Gene Regulation, Epigenetics and Hormone Signaling

Contents

Cover

Related Titles

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Chapter 1: Eukaryotic Gene Expression by RNA Polymerase II

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Transcriptional Initiation of RNA Polymerase II Genes

1.3 Transcriptional Elongation of RNA Polymerase II Genes

1.4 Transcriptional Termination of RNA Polymerase II Gene

1.5 Capping of mRNA at the 5′-End

1.6 Processing of mRNA at the 3′-End

1.7 Splicing of mRNA

1.8 Nuclear Export of mRNA for Translation

1.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Epigenetic Code: Histone Modification, Gene Regulation, and Chromatin Dynamics

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Histone Modifications

2.3 Histone Lysine Demethylation

2.4 Histone Arginine Methylation

2.5 Histone Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation

2.6 Histone ADP-Ribosylation

2.7 Histone Ubiquitination

2.8 Epigenetic Code Hypothesis and Conclusion

Acknowledgments

List of Abbreviations

References

Chapter 3: Histone Lysine Methylation, Demethylation, and Hormonal Gene Regulation

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Enzymes That Catalyze Histone Lysine Methylation and Demethylation

3.3 Histone Lysine Methylation in Hormone Signaling

3.4 Perspectives

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 4: The Role of HATs and HDACs in Cell Physiology and Disease

4.1 Introduction

4.2 HATs and HDACs

4.3 Acetylation/Deacetylation in Chromatin-Associated Functions

4.4 HATs and HDACs in Cell Physiology

4.5 Associated Diseases

References

Chapter 5: The Short and Medium Stories of Noncoding RNAs: microRNA and siRNA

5.1 Introduction

5.2 MicroRNA

5.3 Small Interfering RNA (siRNA)

5.4 Piwi interacting RNA

5.5 Transcription Initiating RNAs (TiRNAs)

5.6 Small Nuclear RNAs (snRNAs)

5.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 6: Long Noncoding RNA (lncRNA): Functions in Health and Disease

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Classification of lncRNAs

6.3 LncRNA: Functions and Mechanisms of Action

6.4 LncRNAs in Cancer

6.5 LncRNAs in Reproduction

6.6 LncRNAs in Myogenesis

6.7 LncRNA in Cardiovascular Disease

6.8 LncRNAs in Embryonic Development and Segmentation

6.9 LncRNA in Central Nervous System

6.10 LncRNAs in Neurological Disorders

6.11 LncRNA in Immune System and Immunological Disorders

6.12 Roles of lncRNAs in Various Heritable Syndromes

6.13 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 7: Histone Variants: Structure, Function, and Implication in Diseases

7.1 Histone Variants: Structure

7.2 Implication in Diseases

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8: Genomic Imprinting in Mammals: Origin and Complexity of an Epigenetically Regulated Phenomenon

8.1 Introduction: First Evidences and Extent of Genomic Imprinting

8.2 Imprinted Genes: Common Features and Diversity of Regulatory Mechanisms

8.3 Role of Imprinted Noncoding RNAs on Imprinting Control and Other Functions

8.4 Parent-of-Origin-Dependent Epigenetic Marks and the Role of Chromatin Modifications and Interactions in Imprinting

8.5 Imprinted Genes: Functions and Associated Diseases

8.6 Origin and Evolution of Imprinting

8.7 Summary and Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9: Centromere and Kinetochore: Essential Components for Chromosome Segregation

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Centromeres

9.3 Kinetochores

9.4 Neocentromere

9.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 10: Nuclear Receptors and NR-coregulators: Mechanism of Action and Cell Signaling

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Structures of Nuclear Receptors

10.3 Mode of Action of Nuclear Receptors

10.4 Nuclear Receptor Coregulators

10.5 NRs and NR-Coregulators in Human Diseases

10.6 NRs and NR-Coregulators as Drug Targets

10.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

References

Chapter 11: Estrogen and Progesterone Receptor Signaling and Action

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Nuclear Hormone Receptor Superfamily

11.3 Estrogen and Progesterone Receptor Isoforms

11.4 Mechanisms of Estrogen and Progesterone Signaling

11.5 Integration of Membrane and Nuclear Signaling

11.6 Coregulators of Estrogen and Progesterone Signaling

11.7 Convergence of ER and PR Signaling Mechanisms: Focus on the Brain

11.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Gonadal Steroid Hormones and Brain Protection

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Protective Effects of Estrogens on the Brain

12.3 The Protective Effects of Progesterone on the Brain

12.4 The Protective Effects of Androgens in the Brain

12.5 Clinical Studies of Estrogens in Alzheimer's Disease

12.6 Clinical Studies Addressing the Protective Effects of Progesterone and Related Progestins

12.7 Clinical Studies Addressing the Potential Beneficial Effects of Androgens

12.8 Conclusions

References

Chapter 13: Glucocorticoid Receptor-Mediated Signaling and Stress Metabolism

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Gene Regulation

13.3 Metabolism

13.4 The HPA Axis

13.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 14: Targeting Androgen Signaling in Prostate Cancer

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Disease States of Metastatic Prostate Cancer

14.3 Androgens and Androgen Receptor

14.4 Castrate-Sensitive Prostate Cancer

14.5 Prostate Cancer Progression

14.6 Prostate Cancer Drugs

14.7 Future of Prostate Cancer Therapy

14.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 15: Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors in Inflammation and Angiogenesis

15.1 Introduction

15.2 PPARα (NR1C1)

15.3 PPARβ/δ (NR1C2)

15.4 PPARγ (NR1C3)

15.5 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 16: RAR/RXR-Mediated Signaling

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Vitamin A Receptors and Their Response Elements

16.3 Transcriptional RAR/RXR Signaling: The Standard Model and Recent Discoveries

16.4 Regulation of RAR Signaling: Ligand Synthesis and Metabolism

16.5 Regulation of RAR Signaling: The Role of Binding Proteins

16.6 Regulation of RAR Signaling: Receptor Expression, Modification, and Degradation

16.7 Transrepression and Crosstalk with Other Transcription Factors

16.8 Nongenomic Mechanisms of RA/RAR Signaling

16.9 The Role of Retinoid Binding Proteins in Phototransduction

16.10 Retinoic acid-Regulated Genes

16.11 Conclusion

List of Abbreviations and Symbols

References

Chapter 17: On the Trail of Thyroid Hormone Receptor Epigenetics

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Overview of Thyroid Hormone Action

17.3 Molecular Mechanisms of Regulation of Gene Expression by Thyroid Hormone-Specific Nuclear Receptors

17.4 Nongenomic Mechanism of Action of Thyroid Hormones

17.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 18: Insulin Signaling, Epigenetics, and Human Diseases

18.1 Introduction to Epigenetics

18.2 Types of Epigenetic Modifications

18.3 Epigenetic Links to Endocrine System

18.4 Insulin

18.5 Insulin Signaling

18.6 Insulin Receptor

18.7 Insulin Receptor Substrate (IRS)

18.8 The PI(3)K Pathway

18.9 The Ras Pathway

18.10 Insulin Resistance and Metabolic Derangements

18.11 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Abbreviations

Function of the Genes Discussed in this Chapter

References

Chapter 19: Endocrine Disruptors and Epigenetics

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Endocrine Disruptors

19.3 Associated Diseases

19.4 Endocrine Disruptors and Development of Transgenerational Disease

19.5 Discussion

References

Chapter 20: Endocrine Disruptors: Mechanism of Action and Impacts on Health and Environment

