Orchestration

ORCHESTRATION

Cecil Forsyth

With a New Foreword by

WILLIAM BOLCOM

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Dover Publications, Inc.

New York

Copyright © 1982 by Dover Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved.

This Dover edition, first published in 1982, is an unabridged republication of the second edition, 1935, as published, within the series The Musician’s Library, by Macmillan and Co., Limited, London, and Stainer and Bell, Limited, London (first edition: Macmillan, 1914). The Foreword to the Dover Edition was specially written for the present edition by William Bolcom.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Forsyth, Cecil, 1876-1941.

Orchestration.

Reprint of: 2nd ed. London : Macmillan, 1935.

1. Instrumentation and orchestration.

MT70.F76 1982 781.6’4

ISBN 0-486-24383-4

82-7265

AACR2

Manufactured in the United States by Courier Corporation

24383412

www.doverpublications.com

FOREWORD TO THE DOVER EDITION

WHEN I was around eleven or twelve years old and growing up in Washington State, I was studying composition with two teachers in Seattle, George Frederick Mckay (now deceased) and John Verrall (who is, I am happy to say, very much with us and likely to live to a Eubie Blake-ean great age). The first gave me very general lessons and often upset me; I find, however, that I now teach rather like my memory of Professor Mckay, in seeking to disturb my students rather than resolve things for them, which I feel is not my job. However, all students at some point need something more than the wrenching koans McKay would pose me; we also need simple skills and discipline in the technical side of music, and this must be taught with as much spirituality as the more transcendental aspects. For this side of my education I am largely indebted to Professor Verrall, who sought and found a balance between the technical and spiritual in music that he could impart to me.

I always bit off more than I could chew, and still do, and so I tried a string quartet. Jack (which I can now call him; I couldn’t then) looked at it, and patiently told me that a total of three manuscript pages was not enough to add up to a real quartet, that I must try a larger structure. In order to understand the strings better, he suggested I buy a Forsyth Orchestration.

I still have the same copy more than thirty years later, and it is still my bible when I need to refresh my memory about a certain instrument. I have not ever found a subsequent orchestration manual to be anywhere near its equal, and I think the principal reason is that no other book of its genre affords such an insight into the inner workings of the orchestra: namely, a sense of who the players are.

In the end, an orchestrator is not writing for instruments as much as for instrumentalists. Every instrument in the modern orchestra has its own history and culture, which is preserved in teaching; gaining a sense of what it is to be a violinist, clarinetist or trombonist is essential in learning to write effectively for the orchestra, and I know of no other book that gives as much insight into this as Forsyth. Not only are the history and evolution of each important instrument fully discussed; the technique and even the players’ likes and dislikes vis-à-vis what they must play are gone into fully.

One of the special joys of Forsyth, however, and in this I find nothing else remotely like it, is his witty side. The end of the doublebass article (p. 461) not only makes the reader chuckle, it gives a very good general insight in how not to write for the bass. Forsyth’s articles on obsolete instruments, particularly that on the serpent (p. 286), are replete with quotable zingers. The musical examples (many of them derived, by the way, from those in the Berlioz-Strauss offering of some years earlier) are apposite and (unlike the Berlioz-Strauss) mercifully short and to the point.

A cautionary note: Forsyth’s orchestra is the orchestra of before the First World War. There have been numerous developments in instrumental technique on an individual basis since then; one need not remind the reader of the tremendous growth in the percussion family since that time. But much, or most, of what Forsyth says holds today. Since 1914 two major factors have contributed to keeping the orchestra in (I think) a lamentably steady state—up until then the orchestra evolved and added to its numbers as various new instruments gained in players’ technique enough to be worthy of it—and those are: (1) the First World War itself, which decimated the ranks of orchestral players dramatically (one need only compare the Stravinsky of Le Sacre to that of L’Histoire du Soldat to see what that war did to the instrumental ensemble), and (2) the unions. When the American Federation of Musicians decided on the basic complement of winds, brass and strings in the orchestra, that decision effectively eliminated the slow inclusion of instruments like the saxophone into the ranks (no smart orchestrator will use too many instrumentalists that require time-and-a-half pay) or that of any of the electric instruments that now possess a formidable technical culture. Forsyth fully expected these accretions (after all, the previous history of the orchestra had always been in that direction: for proof of Forsyth’s feelings on the subject see his late addendum on the saxophone on p. 490), and I am sure he would have been disappointed in the ossification of this wonderful ensemble into the historical monument it now is becoming. Gunther Schuller’s famous remarks on the rigidity of the average orchestral musician’s attitude today could very well find cause in the vague sense many of these musicians may have that their ensemble may be fading into the past, and themselves with it. Thus it is in a way sad to remark that little need be added to Forsyth’s great work in order to make it usable today.

