Secure Connected Objects

PART 1

Introduction – The Buzz about IoT and IoE

This first part is divided into a number of introductory chapters, always having a direct or semi-direct link to the Internet of Things – IoT.

By way of introduction to this book, Chapter 1 offers a brief overview of the relevant vocabulary, with a view to avoiding the misunderstandings which occur all too often in the field, and resolving the confusion between the terms connected things, communicating things and devices which do actually form part of the Internet of Things per se.

For its part, Chapter 2 touches on the (overly) vast mode of IoT, the catchall surrounding the IoT, the buzz in the media, in the specialized or general press, etc., and the concrete reality, which consists of defining, designing, manufacturing, perfecting and industrializing a product, and in particular, successfully selling it!

To conclude this first part, Chapter 3 employs a concrete example to present a view of the technical-economic situation, with the why leading to the conception and design of a communicating thing that uses the Internet.

1

Introduction

This first part recaps fundamental and classic concepts of theories… but first, in order to clarify our approach, let us look at a little vocabulary and examine a few definitions of the Who is Who in the IoX.

1.1. Definition of communicating- or connected Things

1.1.1. Connected Things – Communicating Things

What a marvellous term Connected Thing is, which conveys absolutely anything… and its opposite! How many people will delight in that name!

Thing is easy: it is easy to imagine that the term covers everything from an extremely miniature Thing to an enormous ocean liner!

Connected to what? How? Why? … etc. In this aspect, we are often still left searching for meaning!

Over the ages, connections have been established in different ways: in smoke signals, …, over wired connections, but today, all of this now seems somewhat retro to some people. The uni-directional or bi-directional, wireless or contactless, connection is much more in fashion.

That said, let us keep things simple and open our eyes. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) has been in use for a number of years (decades, even); so too have contactless chip cards, NFC, Zigbee, Bluetooth BT & BLE, Wi-Fi, etc. and, much like Mr Jourdain in Molière’s The Bourgeois Gentleman speaking prose all his life without even knowing it, we have been making wireless Connected Things –secure ones, even, and even highly secure!

An example from the public automobile market:

For 15 years, an electronic valve for cars has been a Connected Thing (using UHF), connected to the electronics of the car, but this is not an example of the IoT!

Thus, this current fashion is not truly groundbreaking, except for a certain faction of the press and avid followers of new words… even if those new words express the same things as the old ones!

1.1.2. Definition of the IoT

What exactly does the IoT consist of, and what is the IoE (i.e. the Internet of Everything)?

It is a physical network of Things (or devices/objects) incorporating sensors, electronics, software and connectivity, enabling these Things to exchange data with an operator, a manufacturer, a service provider or other connected devices. Thus, it is based on a number of different things.

1.1.2.1. Infrastructure of the IoT

The IoT works under the auspices of the ITU – the International Telecommunications Union – Global Standards Initiative (IoT-GSI). For information, IoT-GSI covers connected devices and Things (e.g. personal computerized devices, portable or office computers, tablets and smartphones, etc.) via multiples communication protocols connecting the elements to one another, such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, Long-Range Wide-Area Networks such as LoRa, SIGFOX, etc.

1.1.2.2. IoT devices (or nodes or elements or Things)

IoT devices (elements) or indeed what we define generally as Things, often function without a human interface, generally using the energy supplied by a battery, and are usually devoted to a single task. They are generally described as smart objects, or as connected devices. As it is, there is a whole host of such devices! For example:

– electrodomestic networks which can be remotely monitored or controlled;

– sensors, industrial equipment and other integrated elements which are connected in networks;

– Smart home elements such as lighting, heating or ventilation units with remote management/control, access, etc.

– wearables, fashion accessories or connected clothing, etc.

– etc.

This typically means that an IoT device falls into one or several of the following functional domains:

– Surveillance: teledetection and notification of operating conditions and use of other external environmental factors;

– Control: means that certain functions of the Thing can be remotely managed or customized;

– Automation: devices which can operate independently, capable of adapting to environmental or operation factors with minimal human interaction;

– Optimization: monitoring- and control functions meaning that the manufacturers of the Things can optimize their performances and effectiveness in real time, based on the history and/or instantaneous operational data;

– Preventative maintenance or diagnostics: these can also be carried out remotely.

