Air Power And The Fight For Khe Sanh [Illustrated Edition]

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Text originally published in 1973 under the same title.

© Pickle Partners Publishing 2014, all rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted by any means, electrical, mechanical or otherwise without the written permission of the copyright holder.

Publisher’s Note

Although in most cases we have retained the Author’s original spelling and grammar to authentically reproduce the work of the Author and the original intent of such material, some additional notes and clarifications have been added for the modern reader’s benefit.

We have also made every effort to include all maps and illustrations of the original edition the limitations of formatting do not allow of including larger maps, we will upload as many of these maps as possible.

SPECIAL STUDIES

Air Power and the Fight for Khe Sanh

Bernard C. Nalty

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS 4

FOREWORD 5

AUTHOR’S ACKNOWLEDGMENT 7

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9

LIST OF MAPS AND CHARTS 11

AIR POWER AND THE FIGHT FOR KHE SANH 13

I. THE SIGNS OF WAR ADVANCE 15

The Battleground 16

Principal Commands and Commanders 20

The Enemy Masses 25

American Preparations 26

President Johnson Takes a Hand 27

II. THE PRECEDENT OF DIEN BIEN PHU 30

The French Prepare 30

Comparison with Khe Sanh 31

Why Khe Sanh? 33

III. ENCIRCLEMENT 36

The Battle is Joined 36

The Tet Offensive 41

February: The Critical Month 45

Press Reaction to the Continuing Siege 53

IV. AN AERIAL HIGHWAY 57

Landing under Fire 58

Supply by Parachute 62

Cargo Extraction Systems 67

Airmen on the Ground at Khe Sanh 70

Supplying the Outposts 74

The Task Completed 76

V. TACTICAL TEAMWORK 78

Cooperation Among the Services 78

Escorting the Transports 81

The Falconers 83

Radar Control 85

VI. APPOINTMENT OF A SINGLE MANAGER FOR AIR 88

First Steps toward Centralization 88

To Reconcile the Irreconcilable 89

The 22 January Agreement 91

Air Force Dissatisfaction 93

Appointment of a Single Manager 93

A Look at the Results 100

VII. THE THING THAT BROKE THEIR BACKS 103

Increasing the Tempo 103

Close Support 104

Results 108

VIII. BEYOND THE NEXT HILL 112

Intelligence Preparations 112

An Electronic Battlefield 112

Planting the Sensors 114

Using Sensor Data 114

Gravel Munitions 117

Summing Up the Sensor Operation 117

IX. THE FIGHT IS WON 119

Plans and Preparations 119

The Attack Westward 121

X. AFTERMATH OF VICTORY 126

CHRONOLOGY 131

GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 134

REQUEST FROM THE PUBLISHER 140

BIBLIOGRAPHY 141

Air Force Unit Histories 141

Supporting Mission Commanders’ Reports 141

Other Air Force Documents 141

Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, Documents 142

Marine Corps Documents 142

Army Documents 142

Navy Documents 142

JCS and OSD Documents 142

Interviews 143

Congressional Publications 143

Books 143

Articles 144

FOREWORD

The 1968 fight for Khe Sanh pitted some 6,000 U.S. Marines and South Vietnamese Rangers against an enemy force roughly three times as large. For more than 70 days North Vietnamese troops maintained pressure on Khe Sanh’s defenders, who had dug in around the base’s airstrip. The original purpose for deploying the Marines and South Vietnamese into the northwest corner of South Vietnam was to block Communist troop movements along Highway 9 toward Quang Tri City and the heavily populated coastal areas. When U.S. intelligence detected large enemy forces assembling near Khe Sanh, the senior American commander in Vietnam, Gen. William C. Westmoreland, ordered the Marines to hold the base.

General Westmoreland suspected that North Vietnam’s Defense Minister, Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap, might be tempted to mount a major attack against the base in hopes of achieving a climactic victory, such as he had done in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu. If Giap did order such an attack, General Westmoreland believed it would provide U.S. air power a singular opportunity to destroy a massed enemy force in a relatively uninhabited, isolated region of South Vietnam. In late January 1968 General Westmoreland advised the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington, D.C., of his decision to defend Khe Sanh. The Chiefs backed him unanimously.

During the siege that followed, U.S. strike aircraft rained nearly 100,000 tons of munitions down upon the North Vietnamese while other planes—primarily U.S. Air Force transports—flew in essential supplies of food, ammunition, and other necessities to Khe Sanh’s defenders. The Leathernecks also used their own aircraft to provision Marine outposts which denied the enemy the high ground overlooking the base. Other military elements participating in the battle included U.S. Army artillerymen dug in east of Khe Sanh, who fired deadly concentrations against the besieging forces. Marine howitzers and mortars added to the heavy U.S. fire, while Army engineers joined Navy Seabees in helping prepare airstrips which supported the allied defense effort. Finally, the relief of Khe Sanh—though spearheaded by Army troops—also involved American Marines and soldiers of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam.