No orchestrally minded composer or orchestrator should rely 100% on any book, of course; much of my subsequent experience in learning about instrumental culture has come from buttonholing and badgering players about their own instruments, and in the end this is the only real way to learn orchestration. A few minor points should, however, be mentioned for the student: for one, Forsyth would today have to list the chromatic harp among the obsolete instruments (the technique died with the last living teacher in the Paris Conservatoire, around World War II); for another, the average tenor trombonist now can reach nearly all the pedal tones Forsyth said were impossible; for a third, most saxophones now possess a key, extending the bottom range. Similar adjustments that should be made in understanding the scope of each instrument are best accomplished by asking instrumentalists themselves, as I suggested before, and a general check should be made on the same basis of the differences in instrumental ranges (particularly in keyboard percussion instruments like the xylophone) between Forsyth’s 1914 British orchestra and the American orchestra of today.

With these cautions I feel that Forsyth is still eminently usable and in fact is very likely the best general textbook on orchestration found today, avoiding as it does the encyclopedic cumbersomeness of the Koechlin and Casella multivolume works and at the same time eschewing the workmanlike humdrumness of most current orchestration manuals. For years I have recommended Forsyth to my students, and I am extremely glad that it will be easily obtainable again.

ANN ARBOR, 1982

WILLIAM BOLCOM

PREFACE.

IN this book an attempt is made first, to describe our modern orchestral instruments, where they sprang from, how they developed, and what they are to-day; next, to trace the types of music which have been reflected in these constructional changes and, in especial, the types most familiar since Beethoven’s time. Without some knowledge on these points the student is working in the dark. He is like a Lascar turned loose in a dynamo-house. It is true that one may show him the button, and, if he presses it, he will get a terrific blaze of light. But what is behind the button? How were the wires laid? Why is one type of engine better than another for its own purpose? How is the shop to be run in the most economical way?

All these questions call for answers, and, on the musical side of the analogy, the answers are not difficult to find. For the facts that underlie instrumentation are few and simple: a skin or a metal plate to be beaten; a column of air in a brass or wooden tube with some sort of mouthpiece or embouchure; a string or two—four is a good number—to be bowed, plucked, or struck. These are the essentials and, if the student grasps them, he will soon be brought to see that change comes but slowly and rarely, and that, when it comes, it is more apparent than real. Edward I.’s Rogero le Troumpour¹ sounds very ancient in 1914, but he made exactly the same music for his sovereign at Carnarvon as the cavalry trumpeters now make for George V. at Aldershot. And, even if we leave the Long valley for the more rarefied atmosphere of Queen’s Hall, W., we can only record an additional tube or two each with a mechanical air-switch. This is the point for the practical musician. The old persists in the new and, without an understanding of the weapon itself, we cannot wield it.

It is not necessary to enlarge on these topics here. They are all dealt with as they come up in turn for discussion. The main-lines of study concern the original type of instrument, then its modifications, and last its use in its present-day perfection—or in some cases, one must say, very partial perfection. A good deal of space has been devoted to explaining the String-technique. This is a subject not often studied from the outsider’s point of view. It is, however, well worth undertaking as, apart from its inherent musical and scientific interest, its complex and elaborately expressive methods are apt to baffle the student, especially the student who is a professional pianist. For purposes of reference I have begun with a complete list of orchestral instruments, their compasses, and notations; and ended with an index which is also a digest of the work.

Before concluding this preface I wish to acknowledge my obligations to Sir Charles Stanford. To his encouragement this book owes its existence. And, as an old pupil of his, it is with peculiar pleasure that I try to give back a little where I have received much. I hope he will forgive my zoological dissidences on page 461.

To Messrs Boosey and Co. I am indebted for the illustrations which are, I think, an interesting feature of the book. Besides lending me a number of blocks, Messrs Boosey and Co. have allowed me to make photographs from their collection of ancient instruments. Without this courtesy I might not have been able to include such specimens as the Fipple-Flute, Serpent, Cornett, Keyed-Bugle, and Bass-Ophicleide.

Finally I must offer my warmest thanks to Mr. Frank Bridge for his kindness and long labour in reading my proof-sheets. His wide musical knowledge and invincible accuracy have been invaluable to me.

