austria

      This series brings together titles dealing with a variety of aspects of language acquisition and processing in situations where a language or languages other than the native language is involved. Second language is thus interpreted in its broadest possible sense. The volumes included in the series all offer in their different ways, on the one hand, exposition and discussion of empirical findings and, on the other, some degree of theoretical reflection. In this latter connection, no particular theoretical stance is privileged in the series; nor is any relevant perspective – sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, etc. – deemed out of place. The intended readership of the series includes final-year undergraduates working on second language acquisition projects, postgraduate students involved in second language acquisition research, and researchers, teachers and policy-makers in general whose interests include a second language acquisition component.

      All books in this series are externally peer-reviewed.

      Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.multilingual-matters.com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.

      SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: 124

      Multilinguals’ Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions

      Pia Resnik

      MULTILINGUAL MATTERS

      Bristol • Blue Ridge Summit

      To my academic superheroes,

      Georg, Jean-Marc, Sarah & Vivian

      Thank you for your support.

      DOI https://doi.org/10.21832/RESNIK0032

      Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

      Names: Resnik, Pia, author.

      Title: Multilinguals’ Verbalisation and Perception of Emotions/Pia Resnik.

      Description: Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Multilingual Matters, [2018] |

      Series: Second Language Acquisition: 124 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

      Identifiers: LCCN 2018001654| ISBN 9781788920025 (softcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781788920032 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781788920049 (pdf) | ISBN 9781788920056 (epub) | ISBN 9781788920063 (kindle)

      Subjects: LCSH: Multilingualism. | Language and emotions. | Emotive (Linguistics) | Psycholinguistics.

      Classification: LCC P115 .R48 2018 | DDC 404/.2019—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018001654

      British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

      A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library.

      ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-003-2 (hbk)

      ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-002-5 (pbk)

      Multilingual Matters

      UK: St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.

      USA: NBN, Blue Ridge Summit, PA, USA.

      Website: www.multilingual-matters.com

      Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat

      Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/multilingualmatters

      Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com

      Copyright © 2018 Pia Resnik.

      All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher.

      The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned.

      Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services Limited.

      Printed and bound in the UK by Short Run Press Ltd.

      Printed and bound in the US by Edwards Brothers Malloy, Inc.

      Contents

      Figures and Tables

      Abbreviations

      Acknowledgements

      1 Introduction

      Many Languages and a Few Feelings

      Aim and Scope of the Book

      How the Book is Arranged

      Societal Implications

      Who This Book is Written For

      2 Emotion

      Categorising Emotions

      An Affective Neuroscientific View on Emotion Regulation and Processing

      Concluding Remarks on the Difficulty of Defining Emotions

      3 Language and Emotion: The Two Basic Components of Human Communication

      Emotion: An Under-Researched Field in Linguistics

      The Relationship between Language and Emotion

      The Language–Culture–Emotion Nexus: The Question of Universality or Cultural Variance

      Language, Emotion and Gender

      4 Bi-/Multilingualism and Emotion

      The Difficulty of Defining Bi-/Multilingualism

      Refining important dimensions

      Bi-/Multilinguals and Native Speakers: The Question of Comparability

      The controversy of a ‘holistic’ vs. ‘monolingual’ view: The idea of linguistic multi-competence

      The multi-competence model in the context of SLA and emotion research: The approach taken in this book

      Emotions across Languages: The Challenges for Multilinguals

      The Representation of Emotion and Emotion-Laden Words in the Bi-/Multilingual Mental Lexicon

      Emotion and emotion-laden words

      Introducing a new dimension: Emotionality

      Concluding remarks on (the mental representation of) the bilingual lexicon

      Implications for emotion research in the context of SLA

      Emotions in Multilingual Contexts

      The perceived degree of emotionality of languages, language preference for verbalising emotions and expressing one’s deepest feelings

      Communicating love

      Expression of anger: Swearing and arguing

      Code-switching and emotions

      The multilingual self

      Concluding remarks on emotions in multiple languages

      5 Research Questions, Hypotheses, Independent Variables and Research Design

      Research Questions and Hypotheses

      Independent Variables

      Research Design

      Participants

      Procedure

      6 Differences in Feeling?: Multilinguals’ Own Views on Verbalising Emotions in the L1 and L2

      Results: Perceived Degree of Emotionality of the L1 and L2

      Results: Language Preference for Verbalising Emotions – the L1 or L2?