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Mechanism of Action of EDC

20.3 Bisphenol A (BPA) and its Health Impacts

20.4 Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

20.5 Atrazine

20.6 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

20.7 Phthalates

20.8 Phytoestrogens

20.9 Methoxychlor

20.10 Dioxins: An Environmental Contaminant

20.11 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 7.1

Table 9.1

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 10.3

Table 15.1

Table 16.1

Table 16.2

Table 16.3

Table 16.4

Table 16.5

Table 18.1

Table 18.2

Table 18.3

Table 18.4

Table 19.1

Table 20.1

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Figure 10.1

Figure 10.2

Figure 10.3

Figure 10.4

Figure 10.5

Figure 10.6

Figure 10.7

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4

Figure 11.5

Figure 12.1

Figure 13.1

Figure 13.2

Figure 13.3

Figure 13.4

Figure 13.5

Figure 13.6

Figure 13.7

Figure 13.8

Figure 14.1

Figure 14.2

Figure 14.3

Figure 14.4

Figure 14.5

Figure 15.1

Figure 15.2

Figure 15.3

Figure 16.1

Figure 16.2

Figure 16.3

Figure 16.4

Figure 16.5

Figure 16.6

Figure 16.7

Figure 17.1

Figure 17.2

Figure 17.3

Figure 17.4

Figure 17.5

Figure 18.1

Figure 18.2

Figure 18.3

Figure 19.1

Figure 19.2

Figure 19.3

Figure 19.4

Figure 19.5

Figure 19.6

Figure 19.7

Figure 19.8

Figure 20.1

Figure 20.2

Figure 20.3

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Edited by Subhrangsu S. Mandal

Gene Regulation, Epigenetics and Hormone Signaling

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Preface

First of all, I am pleased that the book Gene Regulation, Epigenetics and Hormone Signaling has reached to the hands of the readers. I thank all the contributors and Wiley editors for their contributions and patience. In this book I have tried to include different aspects of eukaryotic gene regulation with an emphasis on epigenetics and hormone signaling. Histone modifications, DNA methylation, and noncoding RNAs are emerging as master players in gene regulation and their malfunction is closely associated with severe human diseases. The first nine chapters of the book emphasize on fundamentals of eukaryotic transcription, the mechanisms of gene activation and silencing, histone modifications, histone variants, noncoding RNA, DNA methylation, and centromere structure–function relationship. Importantly, gene expression and chromatin dynamics are highly influenced by a variety of factors such as hormones and nutrients, and may also be affected by a variety of environmental contaminants that contribute to human disease. These stimuli induce epigenetic changes/modifications that ultimately dictate the fate of chromosome and gene activation and silencing. In the rest of the book (11 chapters), we have emphasized on the mechanisms of hormone signaling and endocrine disruption. There are many different types of hormones, including steroid hormones, peptide-based hormones, and amino acid-derived hormones. Considering the limitations in length of the books, I could not include all different hormone-signaling pathways. However, we have included cell signaling mechanisms associated with estrogen, androgen, glucocorticoid, thyroid hormone, PPAR signaling, and retinoic acid signaling. Among the peptide hormones, the insulin signaling is included in this book. The last two chapters in the book is capped with epigenetic and health impacts of variety of endocrine disrupting chemicals. In addition to fundamental of cell signaling, most chapters highlight the potential drug targets, diagnosis markers, and potential therapy associated with human disease. We have assembled contributions from different experts in the field. In Chapter 2, I have also introduced the concept of epigenetic code hypothesis that states that there are epigenetic factors including histone modification, DNA modification, histone variants, and wide ranges of noncoding RNA, coordinate in a concerted fashion, and orchestrate the chromatin dynamics and gene expression decision and this adds additional layers of regulation on gene expression beyond just genetic code. Alteration or interference in the epigenetic programming results in abnormal gene expression causing severe human diseases. Overall, this book provides fundamental to advanced levels of understanding on human gene regulation, epigenetics, and cell signaling, with emphasis on human health and disease. Finally, I would like to thank Mandal lab family (my past and present students, postdoctorates, and research scholars) whose research and discoveries inspire me daily and encourage to peruse the book. I also thank my sweet family (especially my wife Saoni) for their endless support, love, and patience throughout.

1

Eukaryotic Gene Expression by RNA Polymerase II

Geetha Durairaj,¹,³,* Shivani Malik,²,³,* and Sukesh R. Bhaumik³

¹University of California, Department of Biological Chemistry, 825 Health Sciences Road, 240D Med Sci I, Irvine, CA 92697, USA

²University of California, School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, 1450 3rd Street, HD-340, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA

³Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1245 Lincoln Drive, Neckers Building, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA

1.1 Introduction

Expression of eukaryotic protein coding genes starts with transcription by RNA polymerase II in the nucleus (Figure 1.1). Transcription can be mechanistically divided into different phases, namely, transcriptional initiation, elongation and termination, and produces messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Following transcriptional initiation, nascent mRNA of about 20–24 nucleotides long associates with the cap-binding complex (CBC) at its 5′-end via the formation of the cap structure by capping enzymes. As mRNA synthesis progresses during transcriptional elongation, RNA polymerase II mediates the addition of many mRNA binding proteins that aid in preventing DNA:RNA hybrid formation and facilitating the 3′-end processing, splicing, surveillance, and export of mRNA to the cytoplasm for translation into proteins (Figure 1.1). All these steps are highly coordinated and precisely regulated. In this chapter, we provide broad overviews of the different steps of eukaryotic gene expression by RNA polymerase II.

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagrams of different steps of eukaryotic gene expression by RNA polymerase II. PIC, preinitiation complex; and RNA pol II, RNA polymerase II.

1.2 Transcriptional Initiation of RNA Polymerase II Genes

Transcriptional initiation of RNA polymerase II genes typically involves an activator that binds to a specific sequence (known as upstream activating sequence or UAS) in the gene promoter via its DNA binding domain. Subsequently, the activation domain (AD) of the activator interacts with one or more transcription factors to facilitate the assembly of general transcription factors (GTFs) such as TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIF, TFIIH, and RNA polymerase II, resulting in the formation of preinitiation complex (PIC) for transcriptional initiation [1,2]. The ADs are generally acidic in nature (e.g., Gal4, Gcn4, VP16, and p53). However, other ADs such as glutamine-rich and proline-rich also exist in stimulation of transcriptional initiation.