In preparing this history, the author has attempted to describe the essential contributions of the Army, Navy, and Marines as well as the Air Force. But primarily, he has concentrated upon the operations, activities, and accomplishments of the U.S. Air Force. He also has included in this narrative a discussion of several controversies and problem areas which arose during the battle—such as General Westmoreland’s appointment of Gen. William W. Momyer, his deputy for air, as single manager for air operations.

For his review of this manuscript, the Office of Air Force History is especially indebted to General Momyer, who commanded the Seventh Air Force at the time of the battle. His comments on the siege and the additional information he provided concerning the events leading to his designation as single manager for air were most helpful. In addition, we are grateful to members of the Air Staff, especially those in the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, Plans and Operations, who commented on an early draft and contributed additional data on various aspects of the battle. Finally, we must express our thanks to Brig. Gen. James L. Collins, Jr., USA, Chief of Military History, Department of the Army; Vice Adm. Edwin B. Hooper, USN (Ret.), Director of Naval History and Curator for the Navy Department; and Brig. Gen. E. H. Simmons, USMC (Ret.), Director of Marine Corps History and Museums, whose knowledgeable staffs reviewed the narrative and generously shared with us the fruits of their own research.

BRIAN S. GUNDERSON, Brig. Gen., USAF

Chief, Office of Air Force History

AUTHOR’S ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Two individuals have played major roles in shaping this narrative. Maj. Gen. Robert N. Ginsburgh, USAF, who was Chief, Office of Air Force History, during the writing of the early drafts, generously shared the insights he had acquired while serving as senior staff member, National Security Council Staff, during the Khe Sanh action. Dr. Thomas G. Belden, Chief Historian, Office of Air Force History, selected Khe Sanh as a battle worth recording and shepherded the account to its completion.

Because of the complexity of the action, it was necessary to consult several collections of documents. Three members of the Office of Air Force History—Mrs. Mary Ann Cresswell, Mr. David Schoem, and SSgt. Francis Laignel, Jr.—helped obtain Air Force records from the Albert F. Simpson Historical Research Center at Maxwell AFB, Ala. Record copies of Seventh Air Force and Pacific Air Forces documents repose in the center as do the histories of Air Force tactical units that took part in the battle.

Other Air Force records were made available by Mrs. Rosalie H. Waldron, Directorate of Plans, Headquarters USAF, and by Mr. D. P. Danny O’Boyle and Miss Laura M. Lowe of the Executive Support Division, Office of the Secretary of the Air Force.

A number of pertinent papers of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) were on file in the Directorate of Plans. Additional items were studied at the JCS Historical Division through the cooperation of Mr. Wilber W. Hoare, Jr.

Navy records, dealing mainly with aviation and construction units, were provided by Dr. O. P. Fitzgerald, Operational Archives Branch, Naval History Division.

Mr. Harold Lane of the Washington National Records Center, Suitland, Md., served as guide to the documents retired by the U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (USMACV). Of greatest value was an extensive file assembled by uniformed historians assigned to MACV headquarters in Saigon.

Mr. Vincent H. Demma, Office of the Chief of Military History, made available the records of Army units involved in the Khe Sanh operation.

Mrs. Frances Rubright of the Documentation Unit, U.S. Marine Corps Historical Division, opened an impressive collection of reports and chronologies prepared by both ground and air units. Also made available were the historical summaries submitted each month by Fleet Marine Force, Pacific.

Dr. R. A. Winnacker, the Historian, Office of the Secretary of Defense, granted access to a file of messages maintained for Secretary Robert S. McNamara and his successor, Mr. Clark M. Clifford.

Mr. Charles Cooke, while with the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, discussed his experiences as an Air Force major in the Office of Assistant Secretary of Defense (International Security Affairs) during the Khe Sanh crisis.

Members of the Special Histories Branch, Office of Air Force History, advised the author and commented on the successive drafts that he prepared. Of special value were the suggestions of Col. Ray L. Bowers, USAF, and Miss Doris E. Krudener.

The task of typing the manuscript in its numerous revisions was shared by Mrs. Selma Shear, Mrs. Eleanor Patterson, and Mrs. Polly Jacobs.

Mr. Lawrence Paszek selected the photographs and prepared both layout and index.