      Results: Expressing Deepest Feelings in Various Situations in the L1 and L2

      Results: Communicating Love in the L1 and the L2

      Results: Swearing in the L1 and the L2

      Results: Arguing in the L1 and the L2

      Results: Code-Switching and Emotions

      Results: The Multilingual Self

      Results: Gender, Emotion and Language

      7 Feeling the Difference?: Verbalising Emotions in ESL

      Comparison of Tokens, Types, Lexical Diversity and Overall Time

      Comparison of Emotion and Emotion-Laden Words in ESL: Cross-Cultural and L1-Based Differences

      Gender-Based Differences in Expressing Emotions in ESL

      Summing It Up

      8 Conclusions and Implications

      A Summary

      Suggestions for Future Studies

      Pedagogical and Social Implications

      Appendix

      Examples from the Survey

      Summary of Results: Frog Story

      References

      Index

      Figures and Tables

      Figures

      Figure 2.1 Primary emotions (adapted from Ekman & Friesen, 1976)

      Figure 5.1 Triangulation of research methods in the present study

      Figure 5.2 Step model of inductive category development (adapted from Mayring, 2000: 4)

      Figure 5.3 Female and male participants (Study A; percentage)

      Figure 5.4 Age of participants (Study A; boxplot diagram and descriptive statistics)

      Figure 5.5 Participants’ L1 including descriptive statistics (Study A)

      Figure 5.6 Number of languages known (Study A; percentage)

      Figure 5.7 English: Age of onset of acquisition (Study A; boxplot diagram and descriptive statistics)

      Figure 5.8 English: Context of acquisition (Study A; percentage)

      Figure 5.9 Participants’ current location (Study A; percentage)

      Figure 5.10 Age of participants (Study B; boxplot diagram)

      Figure 5.11 Context of acquisition of ESL (Study B; percentage per group)

      Figure 6.1 Language preference for expressing feelings (percentage)

      Figure 6.2 Language preference for expressing feelings: L1, L2, other (percentage)

      Figure 6.3 Likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in the L1 or L2 in three contexts

      Figure 6.4 Likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in English depending on the overall number of languages known

      Figure 6.5 Difference in the emotional weight of the sentence ‘I love you’ in the languages concerned

      Figure 6.6 Emotional weight of the sentence ‘I love you’ in the L1 and English

      Figure 6.7 Language preference for arguing (percentage)

      Figure 6.8 Feeling like a different person when using the different languages (frequency of answers given)

      Figure 6.9 Attitudes towards women being more emotional than men (bar chart; percentage)

      Figure 6.10 Attitudes towards women being allowed to express their emotions more openly in public than men (bar chart; percentage)

      Figure 6.11 Attitudes towards gender-based differences in emotional content of language use (bar chart; percentage)

      Figure 6.12 Impact of gender-based stereotypes in the context of emotions on actual linguistic output (bar chart; percentage)

      Figure 7.1 Comparison of the number of tokens

      Figure 7.2 Comparison of the number of types

      Figure 7.3 Comparison of lexical repetition (STTR; in percentage)

      Figure 7.4 Comparison of lexical diversity (vocd-D)

      Figure 7.5 Comparison of lexical diversity (MTLD)

      Figure 7.6 Comparison of total time

      Figure 7.7 Overall number of emotion and emotion-laden expressions

      Figure 7.8 Variety of emotion and emotion-laden expressions per group

      Figure 7.9 Density of emotion and emotion-laden expressions per group (expressions/tokens)

      Figure 7.10 Density of emotion and emotion-laden words per group (variety/types)

      Figure 7.11 Intra-group variation in word types and further stylistic means (percentage)

      Figure 7.12 Between-group differences in word types and further stylistic means ( Σ )

      Figure 7.13 Emotion and emotion-laden tokens: Female and male participants

      Figure 7.14 Variety of emotion and emotion-laden expressions: Female and male participants

      Figure 7.15 Density of emotion and emotion-laden expressions: Female and male participants

      Figure 7.16 Richness in variety of emotion and emotion-laden expressions: Female and male participants