A wealth of research in yeast has delineated two broad mechanisms of transcriptional initiation, namely, SAGA (Spt-Ada-Gnc5-Acetyltransferase)-dependent and TFIID (transcription factor IID)-dependent transcriptional initiation. SAGA is a large multisubunit protein complex, and is highly conserved among eukaryotes [2]. In yeast, SAGA comprises of 14 nonessential (Ada1, Ada2, Ada3, Gcn5, Spt3, Spt7, Spt8, Spt20, Sgf11, Sgf29, Sgf73, Ubp8, Sus1, and Chd1) and 6 essential (ATM/PI-3-kinase-related protein Tra1 and a subset of TBP-associated factors or TAFs such as TAF5, TAF6, TAF9, TAF10, and TAF12) subunits [2–4]. The Gcn5 subunit of SAGA has the histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity, while the Ubp8 subunit possesses histone deubiquitylation or ubiquitin protease activity [2–4]. The Ada1, Spt7, and Spt20 subunits maintain overall structural integrity of SAGA [2,5,6]. The Tra1 subunit of SAGA interacts with activator, and subsequently, facilitates the formation of PIC for transcriptional initiation [2,7]. Biochemical and genetic experiments indicate that the Spt3 and Spt8 subunits of SAGA interact with TBP, and stimulate the PIC formation [2,6,8,9]. In addition to recruiting the PIC components, SAGA modulates chromatin structure through its HAT activity to regulate transcriptional initiation. SAGA acetylates nucleosomal histone H3 (K9, K14, K18, and K23 (K, lysine)) residues [10,11], promotes the formation of TFIIA–TBP–DNA complex, and hence transcriptional initiation. However, SAGA-mediated acetylation may also reduce TBP recruitment at certain genes (e.g., ARG1), thus adding to the complexity of gene regulation [12]. Further, SAGA regulates transcription through the histone H2B deubiquitylation activity of its Ubp8 subunit [13–15]. Ubp8 modulates the level of ubiquitylated-histone H2BK123 that is correlated with histone H3K4 methylation, and hence transcription activity of the SAGA-dependent genes [16]. SAGA plays similar functions in Drosophila and humans [2–4].

SAGA regulates transcription of about 10% genes in yeast [2]. However, transcription of ∼90% genes in yeast is regulated by TFIID, but not SAGA [2]. TFIID is a large multisubunit protein complex that is composed of TBP and a set of TAFs. TAFs are evolutionarily conserved and ubiquitously expressed proteins with the exception of some tissue-specific TAFs in mammals. TAFs have a conserved structural motif, known as histone-fold that is found in the core histones. The histone folds of TAFs mediate subunit interactions within TFIID, and thus, act as building blocks of the TFIID complex [17,18]. Further, TAFs interact directly with activator, and facilitates the recruitment of TBP to the core promoter to enhance the PIC formation for transcriptional initiation [2,19–23].

Both the UAS and core promoter contribute to the TFIID dependency of a gene for transcriptional initiation. Sequence swapping experiments have revealed that the replacement of the UAS of a TFIID-dependent promoter with the UAS of a SAGA-regulated promoter impairs the recruitment of TFIID to the core promoter [2,22]. Consistently, fusion of the UAS of the TFIID-dependent promoter with the core promoter of a SAGA-regulated (or TFIID-independent) promoter leads to the recruitment of TFIID to the TFIID-independent core promoter [2,22]. These results highlight the importance of UAS in determining the TFIID dependency of a gene, hence indicating the role of the UAS-bound activator in targeting TAFs to the core promoter. Consistently, certain TAFs of TFIID have been shown to interact with activator [19,20]. However, the core promoter may also contribute to this TFIID dependency [2]. It is proposed that a TATA-like element in the core promoter may participate in TFIID binding for transcriptional initiation [24]. TAFs have also been shown to interact with the initiator or downstream promoter element (DPE) in Drosophila and humans, thus supporting the role of the core promoter in TFIID dependency [25]. An additional layer of regulation by the core promoter is provided by histone H3K4 methylation [26]. TFIID interacts with histone H3K4 methylation at the promoter. Such interaction is mediated via the recognition of trimethylated-K4 of histone H3 by the plant homeodomain of TAF3 (absent in yeast, but present in higher eukaryotes) of TFIID [2]. Consistently, the loss of histone H3K4 methylation leads to decreased level of TFIID binding to the promoter [26]. Further, there is a cross talk between modifications where histone H3 Arginine 2 methylation inhibits the interaction of TFIID with histone H3K4 methylation, while acetylation of histone H3K9/14 promotes it [2,27]. Thus, there is a combination of interrelated regulatory mechanisms mediated by the initiation proteins, promoter structure, and chromatin structure/covalent modifications that contribute to the precise control of transcriptional initiation at the TFIID-dependent genes.

Both the TFIID- and SAGA-dependent transcriptional initiations are additionally modulated by the 26 S proteasome complex that is involved in targeted protein degradation via ubiquitylation [1,2,28–30]. The 26 S proteasome complex consists of the 19 S RP (regulatory particle) and 20 S CP (core particle). The 20 S CP is involved in proteolytic degradation, while the 19 S RP provides the specificity for ubiquitylated-proteins and ATP-dependence [1]. The 20 S CP is composed of two α-rings and two β-rings that are stacked in the order of α β β α forming the cylinder-like structure. The 19 S RP has at least 17 different proteins including six ATPases (Rpt1–Rpt6). Six AAA-ATPases (Rpt1–Rpt6) and three non-ATPase proteins (Rpn1, Rpn2 and Rpn10) form the base of the 19 S RP, while the lid of the 19 S RP consists of eight non-ATPase proteins (Rpn3, Rpn5–Rpn9, Rpn11, and Rpn12) [1]. Intriguingly, the 19 S subcomplex of the 26 S proteasome has been shown to promote the PIC formation at both the TFIID- and SAGA-dependent promoters independently of the 20 S CP [28–30]. At the TFIID-dependent ribosomal protein genes, the 19 S proteasome subcomplex enhances the targeting of NuA4-HAT (that acetylates histone H4) coactivator that facilitates TFIID recruitment to the promoter for transcriptional initiation [29]. At the SAGA-dependent GAL genes, the 19 S proteasome subcomplex promotes the targeting of SAGA to the activator [28,30]. SAGA, in turn, facilitates the PIC formation at the core promoter for transcriptional initiation [2,31]. Thus, the 19 S proteasome subcomplex positively regulates transcriptional initiation of both SAGA- and TFIID-dependent genes, independently of the proteolytic function of the proteasome. Such function of the 19 S proteasome subcomplex in stimulation of transcriptional initiation is mediated via its ATPase activity [2,28–30]. In addition, the proteolytic function of the proteasome has also been shown to regulate transcriptional initiation of certain genes by controlling activator/coactivator/corepressor abundance, localization, or destruction [1,2].