1.1.3. Internet of x

Having barely had the time to gain familiarity with the Internet of Things, suddenly we are talking about the Internet of Everything – IoE. What is the difference between these two concepts? We shall answer this excellent question shortly, but first, let us take something of a purist stance, and call a spade a spade. To begin with, in order for there to be an Internet of x, the Internet (and its structure) must be involved in the story – otherwise there could not be an IoT and certainly not an IoE; however, there are many, many Connected Things which operate with links other than the Internet… thus, it is important not to confuse cabbages and carrots*!!!

IoT, as the name indicates, implies that sooner or later we must use an Internet connection… but that is not always the case!

NOTE.–. We shall refrain from defining what cabbages and carrots respectively are in this story!

1.1.3.1. Internet of Things - IoT

The Internet of Things is often defined as being the network of physical Things containing embedded technology (integrated, onboard), so as to communicate, detect or interact with their internal states and/or the external environment. Figure 1.1 shows a non-exhaustive example of the functional chain of such a structure.

Figure 1.1. Functional chain of IoT

Often, by default, in the eyes of many, the Internet of Things is all so-called connected products, monitored by mobile applications: watches, weighing scales, bracelets, toothbrushes, refrigerators, etc., which often do not use the Internet at all, instead using other means of communication such as NFC, BLE or Wi-Fi, for example.

1.1.3.2. Internet of Everything - IoE

The Internet of Everything – IoE, for short – goes far beyond Things (Connected Things). In fact, this is an expression invented in 2015 and promulgated by Cisco – one of the world leaders in network infrastructure. There is every chance that in tomorrow’s world, the Internet of Everything will become a reality, encapsulating not only the world of the Internet of Things, but also that of data, processes… and people (through their smartphones and social networks)! More broadly still, the Internet of Everything is based on the harvesting of the information that we share individually and collectively – that is, it operates at a much higher level than with simples Things in the Internet of Things. That data mining will be organized by private companies capable of processing enormous streams of data – known as Big Data (via the Internet) – and charged with turning those data to profit, selling them on either to advertising agencies or marketing networks, or to public-sector organizations wishing to optimize their services and territories, or indeed to public-interest private companies (transport operators, energy providers, works contractors, waste-management companies, etc.), and so on. In other words, the raw material used by this new industry will be our personal information, freely given, without us having any control over the use made of it… Of course, we must not neglect to mention the flip side of the coin: the danger of the servers hosting all these data being hacked!

The admirable goal of the Internet of Everything is to support numerous developments and improvements, such as smart homes, optimized control of energy consumption and natural-resource consumption, smart parking, more appropriate road tolls, etc. and also help improve administrative performances by enhancing agents’ productivity and reducing operating expenditure. That, at least, is the dream…

Examples

The Internet of Everything makes it possible for cities to ultimately become Smart Cities, and for public administrations to hinge their efforts on the following three axes:

– budget savings:

EXAMPLE.– sensors built into trash cans send a message to indicate that they need to be emptied. Such a system in Finland has already delivered a 40% saving on the waste collection budget.

– new revenues:

EXAMPLE.– in New York, urban screens operating 24/7 are used for surveillance in the city, dissemination of information, offering means of communication (e.g. Wi-Fi), but also generating revenue through advertising.

– advantages for citizens:

EXAMPLE.– smart parking employs an intelligent system to inform drivers of the number of free spaces left in the different parking lots in the city.

In Nice, this system has reduced traffic jams by 30%, increased parking revenue and reduced CO2 emissions.

Having come to the end of these few introductory remarks about our near future, let us now turn our attention to the enormous world of IoT.

2

The (Overly) Vast World of IoT

2.1. 2011–2016: the craze for the term Connected Thing

Over the past five years, the media has been inundating us with news of Connected Things, in enormous tidal waves of hype for each and every successive one! What does this represent, and where are we to situate this book and its content within this quagmire of information?