      Appendix. Web questionnaire, set 1: Linguistic information

      Appendix. Web questionnaire, set 3: Categorising the degree of emotionality

      Appendix. Web questionnaire, set 5: Swearing

      Appendix. Web questionnaire, set 9: The emotional weight of the sentence ‘I love you’ in the respective languages

      Tables

      Table 5.1 Web questionnaire: Set of questions

      Table 5.2 Categories for the qualitative content analysis

      Table 5.3 Statistics: Age of onset of ESL (Study B)

      Table 6.1 Links between demographic variables and the degree of emotionality of the L1 and L2

      Table 6.2 Links between language-related variables and the degree of emotionality of the L1 and L2

      Table 6.3 Likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in the L1 and L2 in three contexts (mean values)

      Table 6.4 Difference in likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.5 Effect of residence on the likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.6 Effect of frequency of using English on the likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.7 Links between demographic variables and the likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.8 Likelihood of expressing one’s deepest feelings in English depending on the overall number of languages known (mean values)

      Table 6.9 Links between language-related variables and the likelihood of expressing deepest feelings in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.10 Effect of type of L1 on the frequency of swearing in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.11 Links between demographic variables and the frequency of swearing in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.12 Links between language-related variables and the frequency of swearing in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.13 Emotional weight of swear and taboo words in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.14 Links between demographic variables and the emotional weight of swear and taboo words in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.15 Links between language-related variables and the emotional force of swear and taboo words in the L1 and L2

      Table 6.16 Difference in the frequency of CS when talking to family members/friends and to strangers/in public

      Table 6.17 Links between demographic variables and the frequency of CS depending on familiarity with the interlocutor

      Table 6.18 Links between language-related variables and the frequency of CS depending on familiarity with the interlocutor

      Table 6.19 Difference in the frequency of CS when talking about emotional and neutral matters

      Table 6.20 Links between demographic variables and the frequency of CS when talking about emotional and neutral matters

      Table 6.21 Links between language-related variables and the frequency of CS when talking about emotional and neutral matters

      Table 6.22 Attitudes towards women being more emotional than men

      Table 6.23 Links between demographic variables and cultural background and multilinguals’ attitudes towards women being more emotional than men

      Table 6.24 Attitudes towards women being allowed to express their emotions more openly in public than men

      Table 6.25 Links between demographic variables and cultural background and multilinguals’ attitudes towards women being allowed to express their emotions more openly in public than men

      Table 6.26 Attitudes towards gender-based differences in emotional content of language use

      Table 6.27 Links between demographic variables and cultural background and multilinguals’ attitudes towards women’s language differing from men’s emotion-wise/on the level of emotional content

      Table 6.28 Links between demographic variables and cultural background and gender differences when expressing anger, fear and sadness to different interlocutors

      Table 6.29 Impact of gender-based stereotypes on people’s actual linguistic output according to gender

      Table 7.1 Between-group differences in the number of tokens depending on L1

      Table 7.2 Differences in the number of tokens

      Table 7.3 Between-group differences in the number of types depending on L1

      Table 7.4 Differences in the number of types

      Table 7.5 Effect of independent variables on STTR

      Table 7.6 Effect of independent variables on vocd-D

      Table 7.7 Effect of independent variables on MTLD

      Table 7.8 Effect of independent variables on overall time

      Table 7.9 Descriptive statistics of group differences in emotion expression

      Table 7.10 Between-group differences in emotion expression

      Table 7.11 Effect of self-perceived language proficiency, STTR, LD according to vocd-D and MTLD on the expression of emotion and emotion-laden words

      Table 7.12 Gender-based differences in emotion expression

      Abbreviations

      Acknowledgements

      First of all, I would like to thank the participants of the studies for taking the time to help me make this project feasible. A special thank-you goes to the 24 interviewees who agreed to spare time on this project twice.

      I would also like to express my gratitude to Professor Annemarie Peltzer-Karpf for her kind support and for raising my interest in research into multilingualism.

      I am also very grateful to Professor Jean-Marc Dewaele. Without him, my research visit to Birkbeck College, University of London, would not have been possible and the studies included in this book would not have been feasible. Additionally, his encouragement and thought-provoking comments challenged me and let me grow as a researcher and improve my work. He was certainly a rich source of information on the topic and his work has been a great inspiration to me.