Overall, we have described above two distinct mechanisms of eukaryotic transcriptional initiation by SAGA and TFIID that are dictated by the target specificity of the activator. These two distinct mechanisms are further differentially regulated by the mediator complex [2,21]. Mediator is a large multiprotein complex, and is composed of three modules [32,33]. These modules are known as Srb4 (Srb2, Srb4, Srb5, Srb6, Rox3, Med8, Med11, and Med6), Gal11/Sin4 (Gal11, Rgr1, Sin4, Pgd1, and Med2), and Med9/Med10 modules (Med1, Med4, Med7, Srb7, Med9, and Med10). The Srb4 module interacts with RNA polymerase II. In case of SAGA-dependent transcriptional initiation, mediator is required for TBP recruitment at the core promoter, while it is dispensable for TBP recruitment at the TFIID-dependent promoter [2,7,21]. Likewise, another GTF, namely TFIIB, is differentially required for TBP recruitment to the core promoters of SAGA- and TFIID-dependent genes [2,7,21]. TFIIB facilitates TBP recruitment to the SAGA-dependent promoter, while it is dispensable for recruitment of TBP to the TFIID-dependent promoter. Even though mediator and TFIIB are dispensable for TBP recruitment at the TFIID-dependent promoter, they are required for transcriptional initiation of the TFIID-dependent genes, subsequent to TBP recruitment [2,21]. These results imply the complex regulatory mechanisms of transcriptional initiation by SAGA, TFIID, and other GTFs. In addition, transcriptional initiation is further influenced by chromatin remodeling factors and environmental and intracellular signaling events [1,2,34–39].

1.3 Transcriptional Elongation of RNA Polymerase II Genes

Following transcriptional initiation, RNA polymerase II transitions to elongation. This transition consists of a series of steps, and is referred to as promoter clearance, where RNA polymerase II establishes stable contact with nascent RNA and weakens its interaction with GTFs. The first step in promoter clearance is the formation of an open complex structure where TFIIH unwinds the double-stranded DNA upstream of the TSS (transcription start site) via its DNA helicase activity [40,41]. This is followed by the synthesis of the first RNA bond, utilizing ribonucleotide triphosphate. There are a few cycles of abortive initiation, where the length of nascent RNA transcript varies from two to four nucleotides [40,42,43]. Studies on TATA-box-containing promoters have shown that the upstream edge of the open bubble complex remain fixed with respect to the TATA box and extends downstream of the TSS as the nascent transcript progresses till the bubble collapses and TFIIH is no longer required for keeping the strands of the bubble unannealed [40,42,44]. The nascent transcript becomes about 9–10 nucleotides long when the bubble collapses [40]. After the addition of few more nucleotides, TFIIB loses contacts with RNA polymerase II [40,45]. There may be some backtracking of RNA polymerase II to an upstream location till the position +23 (relative to TSS) where the mRNA transcript becomes stable enough and the process of promoter clearance gets completed [40,46–48].

A key event in the promoter clearance is the phosphorylation of RNA polymerase II. RNA polymerase II is composed of 12 subunits, namely Rpb1-12. Rpb1 is the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II, and has a characteristic C-terminal domain (CTD). The CTD consists of multiple repeats of a conserved heptamer sequence, YSPTSPS, and is essential for cellular viability [49–51]. The serine (S) residues at positions 2, 5, and 7 are particularly important. These residues are phosphorylated and associated with different transcriptional states. Transcriptional initiating form of RNA polymerase II is not phosphorylated. During transition to elongation, RNA polymerase II is phosphorylated by the Kin28/Cdk7 subunit of TFIIH at S-5 [52,53]. Such phosphorylation does not only promote promoter clearance, but also acts as the recruitment platform for mRNA processing and histone modification factors. The level of S-5 phosphorylation is high close to the 5′-end of the coding region of active gene, and starts to drop as RNA polymerase II progresses more into elongation or toward the 3′-end of the coding sequence [52,53]. There is a concomitant increase in the S-2 phosphorylation as RNA polymerase II progresses through the coding region, which, in turn, modulates transcriptional elongation [52,53].

RNA polymerase II pauses at the promoter proximal regions in Drosophila and mammals [54,55]. Negative elongation factor (NELF) and DRB (5,6-dichloro-1-β-D ribofuranosylbenzimidazole) sensitivity-inducing factor (DSIF) play important roles in the pausing of RNA polymerase II [54,55]. DSIF alone does not pause RNA polymerase II [54,55]. DSIF targets NELF to associate with RNA polymerase II for pausing [54,55]. DSIF is present in all eukaryotes and archaea, and shares homology with a bacterial transcription factor, NusG [54,56]. However, NELF is conserved only in higher eukaryotes to cause promoter proximal pausing of RNA polymerase II [54,55]. The pausing of RNA polymerase II has emerged as an important step of transcriptional regulation [54,55]. The dissociation of NELF releases the paused-RNA polymerase II for productive transcriptional elongation. One of the important factors promoting the release of promoter proximal paused-RNA polymerase II to its productive elongating form is the positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb). P-TEFb is a cyclin-dependent kinase consisting of a regulatory subunit, cyclin T, and the kinase subunit, Cdk9 (Ctk1 in yeast). P-TEFb phosphorylates NELF, and thereby triggers NELF's dissociation to release paused-RNA polymerase II into productive elongating form [54,55]. P-TEFb also phosphorylates DSIF and S-2 at the CTD of the Rpb1p subunit of RNA polymerase II [54,55]. The phosphorylations of DSIF and RNA polymerase II have stimulatory effects on transcriptional elongation [53,54]. Thus, P-TEFb plays an important role to release the paused-RNA polymerase II, and enhances transcriptional elongation. The recruitment of P-TEFb to the gene may occur through several ways, including association with DNA binding proteins such as c-Myc and NF-kB, mediator, or Brd4 (that associates with acetylated tail of histone H4) [54,55,57–60]. Additionally, the amount and availability of active P-TEFb is regulated via sequestering of P-TEFb into an inactive complex with 7SK RNA and HEXIM protein [54,55,61,62]. Therefore, various factors, including signaling molecules and chromatin structure/modification, play crucial roles to control the function of P-TEFb, and hence the release of paused-RNA polymerase II to productive transcriptional elongation.

As mentioned above, P-TEFb phosphorylates the CTD of RNA polymerase II on S-2 as it progresses toward the 3′-end of active gene to ensure productive transcriptional elongation [53,54,62]. In addition, such phosphorylation of RNA polymerase II regulates mRNA processing and export. Consistently, the inhibition of P-TEFb reduces gene expression. Likewise, S-5 phosphorylation of the CTD of RNA polymerase II regulates 5′-end processing (or capping) of mRNA and recruitment of chromatin modification factors. Thus, phosphorylation status of the CTD of RNA polymerase II plays important roles in regulation of mRNA synthesis, processing, and export [53,54,62]. Ssu72 and Fcp1 dephosphorylate S-5 and S-2 residues, respectively, of the CTD as RNA polymerase II elongates the transcript [53,63]. Rtr1 (regulator of transcription) is another RNA polymerase II-associated phosphatase that regulates the transition from phospho-S5 to phospho-S2 of the CTD during transcription elongation [64]. Hence, phosphatases participate in regulation of the phosphorylation states of the CTD of RNA polymerase II, and hence transcriptional elongation and mRNA processing and export.