CECIL FORSYTH.

LONDON, March 7th, 1914.

NOTE TO SECOND EDITION.

IN the second edition a number of mistakes have been corrected. New facts, that have come to light during the past twenty years, have been incorporated in the text, whenever possible. Some of these are to be found, grouped together under the heading Addenda, on page 488. With such a deeply rooted, but flourishing, tree as Orchestration, both soil and air have to be watched. And the natural result of this is a certain variety. Our garden-book must include, not only the antique topic of what the Denners did with their primitive chalumeaux, but also the modern question of what students ought to do with their lively saxophones.

C. F.

¹ See page 41.

CONTENTS.

LIST OF INSTRUMENTS

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS. PRELIMINARY

No.   1.THE SIDE-DRUM

No.   2.THE BASS-DRUM

No.   3.THE TENOR-DRUM

No.   4.THE TABOR

No.   5.THE TAMBOURINE

No.   6.THE TRIANGLE

No.   7.THE CYMBALS

No.   8.THE GONG

No.   9.THE CASTANETS

No. 10.THE RATTLE, THE WIND-MACHINE, AND THE ANVIL

No. 11.THE KETTLE-DRUMS

No. 12.BELLS

No. 13.THE GLOCKENSPIEL

No. 14.THE CELESTA

No. 15.THE DULCITONE (OR TYPOPHONE)

No. 16.THE XYLOPHONE

BRASS INSTRUMENTS. PRELIMINARY

No. 17.THE VALVE-TRUMPET

No. 18.THE BASS-TRUMPET

No. 19.THE CORNET

No. 20.THE VALVE-HORN IN F

THE TROMBONES. PRELIMINARY

No. 21.THE TENOR (OR ) TROMBONE

No. 22.THE ALTO (OR ) TROMBONE

No. 23.THE BASS (OR G) TROMBONE

No. 24.THE DOUBLE-BASS-TROMBONE

No. 25.THE TUBAS

No. 26.THE SAXHORNS AND FLÜGELHORNS

No. 27.THE SAXOPHONES

No. 28.THE SARRUSOPHONES

No. 29.OBSOLETE BRASS-WIND

WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS. PRELIMINARY

No. 30.THE FLUTE

No. 31.THE BASS-FLUTE

No. 32.THE PICCOLO

No. 33.THE OBOE (OR HAUTBOY)

No. 34.THE OBOE D’AMORE

No. 35.THE ENGLISH-HORN

No. 36.RARELY-USED WOOD-WIND

No. 37.THE BASSOON

No. 38.THE DOUBLE-BASSOON

No. 39.THE CLARINET

No. 40.THE BASS-CLARINET

No. 41.THE -CLARINET

No. 42.THE BASSETT-HORN AND THE ALTO-CLARINET

No. 43.THE PEDAL-CLARINET

No. 44.OBSOLETE WOOD-WIND

No. 45.THE CUCKOO-INSTRUMENT

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. PRELIMINARY

No. 46.THE VIOLIN (OR FIDDLE)

No. 47.THE VIOLA (OR TENOR)

No. 48.THE VIOLA D’AMORE

No. 49.THE CELLO

No. 50.THE VIOLA DA GAMBA

No. 51.THE DOUBLE-BASS

No. 52.THE HARP

No. 53.THE CHROMATIC HARP

No. 54.THE MANDOLINE

No. 55.THE GUITAR

No. 56.THE DULCIMER (OR CIMBALOM)

No. 57.THE HIGHLAND BAGPIPE

ADDENDA

APPENDIX. THE PHAGOTUS OF AFRANIO

INDEX

LIST OF PLATES.

ORCHESTRATION

LIST OF INSTRUMENTS.

THE following list is printed here for convenience of reference. The names of the more commonly used instruments are shown in heavy black type. Obsolete instruments¹ are starred thus,— *.

The two semibreve-notes after each instrument give its upward and downward-compass in actual sounds.² Extreme notes are shown in crotchet-heads.

The square note that follows the two compass-notes is the note which we should have to write if we wished the instrument to produce the sound middle-C—

It therefore indicates at a glance whether the instrument is a transposing or a non-transposing instrument and, in the former case, what the transposition is. Thus the square note

appears opposite BASSOON, and shows that if we want the Bassoon to sound middle-C we must actually write that note. In other words, it is a non-transposing instrument. On the other hand, the square note

appears opposite DOUBLE-BASSOON, and shows that if we want that instrument to sound middle-C we must write a note one octave above that sound. In other words it is a transposing instrument, and it sounds an octave lower than its written part.