      I would also like to thank Professor Vivian Cook for helping me find participants for my studies and for giving me great advice. He contributed substantially to my perception of and interest in multi-competent language users during a research visit to Newcastle University, for which I am truly grateful.

      I also wish to thank Professor Eva Eppler for her support during my research visit in London. Special thanks are also due to Professor Georg Marko, Professor Ineke Mennen, Professor Sarah Mercer, Eva Triebl and my supportive colleagues in Vienna for providing me with comments and suggestions for this book and, most of all, for making me believe in its feasibility. Additionally, I would like to thank the reviewer and Dr Helen Heaney, who read the book and made excellent suggestions for improvement, and Professor Sven Strömqvist for providing me with a free version of the program ScriptLog for my research. Special thanks are also due to Laura Longworth from Multilingual Matters, who has done an excellent job in guiding me through the publication process.

      Finally, I wish to thank my family, Dominik, Christina, Elisabeth, Eva, Gunnar, Judith, Julia, Laura, Michael, Patrick, Tine and Vera for supporting me throughout this journey, which was emotional indeed. Above all, I would especially like to thank my mother for her kind support while writing this book.

      1 Introduction

      Languages have emotion terms, and people across the world engage in talk about the emotions – though not necessarily to the same degree and with the same obsession and reflexivity as in the so-called Western world.

      Bamberg, 1997: 309

      Many Languages and a Few Feelings

      When asked what makes us fundamentally human, one of the core aspects mentioned by many people is probably language. In addition, many would presumably subscribe to Birch’s (1995: 2) view that ‘[f]eelings are what matter most in life’. Thus, both language and emotion are crucial and so is investigating their links. Language not only expresses emotions, it also reflects them. In addition, it helps show indirectly how to understand, clarify and explain emotions (Bamberg, n.d.). These aspects become even more complex in the case of multilingual speakers. Since, according to Wierzbicka (1992a, 1995), ‘every language imposes its own classification upon human emotional experiences, English words such as anger and sadness are cultural artefacts of the English language, not culture-free analytical tools’ (Wierzbicka, 1995: 236). Consequently, the expression of emotions in a language other than one’s first is often seen as the ultimate challenge to highly proficient (second) language users (see also Fussell, 2002b).

      Interacting linguistic and non-linguistic aspects of emotional communication are shaped by culture-specific display rules (Reilly & Seibert, 2009). The fact that culture-specific influence plays an important role in this respect becomes clear when looking at infants’ development: at the time they start producing their first words (at the age of 12 months approximately), ‘they are already skilled affective communicators’ (Reilly & Seibert, 2009: 535). They use both vocal prosody and facial expression to interpret and convey emotionally charged information and by the age of four, the cognitive representation of emotions – including children’s use of emotional words – can be described as sophisticated (Reilly & Seibert, 2009). Thus, socialisation clearly plays a crucial role in the way we learn to express emotions.

      Communicating feelings in a language other than one’s first language (L1) is, consequently, demanding, especially if there are only partial equivalents or even no linguistic translations for the concepts and words of one’s L1 (Dewaele, 2010a; see also Farrell, 2006; Panayiotou, 2004a, 2004b, 2006; Shweder, 2008; Wierzbicka & Harkins, 2001). As has been shown in several crosslinguistic studies, there are differences in the conceptual and structural organisation of emotion lexicons as well as lexical strategies to express emotions (Pavlenko, 2002, 2005; Semin et al., 2002 cited in Pavlenko, 2008a: 91). Hence, the acquisition of the (verbal) expression of emotions is indeed challenging, yet it is central to successful cross-cultural communication.