Productive transcriptional elongation is also ensured by the processivity factors such as TFIIS that facilitates transcription of stalled-RNA polymerase II and FACT (facilitates chromatin transcription), which promotes transcription through chromatin. The histones in the coding region are rapidly evicted during elongation and deposited back onto DNA in the wake of elongating RNA polymerase II [65]. This assembly/disassembly of histones is aided by histone chaperones, FACT and Asf1 (antisilencing function protein 1), histone H2B ubiquitylation, and ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors such as Swi/Snf and Rad26 [65–71]. Thus, these proteins/factors serve to facilitate transcriptional elongation on chromatin. Further, mutations in FACT and Asf1 lead to the generation of cryptic transcripts that are initiated from the internal start sites of the coding sequence [66,72]. Thus, in addition to promoting transcriptional elongation, FACT and Asf1 also suppress cryptic transcription. Likewise, another transcriptional elongation factor, Spt6, suppresses transcriptional initiation from the cryptic sites [72]. Additionally, an epigenetic mark at the coding regions, namely histone H3K36 methylation, also prevents spurious transcriptional initiation from the intragenic regions. In yeast, the Rpd3 S histone deacetylase complex recognizes the Set2-mediated histone H3K36 methylation at the coding regions of the active genes, and directs deacetylation of histones to suppress cryptic intragenic transcription [73,74]. Thus, chromatin structure/modifications and associated regulatory factors play important roles in controlling transcriptional elongation.

Overall, transcriptional elongation is a critical step in eukaryotic gene expression. It is regulated by a large number of proteins/factors for promoter clearance, releasing paused-RNA polymerase II at the promoter proximal site, backtracking, and productive elongation. In addition, chromatin structure/modifications and associated regulatory factors control transcriptional elongation. Further, transcriptional elongation is coupled to DNA repair, and maintains genome integrity [75–78]. In turn, DNA repair factors have also been shown to regulate transcription [79–82]. Thus, transcriptional elongation is a highly coordinated and precisely regulated process in eukaryotic gene expression. We have broadly described above this process. However, the detailed regulatory mechanisms of transcriptional elongation have been reviewed elsewhere [83–88].

1.4 Transcriptional Termination of RNA Polymerase II Gene

Termination is the last step of transcription, and marks the ends of various regulated events of gene expression. Transcriptional termination entails the dissociation of the elongation complex at the 3′-ends of the active genes, and is the least understood phase of transcription. Transcriptional termination does not take place at a specific site, but can occur from a few bases to several kilobases of the 3′-end of mRNA [89,90]. Most of the protein-coding mRNA precursors have a highly conserved polyadenylation or poly (A) signal, 5′-AAUAAA-3′, followed by a U/GU-rich sequence. Transcriptional termination closely depends on the poly (A) signal or site. The mRNA processing factors such as mRNA polyadenylation and cleavage proteins also participate in transcription termination. The detailed processing events are described later in this chapter.

There are two major models proposed for transcriptional termination of RNA polymerase II genes. The first model is an antiterminator or allosteric model. According to this model, transcriptional elongation through the poly (A) site leads to a conformational change in the elongation complex due to disassociation of elongation factors and/or association of termination factors [91,92]. Pcf11, an mRNA-processing protein, has been shown to promote such dismantling of the elongation complex. Pcf11 associates with the phosphorylated-CTD of the Rpb1 subunit of RNA polymerase II and mRNA transcript, thus coordinating transcriptional termination with mRNA processing [92–94]. Due to the dual association with RNA polymerase II CTD and mRNA transcript, Pcf11 may serve to relay the force generated by the conformational changes at the CTD to the nascent transcript disrupting the elongation complex.

The second model of transcriptional termination is the torpedo model. It is based on the entry of a 5′ → 3′ exonuclease (Rat1 in yeast/Xrn2 in humans) at the poly (A) site, which degrades nascent mRNA and promotes the release of RNA polymerase II [95,96]. Like the antiterminator model, S2-phosphorylated-CTD of RNA polymerase II and mRNA processing proteins are mediators in this model. The CTD of RNA polymerase II serves as the binding platform for cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF) that aids in transcriptional termination. The CPSF complex also binds to the transcribed poly (A) site in the pre-mRNA, and contributes to RNA polymerase II pausing downstream of this site [97]. This eventually stimulates cleavage and release of mRNA from the 3′-ends of the genes. Upon cleavage of the nascent mRNA at the poly (A) site, the downstream RNA is rapidly degraded by Rat1/Xrn2, leading to transcriptional termination [95–97]. Rat1 is targeted to RNA polymerase II phosphorylated at S2 by Rtt103, an important accessory protein. In these two models, the poly (A) site or signal is essential for transcriptional termination, thus supporting the idea that transcriptional termination is the combination of both models. Even though considerable progress has been made, much work is needed to fully understand the complex regulatory mechanisms of transcriptional termination.

1.5 Capping of mRNA at the 5′-End

mRNA-processing proteins use the altering phosphorylation status of CTD of the Rpb1 subunit of RNA polymerase II to dynamically associate with transcription machinery, and process mRNA as it is synthesized. The foremost mRNA-processing event that occurs cotranscriptionally is the capping (or cap structure formation) of the 5′-end of nascent mRNA. Capping protects nascent mRNAs from degradation by exonucleases and increases their stabilities [98,99]. Further, the cap structure influences the splicing of the first intron of mRNA. In addition, the cap structure is crucial for translational initiation, and leads to circularization of mRNA in the cytoplasm to facilitate multiple rounds of translation. The mRNA cap structure consists of a guanosine residue harboring a methylation at the N-7 position, and binds to pre-mRNA via 5′–5′ triphosphate bridge. Once the nascent pre-mRNA is capped, it is bound by CBC that is involved in mediating a variety of cellular events, such as transcriptional initiation and elongation, mRNA export, histone H2B ubiquitylation, histone H3K36 methylation, and processing of micro RNAs, in addition to protecting nascent mRNA from exonuclease [98]. Hence, mRNA capping has crucial functions in regulation of gene expression.

The cap structure is formed shortly after transcriptional initiation, when nascent mRNA chains are about 20–23 nucleotides long. Capping is carried out by three enzymatic reactions. In the first step, RNA triphosphatase removes the γ-phosphate from the first nucleotide at the 5′-end of mRNA (pppRNA), thereby producing a diphosphate terminus (ppRNA). This is followed by the transfer of guanine monophosphate (GMP) to the diphosphate-end by RNA guanyltransferase to generate the cap (GpppRNA). Finally, the cap is methylated at the N-7 position of guanine by the action of guanine N7-methyltransferase, resulting in the formation of cap structure (m⁷GpppRNA). Functions of mRNA capping enzymes and their associated mechanisms are conserved across eukaryotes. However, the enzymes that mediate mRNA capping are differentially organized in lower eukaryotes as compared to higher eukaryotes. For instance, RNA triphosphatase and RNA guanyltransferase in budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) are encoded by two different proteins (Cet1 and Ceg1), while mammals carry a bifunctional capping enzyme with both activities. Similar to budding yeast, fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) encodes separate triphosphatase (Pct1) and guanylyltransferase (Pce1). However, unlike budding yeast, where Cet1 forms a functional heterodimer with Ceg1, Pct1 and Pce1 in fission yeast do not interact with each other (Ref. herein [100]). Phosphorylated CTD participates in the recruitment of the capping machinery, and hence capping of mRNA [101,102].