2.1.1. The catch-all

Anything and everything! It is true that the dawn of connected Things and the generalized use of digital technology have led to the production of vast quantities of data, creating new opportunities to improve operational efficiency, to reinvent the customer experience and to create new services. Therefore, in all major fields of activity, IoT plans are being announced with a great deal of fanfare, with enticing slogans:

– Aeronautics: air travel and airport security 2.0

– Automobile: when intelligence rhymes with performance

– Energy: draw value from the grid and rationalize your consumption

– Commerce and large-scale distribution: enhance supply-chain reliability whilst also improving customer service

– Luxury: new services for a demanding clientele

– Health: the beginnings of a revolution

– Cities and collectives: when the environment can communicate

– Rail travel: new opportunities

– Sea travel: more modest, a sector only just coming to terms with the technology

– and all sorts of other industries, services, smart cities, insurance companies, distribution firms and transport operators have their own projects!

2.1.2. Fashion, buzz and "bubble"

Is this market for Connected Things a bubble, as we saw only a few years ago in other areas (e.g. property, dot-com businesses, and so on)? Can it last? What does our crystal ball say (see Figure 2.1)?

Figure 2.1. Is the IoT market a short-lived buzz, or will it endure?

2.1.2.1. What the crystal ball shows

Taking, as a starting point, the hypotheses of Cisco and Ericsson, and in the knowledge that between 2015 and 2021, the number of IoT-connected devices is projected to grow by 23% annually, peaking at almost 16 billion units out of a total of 28 billion connected products (taking account of PCs, portable computers, tablets, mobile telephones and landline phones), here are a few nuggets of information.

– in 2018, the number of IoT Things connected by non-cellular radio protocols should rise from 4.2 billion to 14.2 billion units;

– it is also predicted that the cellular IoT (with Things connected via mobile telephone technologies (2G, 3G, 4G, LTE-M, NB-IoT, 5G, etc.) will develop spectacularly, with 1.5 billion units in 2021, compared to 400 million in 2015 (as the peak throughput of the descending radio channels of the LTE networks run by mobile operators will surpass a gigabit per second and this will lead to the development of compatible mobile terminals and IoT Things, first in Japan, the United States, South Korea and China).

– One final point: in terms of the number of Things and IoT connections, Western Europe will lead the way, with 400% progression by 2021. This phenomenon will be due, notably, to the recent evolutions in legislation in the field of communicating energy meters, and to the EC’s demand regarding the eCall initiative (distress call) for connected vehicles.

As our crystal ball has offered us the point of view elucidated above – which is merely one more projection amongst others – wisdom leads us to point out that the concept of the hype cycle has a well-known shape, which, whilst it is unequivocal, is not always too close to the mark, though not too far wide of it either!

2.1.3. "Hype" cycle for innovations

New technologies offer numerous admirable, wonderful ideas, but how are we to know whether or not they will achieve real commercial success? In addition, it is very difficult to estimate the financial risk that a company will have to endure (often over the course of several years of R&D) for the commercial launch of a new product on a market with no point of reference, as the product is a so-called disruptive innovation – a technological breakthrough.

Each year, the Gartner group, made up of specialist consultants in the prospective development of emerging technologies, offers its clients a view of the life cycles of their innovations, the different phases of adoption and maturity, to try and project when the product should (finally) become profitable!

Every summer, Gartner polishes off its crystal ball, and for the coming year, publishes its Hype cycle (registered trademark of Gartner) for the technological products currently in fashion. This helps everyone to gain an idea of how to position their product and glimpse its evolution over time, and thus enable companies to estimate the kind of sales effort they will need to implement alongside the development, with a view to planning the product’s rollout.

Every innovation/technological product is believed to obey a hype cycle, made up of five key phases in terms of visibility and maturity (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2. Hype cycle

(source: Gartner)

– Phase 1: emergence of the idea: Technology Trigger

As at the start of any branch of activity, there are many innovative ideas around: good ones, bad ones, ones which are idealistic but not particularly constructive, etc. This creates a buzz and draws interest from the media. This is the stage where teams of future engineering students doing their final-year projects are itching to create their future start-ups.

In general, at this stage, all we have are models/prototypes (POC – Proof of Concept), and the commercial viability of the products has not yet been proven.

– Phase 2: Peak of Inflated Expectations

The publicity created when the idea was launched has given rise to numerous emulating products. There are many new entrants to the race and numerous startups, SO/HOs, SMEs, SMIs, and this is the stage when a few success stories begin to flourish… but there is also a certain amount of bad buzz.