It is important to notice that the square note is only a symbol which gives the student a ready means of seeing the transposition, that is to say, the method of writing for each instrument. It has nothing to do with the instrument’s compass. The actual sound, middle-C, may or may not exist on the instrument. That can be found out from the two compass-notes.

In the right-hand column the clefs proper to each instrument are given. For fuller information as to their use and as to the extreme compass-notes the student is referred to the technical details under each instrumental heading.

¹ Only recently-obsolete instruments, such as the student may possibly come upon in Full Scores, are marshalled above. Schalmeys, Pommers, Bombards, Curtals, Dulcians, Rebecs, Fipple-flutes, Cromornes, and all the rest of the medieval musical brigade are held in reserve.

² This method of defining the compass of transposing-instruments in actual sounds is strictly confined to this preliminary list. Throughout the rest of the book the method of mentioning only the written notes of the transposing-instruments is adopted. The transposition into actual sound is always understood. This is the plan customary with all orchestral and military-band musicians.

³ In all the Saxophones the crotchet-head semitone below the lowest compass-note gives the sound which is produced by using the -Key. This extension-key is not in general use in England. See pages 167–8.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS.

ORCHESTRAL instruments are, as a rule, grouped together under the four headings Percussion, Brass, Wood, and Strings. This rough-and-ready arrangement is perhaps quite as good as any other for use in a book mainly devoted to the artistic and historical aspects of Instrumentation. It is, however, by no means a scientific classification.

In the first place, the four groups are not mutually exclusive. A Stringed Instrument, such as the Dulcimer or the Pianoforte, in which the sound is produced by means of percussion, can be classed in either the first or the last group. In the next place, certain Brass Instruments have all the characteristics of the Wood-Wind, except the actual material of which their tubes are made. For instance, the Saxophone is played with a single-beating-reed, very much like that of the Clarinet. It differs from that instrument principally in the fact that its tube is conical, not cylindrical, and made of brass, not of wood. Then, again, we find wooden instruments whose method of tone-production is practically the same as that used on most Brass Instruments. For instance, the obsolete Serpent was played with a big cup-mouthpiece somewhat like that of our modern Tubas. It was, however, always made of wood.¹

Furthermore, if any one fact is certain with regard to the Wind Instruments, it is that the material of which their tubes are made has very little, if anything, to do with their tone-quality. That seems to depend partly on the bore, shape, and proportions of the tube which contains the air-column, but chiefly on what we may call the mouth-piece.² Now, it is quite obvious that if we adopt the rough classification of Percussion, Brass, Wood, and Strings, we must be prepared to place such an instrument as the Saxophone arbitrarily under the heading Brass simply because of the material of its tube. That plan has its advantages. It serves as a mnemonic, and it does not preclude a description of the technical differences of the instrument from the Wood-Wind on the one hand, and from the Brass-Wind on the other. The student must, however, bear in mind that this is merely a matter of convenience in arrangement. It carries us no distance at all in the direction of a scientific classification.

It need scarcely be said that History gives us very little help in this respect. Its records are too obscure and confused. We may make a guess that the Kaffir’s one-stringed banjo—perhaps first suggested by the thrumming of the hand on the bow-string—was merely the third and last addition to a musical equipment which had served the needs and fulfilled the aspirations of mankind for hundreds or even thousands of years.

Earlier still than this we may imagine man as just emerging from his state of savagery, but emerging with a new and wonderful craving for something more than mere rhythm, a craving which may have been first satisfied by means of a hard blade of grass held between his two thumbs.

Finally, we may suppose a time at the beginning of things when the naked savage squatted down on his native mud, his mind half entranced, passive and vacant to every influence of the wild, but still with a thirst in his nature which could only be quenched by the endless drum-drum-drum of his knuckles on the black earth. Beyond this we can imagine nothing but the animal.

These are, however, only guesses. The order in which we have placed them has been hotly contested, and we have nothing but probabilities on which to found our judgment. We should naturally suppose that musical art began with the least complex and most fundamental thing in human nature, the purely rhythmic. That seems fairly certain. The percussive is at the bottom of all things. But it is quite uncertain what we are to put next. It may be the seven oaten straws³ of the shepherd boy or the stretched string which found its final glory in the Apollo Citharoedus of Greece and the lovely plaything of Cremona.