The mRNA cap structure at the 5′-end is recognized by CBC that is composed of two subunits, namely Cbp20 and Cbp80. Both Cbp20 and Cbp80 are evolutionarily conserved among eukaryotes. Neither Cbp20 nor Cbp80 binds to mRNA cap structure alone, suggesting that a complex of both Cbp20 and Cbp80 is required for recognition of mRNA cap structure to protect mRNA from exonuclease [98]. In addition to protecting mRNA, CBC also influences the splicing of mRNA by facilitating the recruitment of spliceosomal complex to the intron-containing genes. Further, CBC is involved in mediating the export of mRNA [103]. Moreover, CBC has been recently shown to regulate transcriptional initiation and elongation, histone H2B ubiquitylation, histone H3K36 methylation, and processing of microRNAs (Ref. herein [98]). Thus, CBC does not only maintain the stability of mRNA, but also regulates various transcriptional and posttranscriptional events. Following mRNA export to the cytoplasm, CBC participates in translational initiation for protein synthesis. In addition, CBC is also involved in nonsense-mediated mRNA decay. Collectively, mRNA capping at the 5′-end and CBC play important functions in the regulation of crucial steps of eukaryotic gene expression.

1.6 Processing of mRNA at the 3′-End

Another essential mRNA processing event that occurs after capping and subsequent CBC binding is the polyadenylation at the 3′-end. Eukaryotic mRNAs possess a poly (A) tail at their 3′-ends. Presence of poly (A) tail increases the stability and translational efficiency of mRNA. Only mRNAs that are properly polyadenylated are exported out of the nucleus. Indeed, the ratio of cytoplasmic to nuclear mRNAs is shown to go down in the absence of proper polyadenylation of mRNA [104]. Addition of poly (A) to the 3′-end of mRNA occurs in two steps. In the first step, pre-mRNA is cleaved at a specific site, and subsequently polyadenylated [105]. The efficiency of this process is dependent on the actions of multiprotein complexes that bind to specific sites at the 3′-end of pre-mRNA. Most cellular mRNAs possess some signature sites onto which the cleavage and polyadenylation machinery binds [106]. The most conserved one of these sites is the poly (A) signal, AAUAAAA, located 20–30 nucleotides upstream of cleavage site (CA) where the poly (A) tail is added. The other less-conserved U/GU-rich sequence is located downstream of CA [105,106]. In higher eukaryotes, these sites are bound by CPSF and cleavage stimulation factor (Cstf) [105,106]. CPSF is composed of five subunits: CPSF-160, CPSF-100, CPSF-73, CPSF-30, and Fip1, and associates with the poly (A) site (or AAUAAAA), while Cstf (that consists of CstF-50, CstF-77, and CstF-64) binds to U/GU-rich region. Binding of Cstf increases the stability of CPSF–RNA complex. Apart from these sequences, there are some accessory elements in pre-mRNA (e.g., upstream sequence elements or USE) that provide additional stability for anchoring the 3′-end formation machinery [107]. Once these cleavage elements are bound, the CPSF-73 subunit of CPSF catalyses an endonucleolytic cleavage at the cleavage site, and the poly (A) tail is immediately added at the formed 3′-end by poly (A) polymerase. In yeast, this sequential processing of mRNA is brought about by the actions of cleavage and polyadenylation factor (CPF) and cleavage factor 1 (CF1) [106]. CF1 consists of two factors, namely CF1A and CF1B. CF1A is composed of Rna14, Rna15, Clp1, and Pcf11, while CF1B is composed of Hrp1. While the subunits of CPF are homologous to the CPSF subunits in higher eukaryotes, subunits of yeast CF1A are homologous to the Cstf subunits [105,107,108]. Thus, mRNA processing at the 3′-end appears to be conserved among eukaryotes.

1.7 Splicing of mRNA

Greater complexity in the gene structures of higher eukaryotes necessitates the involvement of additional mechanisms in processing of mRNA before it is exported out of the nucleus. While most of the lower eukaryotic genes lack introns, higher eukaryotic pre-mRNAs contain introns, and hence, are subject to splicing prior to be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. In the process of splicing, introns are removed from pre-mRNAs to form an export-competent mature mRNA. Pre-mRNA splicing is carried out by a large RNA–protein complex (60 S), known as spliceosome [109]. Spliceosome is composed of snRNAs (U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6) and their associated proteins. In yeast, apart from snRNAs and associated proteins, ∼100 additional components make up the spliceosome. In humans, this complex has more than 300 components owing to the complexity of the genome. In fact, human genome contains more than 200 000 introns of varying lengths, and demands a complex spliceosomal apparatus [109]. Interestingly, evidence also suggests the existence of another splicing complex in humans, known as minor spliceosome that is involved in the splicing of a minor class introns with noncanonical consensus sequences [110,111]. Minor spliceosome contains U11, U12, U4atac, U6atac, and U5 snRNP (small nuclear ribonucleoprotein). U5 snRNP is shared with major spliceosome, while other components of minor spliceosome are functionally analogous to U1, U2, U4, and U6 snRNPs [112].

Pre-mRNA sequences define the boundaries of introns. Most introns have the GU sequence at the 5′ splice site and AG sequence at the 3′ splice site. Further, a variable length of polypyrimidines (known as polypyrimidine tract) is present upstream of the 3′ splice site. Apart from these sequences, there is a branch point that includes adenosine and is located 18–40 bp upstream of the 3′ splice site. These sequences serve as the recognition sites of the spliceosomal components. Spliceosome carries out two transesterification reactions to excise introns. In the first step, phosphodiester bond at the 5′ splice site is attacked by 2′-hydroxyl of adenosine of the branch point, thereby generating a free 5′-exon and lariat-3′-exon intermediates. Following this, 3′-hydroxyl of the 5′ splice site attacks the phosphodiester bond at the 3′ splice site, leading to the excision of lariat and ligation of exons. These steps are mediated by the stepwise assembly of spliceosomal components as described below.

Splicing is initiated by the binding of U1 snRNP to the 5′ splice site of an intron. Simultaneously, the 3′ splice site is bound by an U2 auxiliary factor (U2AF). These factors along with some additional factors form the first complex known as commitment or E (early) complex. In the E complex, both exons are brought in close proximity. The E complex is followed by the recruitment of U2 snRNP by U2AF. U2 snRNP binds to the branch point adenosine to form prespliceosomal A complex. These steps are then followed by the recruitment of U4, U5, and U6 snRNPs, thereby forming the B complex. Subsequently, catalytically active spliceosomal C complex is formed by structural rearrangements of the B complex [113,114], and leads to the formation of lariat, excision of intron, and ligation of the exons. Intron-free mRNA thus generated becomes ready to be exported out of the nucleus [114]. While the sequential assembly of the spliceosomal components on the splice sites is well recognized, an alternative view of spliceosomal assembly has also been proposed by Stevens et al. [115]. According to their study, spliceosomal components are preassembled prior to the binding to pre-mRNA, thereby raising a possibility of exclusion of multistep assembly of spliceosomal components.