It is at this moment when innovators need to take concrete action, and move on to real production to make the product available, because the public’s expectations are high.

– Phase 3: Trough of Disillusionment

After this significant phase of hope in the market, we see a phase of depression, stemming from the fact that the products are not always available or do not live up to the expectations people had of them, or indeed because there are far too many disparate offers and solutions, the price is still a little too high and, because of the lack of norms for the market, there are too many protocols and standards and/or proprietary standards, little or no interoperability, etc.

At this stage, public interest takes a nosedive, and companies have to decide whether they are willing/able to invest to truly adapt the product to the demands of the early adopters of the market.

It is often at this stage when numerous start-ups fail, through lack of liquidity, funding, aid, a solid financial position. Thus, there are crashes and a few/many decomposed bodies of companies wash up on the shoreline.

– Phase 4: Slope of Enlightenment

The project begins to reach its final development phase. Companies come to have an increasingly good understanding of the market they are dealing with. It is a time when groups of complementary interests come together to form joint ventures; the best start-ups are bought up by larger companies/groups, either to develop and help these SMIs grow, or to bring their own products up to speed in the domain… or indeed to better be able to smother them in the longer term (this approach is deeply unkind, but it is done, and it is a very effective strategy!).

This is when the second or third generations of the product are released.

– Phase 5: Plateau of Productivity

Finally, a genuine market emerges; the technology begins to be more widely used, and it is finally adopted by the cautious majority (Rodgers’ model states that the number of people adopting a new product obeys a Gaussian curve. Once the cautious majority has been won over, the product has reached half its level of salability).

Viability criteria begin to become clearer; the relevance of the innovation is more convincing, and profitability comes shining through. Hurrah! We are saved!

These five phases have different durations and amplitudes depending on the technologies and the markets in which they arise. Some products may reach the plateau of productivity in two years; others in ten; others still may become obsolete before ever reaching it!

With experience, Gartner has managed to define around a hundred reference curves for the technology sector: e-commerce, telemedicine, transport, software, etc. For instance, as regards the subject of interest to us here, Figure 2.3 shows the results of Gartner’s crystal ball for 2015.

Figure 2.3. Hype cycle in mid-2015

(source: Gartner - july 2015)

In short, we see here the well-known industrial and economic projection, which overlaps with the hype cycle! Consider yourselves warned!

2.2. The true goal of this book

Let us return now to our initial question: What does this represent, and where are we to situate this book and its content within this quagmire of information? Elementary, my dear readers… allow me to explain!

The next part of this book describes the steps to be taken and respected so that your project avoids the trough of disillusionment (parts 2 and 3 of the hype cycle), so you can skip over that part and go directly from the phase of reflection on innovation (or innovation trigger, part 1) to the slope of enlightenment (part 4) – i.e. the way from innovation to a stage of healthy production, or indeed the move from the virtual to the real world!

Quite some challenge, is it not?

Thus, as we progress through this book, we shall offer you the path of reasoned wisdom, constructed on the basis of true integration of the worlds of legislation, technology, economics, ergonomics, etc.… rather than a boulevard of broken dreams!

3

Why a Connectable Thing?

As a prelude to part 2 of this book, pertaining to all the constraints one needs to manage and satisfy when designing a connected Thing, so as to lend some context to the discussion, let us give a concrete example of what defines the reason for developing a connectable Thing, what lies behind the desire to create it, which conditions it needs to satisfy, its aim, its usefulness, and so in time its salability, and hence its technical aspects and economic acceptability.

We generally perceive the Internet of Things only through a Thing capable of simplifying data retrieval, or fun, as was the case when connected bracelets began emerging. However, the changes wrought go far beyond a simple Thing, and are mainly seen in the impacts such devices have on economic models.

A secure connected Thing may come in a very wide range of forms, from a watch to a car, for example. To offer a concrete example, let us look at two cases: firstly home care for the elderly or handicapped, and secondly a connected car.

3.1. Examples of connectable things

The first concrete example we shall present is that of home care for the elderly, in a study performed in the French region of Le Loiret, which will serve as a reference point throughout this book.

3.1.1. Home care for the elderly

In France, local authorities are in charge of home care for the elderly, and disburse large sums of money to satisfy that need. The solution adopted needs to resolve a number of problems:

– the local