Nor does it matter much. The array of instruments—ancient, mediæval, and modern—is so bewildering in its variety that historical classification would be out of the question, except in a book specially devoted to that subject. A classification, however, is necessary, and this is only to be found by neglecting the unessential in the instrument. In other words, we must leave out of account its varied forms and the materials of which it is constructed. We must strip it of the complex mass of silver-smithery and brass-smithery in which it is nowadays often embedded. We must come down to essentials.

Now, the essential thing in music is the Series of Vibrations in the air. Until these are set up we can have neither the noise caused by irregular vibrations nor the musical sound caused by regular vibrations. Fortunately, almost all orchestral instruments produce musical sounds. A few, however, produce only noise. We must make our classification so as to include both these groups. It must be of the simplest possible nature, and must give us only the primary methods by which the vibrations can be mechanically set up in the air. We can then subdivide these classes by indicating either fundamental distinctions in the matter of tone-production or integral differences of shape. In more concrete language we can show, in the Strings,⁴ the various methods by which the strings are set in motion. In the Wind, we can study the effects caused by the varying proportions of the tubes which contain the air-columns and by the different methods of tone-production.

Now all sounds, whether musical or unmusical, are merely sense impressions caused by longitudinal air-waves⁵ of varying shapes and sizes. These air-waves, as far as the art of orchestration goes, are set up in one of three ways:

(1) By the beating of elastic surfaces which are in contact with the air;

(2) By the regular breaking up of air-columns enclosed either in tubes of metal or in pipes of wood;

(3) By the setting in motion of stretched strings which are in contact with the air.

All orchestral instruments are included under this primary classification. We may label the three classes Percussion, Wind, and Strings respectively.

(1) PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS.⁶

In the case of the first group, no further subdivision is scientifically necessary. The only subdivision that could be made would depend on the varying degree of elasticity in the beaten surfaces. An artistic subdivision, however, will be made into

(a) Those which produce noise but not musical sounds of a definite pitch;

(b) Those which produce sounds of definite musical pitch.

(2) WIND INSTRUMENTS.

The second group includes what are commonly known as the Brass- and Wood-Wind. In the case of all these instruments, the air column is contained either in a conical or a cylindrical tube or pipe. As we have already mentioned, this air-column has to be regularly broken up before it can produce a musical sound. It is not sufficient merely to blow through one end of the tube or pipe and allow the air to run out at the other. The air-column must be forced to vibrate evenly. This can be done in several ways.

First Method.

By simply blowing across the open end of the pipe, so that the breath strikes the rim. Instruments played in this way are known as Pipes with neither embouchure nor mouthpiece. The only re presentative of this subdivision is the Syrinx. No orchestral instruments are blown in this manner. The method has been found too imperfect to allow of musical development. The ancient "Syrinx"⁷ of the early Hellenic civilization is exactly the same instrument as the modern "Pan’s Pipes" of the Punch-and-Judy showman.

Second Method.

The second method of setting the air-column in vibration is to direct a stream of wind from the lips across a circular hole bored in the pipe. The wind-stream or air-reed strikes the sharp edge of the hole on the side furthest from the players mouth. Instruments played in this way may be classed as Pipes without mouthpiece, but with embouchure. The whole family of Flutes ⁸ belongs to this subdivision.

Third Method.

In the third method a beak- or whistle-mouthpiece is used. The air-reed is directed through this mouthpiece against the sharp edge of a bevel cut in the side of the pipe. Instruments played in this way are known as Pipes with Whistle-mouthpiece. No orchestral instruments are included in this group. The (orchestrally) obsolete Flageolet is the best-known member of the family. But in ancient days a great many instruments were played in this manner. The most familiar of these were the groups of Recorders and of Beak- or Fipple-Flutes. It must be added that the Flue-Work of the Modern Organ comes strictly into this subdivision.

Fourth Method.

In the fourth method a flexible reed is used. This may be (a) a single-reed, or (b) a double-reed.

(a) If it is a single-reed, it may be either what is known as a single-beating-reed or a free-single-reed. All orchestral singlereed instruments are blown with a beating-reed. This is so arranged that, when set in motion by the player’s breath, it beats against the table at the upper end of the pipe, rapidly opening and closing the aperture. The families of Clarinets and Saxophones belong to this subdivision, and the subdivision is generally known as one of Pipes with reed-moutlipieces. In the case of the reed-pipes of the Organ the action is very much the same as that described above, but the reed itself is simply a strip of flexible metal.