Pre-mRNA splicing requires ATP hydrolysis and RNA unwinding that is brought about by the action of eight splicing factors that belong to the family of DExH/D-box helicases (Prp5/DDX23, Sub2/UAP56, Prp28/DDX46, Brr2/U5200KD, Prp2/DHX16, Prp16/DHX38, Prp22/DHX8, and Prp43/DHX15) [113,114,116–118]. Once spliceosome brings about the removal of introns from pre-mRNA, a complex of proteins gets recruited to a position of 20–24 nucleotides upstream of the exon–exon junction [119,120]. This complex is termed as the exon junction complex (EJC), and travels with mRNA to the cytoplasm. EJC serves as the binding platform for many proteins, some of which are involved in mRNA export [120]. Thus, splicing of intron-containing genes is linked to nuclear mRNA export. Further, EJC is involved in nonsense-mediated mRNA decay that detects and degrades mRNAs containing premature stop codons [120]. EJC can also enhanced translation efficiency. Thus, splicing of intron-containing genes is coupled to the quality control and translation efficiency of mRNA via EJC.

While it is easy to envision the synthesis of single mRNA from a single gene, the complexity of higher eukaryotes requires the production of numerous proteins (or functional mRNAs) involved in regulation of many processes as opposed to fewer proteins in lower eukaryotes. Hence, to accommodate such diversity of proteins, cells have come up with alternative splicing where a single gene encodes multiple functional mRNAs, and hence proteins. In fact, alternative splicing has been observed in ∼25% of Caenorhabditis elegans, ∼60% of Drosophila melanogaster, and ∼95% of human genes [121]. While normal splicing of pre-mRNA involves four splicing signals, alternative splicing requires additional trans-acting factors that bind to cis-acting sequences in pre-mRNA to promote the synthesis of splice variants [121,122]. Alternative splicing can be classified into four main categories: (i) exon skipping, where an exon can be spliced out together with an intron; (ii) alternative 5′ and (iii) 3′ selections, where these splice sites may be recognized just at one end of an intron; and (iv) intron retention, where an intron can be retained along with exons. Such a mechanism is a smart move by the cell to promote proteomic diversity in higher eukaryotes. Overall, splicing of pre-mRNA is regulated by a large number of factors in a highly coordinated manner to precisely regulate eukaryotic gene expression.

1.8 Nuclear Export of mRNA for Translation

After pre-mRNA undergoes multiple processing events inside the nucleus, it needs to be exported to the cytoplasm for translation into proteins. Nuclear mRNA export occurs through nuclear pore complex (NPC), a complex of nucleoporins that is embedded within the nuclear envelope. NPCs are the only doorways for transport of molecules in and out of the nucleus. This evolutionarily conserved complex consists of a central transporter channel that is surrounded by a symmetrical spoke complex [123–129]. Spoke complex is flanked by nuclear and cytoplasmic rings on either sides of the nuclear membrane. Export of mRNAs through the NPC is mediated via transient interactions between the receptors that bind to mRNA cargos and the degenerate FG (phenylalanine–glycine) repeats of the nucleoporins [130–138]. Hence, mRNA receptors play crucial roles in transporting mRNAs out of the nucleus.

A vast majority of receptors involved in the transport process belong to a family called karyopherins (termed as importins or exportins based on the directionality of transport). The directionality of karyopherin family of receptors depends on a small GTPase Ran that plays a key role in the association and dissociation of substrates with transport receptor [133,139]. However, substantial evidence suggests that the export of mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm is not mediated by the importin-β family members, and is much more complicated as compared to karyopherin-mediated transport [138]. The export of mRNAs is carried out by the export receptor family of proteins termed as nuclear export factors (NXFs). While numerous NXFs have been discovered so far across eukaryotes (several NXFs in humans, NXF1–6; four in Drosophila, DmNXF1–4; two in Caenorhabditis elegans, CeNXF1–2; and one in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mex67), Mex67 and its human homolog, NXF1 (also known as TAP), are well characterized [140–147]. Mex67/TAP is an essential protein that forms a functional heterodimer with Mtr2/p15 to mediate the export of mRNA [145]. Being a shuttling protein, Mex67 travels with mRNA to the cytoplasm, and then gets dissociated from mRNA by the combined actions of Gle1, Dbp5 (a DEAD-box RNA helicase) and InsP6 [130,148]. The conditional inactivation of Mex67/TAP leads to an accumulation of poly (A) RNA in the nucleus, thereby supporting the roles of these factors in mRNA export.

Despite its function in mRNA export, Mex67/TAP displays a low affinity for binding to mRNAs, and hence requires adapter proteins to bridge this interaction. Genetic and biochemical studies in yeast have led to the identification of a Mex67 binding-adaptor protein, namely Yra1 (yeast RNA annealing protein) [149–152]. Yra1 belongs to the REF (RNA export factor) family of proteins. Mutation in Yra1 causes nuclear accumulation of poly (A) RNA, implicating its role in the export of mRNA [149,150]. Further, the association of Mex67 with newly synthesized mRNAs is also reduced in Yra1 mutant strain, thus indicating an essential role of Yra1 in enhancing the interaction of mRNA with Mex67 [149,150,153].

To understand the mechanism of recruitment of Yra1 to the nascent mRNA, a synthetic lethal screening was performed, which revealed the genetic interaction of Yra1 with Sub2, a DEAD-box helicase/ATPase that is involved in pre-mRNA splicing as well as mRNA export [154]. Further, Yra1 has been shown to interact with Sub2 [154]. Sub2 and Yra1 are also found to be loaded onto the active genes in a transcription-dependent manner via the THO (Suppressors of transcriptional defects of hpr1Δ by overexpression) complex [155–157]. THO is a tetrameric complex that consists of Tho2, Hpr1, Mft1, and Thp2. In addition, Tex1, a nonessential protein of unknown function, has been shown to be associated with THO [158]. The THO complex is evolutionarily conserved across eukaryotes. Human THO complex contains homologs of yeast Hpr1 (THOC1) and Tho2 (THOC2) with additional subunits fSAP79/THOC5, fSAP35/THOC6, and fSAP24/THOC7 [159–162]. Tex1 homolog, THOC3, is also present in human THO complex. Human THO complex resembles Drosophila THO complex. However, there is no apparent yeast Mft1 and Thp2 homologs in human and Drosophilla THO complexes. Moreover, human or Drosophila THOC5, THOC6, and THOC7 homologs are not apparently found in yeast THO complex [159,160,163]. THO plays an important role in transcriptional elongation. In yeast, null mutations of any of its four nonessential subunits (Hpr1, Thp2, Tho2, and Mft1) have been linked to increased hyperrecombination and defects in transcription elongation. This has been attributed to the formation of DNA:RNA hybrid (R-loop) between nascent transcript and template DNA, which impedes transcription and also leads to genomic instability associated with the accumulation of DNA breaks [155–157,159,164,165]. Recently, the depletion of human THO subunits has also been shown to generate similar effects on transcriptional elongation and genomic instability, thus indicating the functional conservations of the THO complex across species [166]. The THO complex has been shown to be recruited to the active chromatin during transcriptional elongation in an RNA polymerase II-dependent fashion [159,167,168]. Once THO is recruited, it facilitates the association of export factor Sub2 that then loads mRNA export adapter, Yra1. In fact, the THO subunits have been shown to interact physically and genetically with Sub2 and Yra1. Particularly, Hpr1 interacts directly with Sub2, and helps in the recruitment of Sub2 and Yra1 to the actively transcribing genes [153,154,167,169,170]. Additionally, THO mutants are found to be defective in mRNA export. These observations provide evidence for the coupling of transcription elongation with mRNA export via THO. Once Yra1 is recruited, Sub2 dissociates from it, thereby allowing the interaction of Yra1 with the export receptor, Mex67. The interactions of Sub2 and Mex67 with Yra1 are mutually exclusive as both Sub2 and Mex67 bind competitively with Yra1 [154]. However, Sub2 and Mex67 can simultaneously bind with Yra1, since both Sub2 and Mex67 can independently interact with each of the two domains of Yra1 [154]. Sub2 and Yra1 together with the THO components form the TREX (transcription–export) complex. TREX is conserved among eukaryotes. The human homologs of yeast Sub2 and Yra1 are UAP56 and ALY, respectively. These components are essential for cell survival, and perform similar functions in yeast and humans [158].