      Even though language and emotion are both described as the ‘two basic systems involved in communication’ (Reilly & Seibert, 2009: 535), investigating their interplay was ignored for a long time in linguistics – partly due to the false assumption that cognitive functions are uninfluenced by emotions. Its neglect in scientific investigations was even more prominent in research into multilingualism, which is interesting given that emotions are highly relevant to multilinguals, who are understood here as people with ‘more than one language in the same mind’ (Cook, 1991; see also Cook, 1992, 2002a, 2002b, 2003, 2012a, 2016). Only within the last 15 years has the comparably new research area of the relationship between language(s) and emotion(s) in a multilingual context gained more attention in scholarly discourse in applied linguistics (see, e.g. Dewaele, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2011a, 2011b, 2013, 2015, 2016a, 2016b; Dewaele & Nakano, 2013; Dewaele & Pavlenko, 2001–2003, 2002, 2004; Lorette & Dewaele, 2015; Pavlenko, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006a, 2006b, 2008a, 2008b, 2011; Pavlenko & Driagina, 2007). Until recently, most theoretical and/or empirical approaches to emotion research only focused on a small number of aspects and even these have been fiercely criticised: ‘[r]eading the history of emotion research is a somewhat frustrating experience. Most of the theoretical and research efforts have been directed toward a small number of controversies’ (Scherer, 2010: 3). To meet the frequently stated need for a broader approach to the subject, this book provides both an overview of the field and a profound analysis with a special focus on language, emotion and gender in multilingual and multicultural contexts – on a theoretical and empirical level. Hence, it offers a new perspective.

      Aim and Scope of the Book

      The book attempts to present a kaleidoscopic picture of research on emotions in the context of multilingualism, an understanding of which is crucial in today’s globalised, multilingual world in which migration frequently creates the need to express one’s feelings in an LX (referring to any language attained after the first, i.e. after the age of 3 [Dewaele, 2016a, 2017a]). It examines the interrelationships of the aforementioned aspects, focusing on LX users of English from an interdisciplinary perspective. By triangulating research methods in an innovative way (investigating the meta-level of self-reflexivity, but also analysing the level of performance), the book provides answers to two general research questions:

      (1) To what extent do cross-cultural, crosslinguistic and individual differences, including demographic (gender, age and education) and language-related variables (language learner history, self-perceived proficiency and frequency of use), have an impact on the perceived degree of emotionality of the L1 and second language (L2), the self-rated frequency of verbalising emotions in the L1 and L2, code-switching (CS) in various situations and the perception of L2 users’ selves?

      (2) To what extent do cross-cultural, crosslinguistic and gender differences have an impact on the frequency and way of expressing emotions when writing a story in the L2?

      Thus, the book offers a fresh approach to the phenomenon of emotions in multilingual contexts by including the dimensions of gender and crosslinguistic and intercultural comparisons on the one hand and by combining a meta-level of self-reflexivity with the level of performance on the other. It calls for a change towards a holistic approach to multilingualism and emotion research and aims at contributing to a better understanding of the mechanisms and influences underlying LX users’ verbalisation of emotions and the obstacles faced by them in this respect (e.g. structural, conceptual and lexical differences). It seeks to investigate the possibility of intercultural, crosslinguistic, language-related, gender-based and individual differences in order to avoid, or at least minimise, the risks of miscommunication. The book clearly stresses that ‘le langage a un côté individuel et un côté social, et l’on ne peut concevoir l’un sans l’autre’ [Language has both individual and social aspects, and one cannot conceive of one without the other] (de Saussure, 1916: 24), a fact that needs to be taken into account when attempting to adequately investigate emotions in multilingual contexts. In this book, I also aim to show that research in this context needs to be a cross-disciplinary endeavour drawing on a range of methodologies to deepen our understanding of the topic.

      Methodology and rationale

      Besides providing the reader with an exhaustive, up-to-date review of previous work in this field, the book answers the general research questions drawing on data from two studies. Due to the complexity and interdisciplinary nature of the field, taking a triangulation approach is considered essential as it allows an investigation of the topic from various angles, thereby giving rich insights into the phenomena at play. The focus of both studies was multilinguals’ verbalisation and perception of emotions in their L1 versus their L2. The first study (also referred to as Study A) was based on adaptations of the Bilingualism and Emotions Web Questionnaire (Dewaele & Pavlenko, 2001–2003): a comparatively high number of multilinguals (349) participated in the online survey and shared their views. To be able to draw reliable conclusions regarding the above-mentioned research questions, the answers from a selected group of 167 L2 users of English are taken into account in this book (i.e. those multilinguals who mentioned using English as their third language [L3] or fourth language [L4] were discarded). Even though it is acknowledged that a proper understanding of emotional processes also requires, for instance, indirect means of measuring these on the level of facial expressions or physiological reactions (see, e.g. Berridge & Winkielman, 2003; Cacioppo et al., 2000; Caldwell-Harris et al., 2010), it is still important to stress that, especially in the field of emotion research, an inclusion of the participants’ own thoughts on their subjective feelings is just as important.