The free-single-reed is not used in any orchestral instrument. In fact, the only instrument in which it has been put to practical use is the Harmonium. In this instrument the metal reeds are set in a series of apertures into which they just fit. Sufficient freedom is, however, left for them to vibrate to and fro. The amount of play is so adjusted that, while the reed can actually vibrate, it practically closes and opens the aperture at each vibration. It is thus able to communicate the vibratory motion to the enclosed air-space.⁹

In the ancient Regal—a small Positive as opposed to a Portative Organ—the stops were originally reed-stops. The reeds employed were much like those of the Clarinet and Saxophone, single-beating-reeds. However, like those of the Organ, they were made of metal, not of cane. Scientifically they were quite distinct from the free-single-reeds of the Harmonium.¹⁰

(b) In the case of the double-reed, two flexible pieces of cane are bound vis-à-vis in this shape (). The aperture between the upper-ends of the two canes is extremely small. The player takes the double-reed between his lips, and, by the pressure of his lips and breath, forces it to vibrate. At each vibration, the narrow aperture between the two canes is alternately opened and closed. This, the second section of the subdivision, Pipes with reed-mouthpieces, is represented by the ancient Schalmeys and Pommers and the modern Oboe and Bassoon families.

The two kinds of Wood-Wind instrument with which we have been dealing, viz. those played with single-beating-reeds and those played with double-reeds, may be conveniently distinguished according to the bore of their pipes, as

(a) Cylindrical pipes...(The single-beating-reed Clarinet group).

(b) Conical pipes........(The double-reed Oboe and Bassoon group).

This difference in the proportions of the pipes is of fundamental importance in the technique of the reed instruments. The matter will be explained more fully in a later portion of the book,¹¹ but meanwhile it may be briefly stated that in (a), cylindrical pipes, the fundamental scale can be reproduced (or overblown) by the player at the interval of a twelfth higher. In (b), conical pipes, the fundamental scale can be reproduced at an interval of an octave higher. This reproduction is effected by means of an increased pressure of the lips and breath, helped in some cases by the opening of certain holes specially bored for that purpose in the pipe itself.

It is important to notice that the Saxophones, though akin to the Clarinets in that they both make use of single-beating-reeds, are not cylindrical, but conical instruments. Their technique, therefore, as opposed to their tone-production, is totally distinct from that of the Clarinets. A correct classification, according to mere tone-production, would group the following instruments together:

(1) Single-beating-reeds...The Clarinets. The Saxophones.

(2) Double-reeds........The Oboes and Bassoons.

A much more scientific classification would, however, be based on the fundamental nature of the instruments; that is to say, on the shapes of their pipes and tubes. We should then group them as follows:

(1) Cylindrical pipes with single-beating-reeds...The Clarinet family.

(2) Conical pipes¹² with single-beating-reeds.....The Saxophone family,

(3) Conical pipes with double-reeds The Oboe and Bassoon families.

Before passing on to the description of the fifth method by which the air-column can be set in vibration, the student should notice that we have already included ALL the methods employed by the modern Wood-Wind. Two obsolete instruments, however, the Zinke (or Cornet à bouquin) and the Serpent, must be mentioned. The first of these was used as the ordinary treble of the Trombone family. It was originally made, as its French name suggests, of a ram’s horn. Afterwards other materials, such as ivory, bone, and wood, were employed. The Serpent, again, was usually associated with the Brass in performance. It was, however, actually made of wood. Both these instruments had a conical-bore and their scales were produced by means of holes pierced laterally. The method of tone-production was, however, quite distinct from that of any Wood-Wind instrument which we have hitherto described. It was, in fact, the cup-mouthpiece-system familiar to us to-day through its universal use on all the heavy Valved-Brass. The student must, however, remember that this association of the cup-mouthpiece with the heavy Brass is, so to speak, only an accident. As we have already pointed out, the material of which the tube is constructed matters very little. The method of tone-production is of the first importance.

Fifth Method.

The fifth method by which the air-column can be set in vibration is, as we have stated, the method now employed by all the Orchestral and Military Brass. A mouthpiece—almost always of metal¹³—is placed at the upper end of the tube. This mouthpiece is either cupshaped, funnel-shaped, or a mixture of the two. The player’s lips stretch across the mouthpiece and themselves act as the vibrating reeds. The shape of the mouthpiece, especially the shape of its lower portion, is the main determining factor in the tone-quality of the instrument.¹⁴ The shallower the cup the more brilliant the tone.¹⁵ The shallow cup is characteristic of the Trumpet: the broad deep cup of the modern "Tubas" On the other hand, the funnel-shaped mouthpiece is used for the Horns. To this they owe their warmer and less incisive tone colour. A hybrid cup-and-funnel-shaped mouthpiece is used for the Bugle.