NOTE

Illustrations used in this history were obtained from official government sources, except for the photo on p. 36, which was contributed by Lt. Col. W. R. Smith, USAF.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

U.S. Marine Patrol Near the Rock Pile, November 1966

President Lyndon B. Johnson is Briefed at the White House on the Situation at Khe Sanh

Adm. U. S. Grant Sharp

Gen. John D. Ryan

Adm. John J. Hyland

Gen. Dwight E. Beach

Gen. William C. Westmoreland, Ambassador Ellsworth Bunker, and Gen. Earle G. Wheeler, Tan Son Nhut, South Vietnam, February 1968

Monitoring a Tactical Strike Aboard a C-130 Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center, 1967, Generals Ryan and Momyer

President Johnson, Brig. Gen. Robert N. Ginsburgh, and Dr. Wait W. Rostow, Study a Terrain Model of the Khe Sanh Battlefield

Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap

USAF C-47's Delivered to Indochina in 1952 to Bolster the French Campaign Against Vi et Minh Guerrillas

Victorious Vi et Minh Troops Cross Doumer Bridge into Hanoi

Ho Chi Minh

Aerial View of the Khe Sanh Combat Base

A Fuel Dump is Hit by Enemy Mortar Fire

Vietnamese Refugees Are Evacuated from the Base

Can Tho, Victim of the Communist Tet Offensive, 1968

The Citadel of Hue

Lt. Col. H. M. Dallman

A Navy A-1 Skyraider is Positioned for Launch

Lt. Col. W. R. Smith in Front of Khe Sanh's Base Operations and Control Tower Building

A C-123 Burns After Being Hit By an Enemy Mortar

Air Force Medics Move a Casualty to a Waiting C-130

Khe Sanh, Seen from the Cockpit of a C-130 Arriving at the Base

News Headlines on the Siege

Maj. Gen. B. W. McLaughlin

Friendly Fighters Attack Enemy Positions While a C-130 Lands Under

Enemy Fire

Aerial Resupply of the Marines at Khe Sanh

A Low Altitude Parachute Extraction Supply Drop

Supplies Delivered to Khe Sanh by a Ground Proximity Extraction System

An Airman at Khe Sanh Catches 40 Winks

Marine Helicopters on a Resupply Mission to Khe Sanh Outposts

Their Tours Over, Khe Sanh Marines Prepare to Board a C-130

A Supply Drop Over Khe Sanh

T-28 and Marine A-6 Aircraft

A Navy A-4 Skyhawk

An Air Force F-4

A Soviet 37-mm Antiaircraft Gun

An 0-lE Observation Aircraft

A Combat Sky spot Site, South Vietnam

Lt. Gen. Robert E. Cushman, Jr.

B-52 Bomb Run

Interior View, Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center

Maj. Gen. N. J. Anderson

General William W. Momyer

Khe Sanh Radar and Control Tower

Maj. Gen. Selmon W. Wells

Aerial View of B-52 Bomb Pattern Around Khe Sanh

B-52's Being Serviced on Guam; One Bomber Lifts Off

A B-52 Prepares for Refueling

A Stratofortress Drops Its Bombs

Helosid (Seismic) Sensor

A Helicopter Crewman Prepares to Launch a Seismic Sensor

A Sensor Drops From a CH-3 Helicopter

A Night-Flying AC-47 Attacks Communist Positions Around Khe Sanh

Maj. Gen. J. J. Tolson, III

Col. David E. Lownds, Chaplain J. W. McElroy, and Lt. Gen. V. H. Krulak, Commanding General, Marine Force, Pacific, Discuss Khe Sanh's Situation Before the Siege

1st Cavalry Division Troops Arrive at Khe Sanh to Relieve the Marines

1st Cavalry Troops Take Over Marine Trenches

LIST OF MAPS AND CHARTS

I Corps, South Vietnam

Upper I Corps Below the Demilitarized Zone

Command Relationships for Khe Sanh

Khe Sanh and the Immediate Environs

Marine Corps Position on Command and Control

Unified Management of Tactical Strike Aircraft

Immediate Air Requests, Strike and Reconnaissance Support

AIR POWER AND THE FIGHT FOR KHE SANH

I. THE SIGNS OF WAR ADVANCE

As 1967 passed into history, the war in South Vietnam seemed to be entering a new phase, a transition from end of the beginning to beginning of the end. Gen. William C. Westmoreland, Commander, U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, on 21 November had reported to the American people that whereas in 1965 the enemy was winning, today he is certainly losing. Elaborating upon the reversal of the enemy’s fortunes, the general divided the war into four phases.

The first of these, from February 1965 to the summer of 1966, was the period when, he said, we came to the aid of South Vietnam, prevented its collapse under the massive Communist threat, built up our bases, and began to deploy our forces.{1} During Phase II, lasting through 1967, the Allies had driven the enemy’s divisions back to their sanctuaries or into hiding, entered enemy base areas and destroyed his supplies, and inflicted heavy casualties. It also was a period in which the United States had expanded its training of the South Vietnamese armed forces and moved to strengthen South Vietnam’s economy.

Looking to the start of Phase III in 1968, Westmoreland foresaw continued military progress, further improvement in the Vietnamese army, which would take on an increasing share of the war effort, and economic and political gains in South Vietnam. Finally, in a fourth phase lasting probably several years, he predicted the allies would achieve their basic military objectives, enabling U.S. forces to begin to phase down while the South Vietnamese took charge of the final mopping up of the Vietcong.{2}

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