      The second study (Study B) was conducted in London, UK, and involved 24 multilinguals with either L1 German or Chinese and English as their L2. Data were collected by means of a pencil-and-paper questionnaire on the participants’ demographic profile, language history and present language use. In-depth interviews were conducted and the participants were also asked to write a story in English. The rationale of this study was twofold: as ‘questionnaires are by nature incomplete’ (Wilson & Dewaele, 2010: 117) for various reasons (for a detailed discussion, see Chapter 5), the interviews allowed more nuanced explanations, complementing the (mostly quantitative) analyses of the web survey data. The interviews stressed once more the relevance of including an emic perspective (Dewaele, 2010a; Pike, 1954) for a valid interpretation of the data. Of course, using verbal reports is not only advantageous but also has its shortcomings (Ogarkova et al., 2009). Still, Scherer (2005: 712) is right when stating that ‘there is no access other than to ask the individual to report on the nature of the experience’ to measure ‘the subjective experience of an emotional episode’ (Scherer, 2005: 699; see also Feldman-Barrett, 2006). Thus, in Study B too, the topic of multilingualism and emotion was approached on a meta-level of self-reflexivity. The second aim of this study was to analyse the level of performance as well. The participants were asked to write a story (Mayer, 1969) in their L2 (English) in ScriptLog, a program developed by Karlsson and Strömqvist (2002). The stories were analysed with regard to the frequency and type of emotion and emotion-laden expressions. The analysis was based on categories developed by Pavlenko (2008b: 148). The aim was to identify possible effects of the L1 as well as the participants’ cultural background, gender and proficiency on verbalising emotions in English as a second language (ESL).

      How the Book is Arranged

      The book begins with a general introduction to the field, where basic tenets of emotions in multilingual contexts are provided and questions are addressed. Focusing on the complex phenomenon of emotions, the second chapter provides the reader with an overview of possible categorisations, neuroscientific aspects and underlying difficulties linked to the phenomenon of emotions. After clarification of the basic aspects relevant to a proper understanding of emotions, the relation between language and emotions and the relevance of this under-researched field in linguistics are explained in Chapter 3. This is where the question of universality or cultural variance of emotions is tackled as well. When discussing the two basic components of human communication and cross-cultural differences in expressing emotions, it is also important to explore the role of gender. Stereotypes clearly exist in this respect and, consequently, the concept of ‘doing gender’ (West & Zimmerman, 1987, 2002) is highly relevant too. This subsection also presents a rationalisation of the dynamic approach taken in this book and summarises previous research, giving reasons underlying the predominant stereotypes.

      In Chapter 4, the topic is on the even more complex level of bi-/multilingualism: starting off with a general discussion of the difficulty of defining the term and different approaches to it, the chapter then introduces the question of the comparability of native speakers and L2 users. Cook’s (1991, 2016) multi-competence model is discussed in depth, offering an understanding of the implications of the model for research on emotions in the context of second language acquisition (SLA) and the approach taken in this book, which is explained in the next section. The focus then shifts to the representation of emotion and emotion-laden words in the bi-/multilingual mental lexicon, which is a prerequisite for an understanding of the aspects explained in the following subsection, namely the perceived degree of emotionality of the languages known, language preference for verbalising emotions and differences in verbalising specific emotions, such as love or anger, in a language other than one’s L1. The question as to whether multilinguals sometimes feel like a different person when using the different languages is addressed, as is CS, a phenomenon central to the multilingual self. The section titled ‘Emotions in Multilingual Contexts’ in Chapter 4 mirrors the structure of the presentation of findings in Chapter 6 to make the book more accessible to the reader.

      Chapter 5 starts with a presentation of the research questions and hypotheses, which are proposed based on previous work discussed in Chapters 2–4, followed by a rationale for investigating the effects of the proposed independent variables. The research design is then explained in detail. As a first step, the importance of triangulating research methods in SLA research on emotions is discussed, followed by an explanation of the methodology used in the two studies (Study A and Study B) and an in-depth description of the participants of both studies as well as the procedures.