The group which employs this, the fifth method of tone-production, includes all the Brass, ancient as well as modern, as well as the obsolete Zinke and the Serpent. It might of course be subdivided according to the shape of mouthpiece used. Such a subdivision, however, would be like that of the Single- and Double-Reeds merely one of tone-colour. It is better, as in the former case, to base the subdivision on the integral characteristics of the tubes themselves. As these tubes, whether they are conical or cylindrical, all produce the same series of notes,¹⁶ we can make our subdivision depend solely on the natural methods of each instrument for altering the length of its air-column. The subdivision will then take the following form:

(1) Tubes of fixed length, which can therefore only produce a single series of notes at a time. The best examples are the Natural Trumpet, the Natural Horn, and the Military Bugle.¹⁷

(2) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of holes pierced laterally. The best examples are the Keyed-Bugle, the family of Ophicleides, and the Russian Bassoon.¹⁸ All of these instruments were made of brass and are now obsolete.

(3) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of Valves, or Pistons. The best examples are the Valve-Trumpets, the Cornets, the Valve-Horns, the Saxhorns, the Flügel-horns, the Valve-Trombones, and the modern Tubas¹⁹ As will be explained later,²⁰ all these instruments are again divisible into what are called "Whole-tube" and "Half-tube" instruments.

(4) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of slides. The only instruments of this subdivision in general use are the Trombones.

(3) STRINGED INSTRUMENTS.

We now come to the third group of instruments in our elementary classification. This is the group which sets up vibrations in the air by means of stretched strings. Orchestrally, it is the most complex group and the one that demands the greatest attention from the student. However, from our present purely scientific point of view, it is remarkably simple, and may be easily explained in a few sentences. In every case the stretched strings are of course in contact with the air. They cannot set the air in vibration until they themselves are first put in motion. The only subdivision possible is therefore based on the methods by which the player excites the strings. These methods are three in number.

First Method.

By plucking. In these instruments either the, finger is used (as in the Harp or Guitar), or a plectrum (as in the Mandoline).²¹

Second Method.

By striking. In these instruments a hammer, or a series of hammers, is employed. The Dulcimer and the Pianoforte are the most familiar examples of this method

Third Method.

By contact with a prepared moving surface. In these instruments either a horse-hair bow is used (as in the Violin family), or a wheel- and-handle mechanism (as in the ancient Organistrum and the modern Hurdy-Gurdy).

We shall now take the four groups of orchestral instruments, beginning with the simplest, the Percussion, and going on through the Brass and the Wood-Wind to the most complex, the Strings. A short preliminary chapter of a general character will be placed before each of these sections. In this chapter the common historical development of the Instrumental group will, whenever possible, be traced. This is not, however, always feasible. It can be done in the case of the Brass instruments and the Violin family. For, though there are exceptions in the general technical development of both these Instrumental groups, these exceptions can easily be explained and brought into line with the rest of the history. For instance, in the Brass the general course of progress has been from the Natural outdoor instrument through the era of crooks to the period of valves. The Trombone family is the chief exception. But the Trombones obey just the same physical laws as the other Brass Instruments in the production of their Harmonics. The slide mechanism is their main differentiating feature. In a preliminary sketch, therefore, they can quite well be treated in company with the Trumpets and Horns.

In the Wood-Wind department, it is scarcely possible to group together these details of technical development. The individual instruments differ so much in the shapes of their pipes and their methods of tone-production that it is better to deal with these points under each instrumental heading.

In any case, only a very brief historical sketch is given. Just sufficient information is supplied to enable the student to understand clearly the origin of the instrument and the principal changes which it has undergone in construction and treatment. Composers too-often look upon orchestral instruments as cleverly manufactured toys springing from nowhere. Most of these instruments, however, have a very respectable family history. And this family history should be of interest, because, in almost every case, the modern instrument, under all its paraphernalia of rings, bolts, and bars, preserves intact the distinctive characteristics of its ancient progenitor. A seventeenth century Horn-player, if we could resuscitate him, would probably be considerably astonished at the Horn-playing which he would hear at a present-day Symphony-concert. But if he were a good Horn-player, it would not be many weeks before he would be quite competent to make one in the orchestral quartet.