The TREX complex gets recruited cotranscriptionally to the coding regions of active genes, but shows a bias toward the 3′-end. While the recruitment of yeast TREX complex to the active gene is coupled to ongoing transcription, the recruitment of metazoan TREX has been shown to be dependent on splicing [171,172]. Intriguingly, recent studies by Johnson et al. [173,174] showed that Yra1 can be loaded onto the active genes in a Sub2-independent manner. Their studies revealed that Yra1 is loaded onto the active gene via its interaction with the 3′-end processing factor, Pcf11. Pcf11 is recruited cotranscriptionally to the active genes through its interactions with the CTD of RNA Polymerase II. Yra1 that is recruited to the active genes in this manner is then transferred to the export factor, Sub2. Subsequently, Yra1 becomes available for interaction with the export receptor, Mex67, for nuclear export of mRNA. However, Hobeika et al [175,176] showed that Mex67 is recruited in an earlier step during transcription. Such recruitment is dependent on the Hpr1 component of the THO complex. The UBA (ubiquitin-associated) domain of Mex67 recognizes the ubiquitylated-form of Hpr1. This interaction contributes to the recruitment of Mex67 and protects ubiquitylated-Hpr1 from the 26 S proteasome complex. Consistently, the absence of the ubiquitylated-form of Hpr1 or the UBA domain of Mex67 is associated with the defects in mRNA export. Thus, cotranscriptional recruitment of Mex67 to the active genes is indispensable for mRNA export. As mentioned earlier, Mex67 has less affinity for binding to mRNA and Yra1 has been well demonstrated to bridge this interaction in yeast. While Yra1 is an essential protein in yeast, double-stranded RNA interference of REF/Aly in Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans concluded that Aly is dispensable for mRNA export [177,178]. This points out to the existence of additional export adaptors in bridging the interaction of mRNAs with export receptors in higher eukaryotes [177,178]. Indeed, studies have indicated the roles of SR (serine–arginine)-rich proteins, SRp20 and 9G8, in mammals as export adaptors in bridging the interaction of mRNA with receptor TAP [179–182].

While a number of studies demonstrated the interconnection between transcription elongation and mRNA export, studies over the past several years have also shed light on tight coupling that exists between transcriptional activation and export of mRNA [183–185]. Such a link was established with the identification of a factor called Sus1 (sl gene upstream of Ysa1) [183–185]. Sus1 was initially identified by synthetic lethality screening with an Yra1 mutant allele, and was shown to interact genetically and physically with coactivator SAGA and mRNA export factors, Thp1 and Sac3 (components of the TREX-2 complex). Consistently, Sus1 has been found to be a common component of SAGA and TREX-2 [183]. Thus, Sus1 links SAGA with TREX-2, thereby playing a key role in coupling transcriptional activation with mRNA export.

The TREX-2 complex is constituted by Thp1, Sac3, Cdc31, and Sus1, and is located on the inner side of NPC. Sac3 forms the central scaffold of the TREX-2 complex [186,187]. Sus1 associates with the TREX-2 complex via Sac3, and functions in mRNA export. TREX-2 interacts with NPC via nucleoporins, such as Nup1 and Nup60, and also associates with Mex67–Mtr2 export receptor [183,184,186]. Recent studies have also identified Sem1 as a new component of this evolutionarily conserved complex [188–190]. The physical link between mRNA export complex (TREX-2) and transcriptional coactivator complex (SAGA) via Sus1 supported the gene gating hypothesis as originally proposed by Blobel [191]. The TREX-2 has been shown to play an important role in repositioning yeast genes such as GAL1 and INO1 in close proximity to NPC through its interactions with nucleoporins of NPC and SAGA [185,192–194]. Apart from yeast, gene-gating hypothesis has also been proved in Drosophila and humans [192,195–197].

Prior to nuclear export, mRNA undergoes a quality control check with the aid of nuclear surveillance complex, known as exosome [198]. Exosome complex contains several 3′ → 5′ exonucleases, and degrades the improperly processed mRNAs prior to their export to the cytoplasm [199]. Only properly processed mRNAs or mRNPs are exported out of the nucleus. Once these processed mRNAs reach cytoplasm, most of them enter the translationally active pool that encodes proteins. During translation, mRNA is threaded through the space between the ribosomal subunits to undergo a pioneering round of translation [200–202]. This process removes any associated hnRNPs (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins) that might hinder the translational activity. At this stage, nuclear 5′-cap and 3′-poly (A) binding nuclear protein are replaced by elF4E (cytoplasmic cap binding protein) and poly (A)-binding cytoplasmic protein, respectively. All these events result in functional circularization of mRNA due to the cis and trans interactions between its 5′- and 3′-ends, thereby promoting the efficient translation of the message [201,202]. Life of mRNAs ends after translation in the cytoplasm. The mRNA cap is removed by decapping enzymes, and mRNA is degraded by exonucleases [203–205]. The degradation or at least the final step(s) of degradation of mRNA is believed to occur in certain cytoplasmic foci, known as P-bodies (processing bodies) [203–205]. P-bodies are the structures that are enriched with numerous proteins involved in mRNA degradation [203–205].

1.9 Conclusion

Eukaryotic gene expression is a highly coordinated and complex regulatory process. It is mechanistically composed of many different steps as described above. Misregulation of any of these steps leads to an altered pattern of gene expression, which can change cellular functions and threaten cellular viability. Thus, the factors involved in different steps of gene expression are correlated with a variety of diseases. Therefore, a large number of studies are focused on understanding the regulation of eukaryotic gene expression in a number of eukaryotic systems. In this chapter, we have broadly described eukaryotic gene expression from the birth to the end of mRNA life. Thus, this chapter would provide general views of gene expression, function, and regulation. However, the details of the different steps of eukaryotic gene expression by RNA polymerase II are described in a number of review articles cited in this chapter.

Note

*Geetha Durairaj and Shivani Malik contributed equally to this chapter.

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