      Because direct reporting from multilinguals themselves reveals the most reliable data (Feldman-Barrett, 2006), their own views on the aspects explained in the previous chapters are presented in Chapter 6. As the participants in both studies all shared English as their L2, but differed in their L1, they were divided into two groups depending on the typological proximity/distance of the L1 and English. Thus, the effect of the L1 and the participants’ cultural background on using the L2 (and vice versa) could be investigated in addition to individual variation. As stated above, the presentation and discussion of the results mirrors the structure of the section titled ‘Emotions in Multilingual Contexts’ in Chapter 4 to make it easier for the reader to compare previous work on the topics to the present studies.

      In Chapter 7, the question as to whether differences can be ‘felt’ and seen on the level of actual linguistic output is answered by analysing a story that the 24 multilinguals from Study B wrote in their L2 English. The stories were written in ScriptLog, a program developed by Karlsson and Strömqvist (2002), which allows a dynamic analysis of the whole text production process. Besides examining general aspects, such as lexical diversity and the overall time it took the participants to write the story, an analysis of emotion and emotion-laden words in the stories produced is included in this chapter. Possible influences of several variables on the use of emotion and emotion-laden expressions, such as the participants’ gender and L1, are also investigated. The book concludes with a summary of the key issues addressed, discussing obstacles in designing studies in this context and giving ideas for future research.

      Societal Implications

      Gaining a deeper understanding of multilinguals’ verbalisation and perception of emotions is highly relevant these days as, of the approximately 2 billion users of English today, LX users outnumber its L1 users (Graddol, 2006; Mauranen, 2012). LX users of English frequently need to express their feelings in this language; understanding to what extent this differs from doing so in their L1 is beneficial in many ways. Not only does it help prevent possible instances of cross-cultural miscommunication, but the contents of this book might also be useful for classroom contexts, in which multilingualism rather than monolingualism is the norm these days. In these contexts, a deeper understanding of how people feel when using different languages gives valuable insights into possible obstacles faced by students. Furthermore, LX learners’ emotions are influential in (un-)successful LX attainment (see, e.g. Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017; Dewaele et al., 2016, 2017; Mercer, 2009) and so are teachers’ (see, e.g. Mercer & Gkonou, 2017). Being a competent user of a foreign language also involves pragmatic competence (Dewaele, 2010a), even more so in English as a lingua franca (ELF) contexts, where ‘speakers cannot rely on much shared linguistic or cultural knowledge with their interlocutors’ (Mauranen, 2010: 13). Thus, this book is also relevant to contexts where English is the ‘communicative medium of choice’ (Seidlhofer, 2011: 7) to bridge linguistic gaps. As many people live with more than one language in today’s globalised world and often communicate their feelings in LX rather than L1 contexts, the results from the two studies presented in this book might also be useful to a better understanding of migration contexts, for instance, and may provide insights into migrants’ lives (see also Panicacci & Dewaele, 2017).

      Who This Book is Written For

      As a wide range of themes and applications are addressed and a range of methodologies applied, the book is written for those involved or interested in (research on) emotions in multilingual contexts or SLA as well as anyone teaching or learning multiple languages. As I attempt to give a clear and comprehensive overview of a range of issues addressed in research in the field and include an extensive discussion of methodological issues, the book is meant to give rich insights into the complexities of the phenomena at play and should, consequently, also appeal to undergraduate and graduate students of applied linguistics and related fields. It can improve the reader’s understanding of the relationship between the languages of L2 users on multiple dimensions and, by raising interesting questions, I hope to generate ideas for future study designs and research directions.

      2 Emotion

      To raise questions about emotion and affect is to open many cans of worms, for they force us to consider the relation of body, action, and mind; of embodiment and society; of biology and culture; of brain, body, action, and cultural meaning. They force us to ask what it is to be human.

      Wilce, 2009: 28

      The study of emotions in scholarly discourse in various disciplines is scarce. This is striking given the influential status of emotions in human life. This obvious discrepancy between relevance for humanity and its irrelevance/neglect in scientific investigations leads to the question as to why this was (or, in some research areas, still is) the case (Schwarz-Friesel, 2007).

      One of the main reasons for the neglect of emotions in scientific discourse in the Western world was the influence of René Descartes’ dualistic model of thinking about mind and body that dates back to the 18th century. As

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1