Under the separate instrumental headings, such as Violin, Oboe, and so on, the student will find precise technical details and examples of the orchestral use of the instrument. The technical details, especially in the case of shakes and tremolos, have been presented within the smallest possible space. When printed in extenso, they are often enough to make a fair-sized book. Whenever possible, they have been cut down either to a general formula or to the shortest possible list of what is practicable or impracticable, as the case may be. In this way, they can often be reduced to the limits of a few notes.

Some discretion has been used both in quoting and in compressing modern Full Scores. These, again, take up an enormous amount of space. As a rule unessential parts of the Score have been omitted, but these omissions are always clearly pointed out, either in the text or in a foot-note. A certain number of examples have to be selected solely to illustrate the technical capabilities and limitations of the various instruments. But in general an eye has been kept on their artistic value, from the point of view of Scoring. No apology need be made for referring over and over again to some of these quotations

¹ Gevaert actually classes the Serpent as a Brass Instrument played with keys

² See below, page 286.

³ The Syrinx

⁴ Throughout this book the words "Strings, Brass, Wood, are printed with a capital initial when they are used in the orchestral sense of Stringed instruments, Brass instruments Wood instruments. Without the capital letter, they have their ordinary meaning. The word Bass," too, is used throughout with a capital in the sense of the instrument, the Double-Bass.

⁵ In air and in liquids the disturbance is always lengthwise. In solids, such as a rope, we can produce a transverse wave by means of a jerk. See Sound, by Professor Poynting, in Encyc. Brit., xi. Ed.

⁶ For further details, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted to Percussion Instruments, page 22. The whole classification in the present chapter is intended merely as an exact groundwork. The names of many instruments, especially obsolete instruments, have been omitted here as only likely to confuse the student. In every case the information should be supplemented by a reference to the more detailed study prefixed to each instrumental section—Percussion, Brass, Wood, and Strings.

⁷ Gevaert classes the Syrinx, the Bagpipes, and the Organ together, on the ground that each consists of a number of pipes of different lengths, emitting notes of different pitch. He calls them Polyphonic Wind Instruments, and even suggests that the addition of the air-reservoir in the Bagpipes was the first improvement on the Syrinx. The method of tone-production in the three instruments is, however, totally distinct.

⁸ Sometimes called Cross-Flutes or Flauti Traversi. For further details on this subdivision and on the next two subdivisions, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted to Wood-Wind Instruments, page 177.

⁹ A special Percussion apparatus is also used in the Harmonium to remedy its slowness of speech. At the moment chat the air-stream is directed on to the reed a tiny hammer taps it into action.

¹⁰ For the sake of completeness the Jews’ Harp must be mentioned. In this instrument the air-vibrations are set up by means of a single tongue of flexible metal. The air-space inside the mouth is the resonating-cavity. The shape and size of this cavity are altered by the muscles of the cheeks so as to reinforce the various Harmonics already present in the vibrating metal-tongue. A certain additional prominence can thus be given to any desired note in the Harmonic Series.

¹¹ See page 178.

¹² The Saxophones are actually made of brass. The words tube and pipe are used consistently to distinguish the Brass- from the Wood-Wind. This is, however, merely a mnemonic. It has no importance as a scientific distinction. As we have already said, the material of the tube or pipe is of no consequence.

¹³ Ivory and bone were often used. Even at the present-day ivory mouthpieces are occasionally employed by Tuba-players.

¹⁴ See page 90 for fuller details on this point.

¹⁵ Gevaert.

¹⁶ See pages 72–3.

¹⁷ For fuller details, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted to Brass Instruments.

¹⁸ The Russian Bassoon and the Bass-Horn were transition-instruments between the Serpent and the Ophicleides. The student should group together in his mind these six instruments of the Cup-mouthpiece and laterally-pierced type in their historical order,— the Zinke, the Serpent, the Russian Bassoon, the Bass-Horn, the Ophicleide, and the Keyed-Bugle. Of these, all but the first two were made of brass.

¹⁹ For a description of the so-called Wagner Tubas see page 151 et seqq.

²⁰ See page 86.

²¹ For further details, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted tc Stringed Instruments, page 290.

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS.

PRELIMINARY.

A NUMBER of instruments with different mechanical methods of tone-production and of widely varying musical effect must be grouped together under the heading Percussion or Struck Instruments. They all have this in common however, that, in playing them, the performer sets up vibrations by beating elastic and semi-elastic surfaces which are in contact with the air.

Gevaert subdivides these Percussion Instruments into

(1) Autophonic Instruments.

(2) Membrane Instruments.

In the former he says the tone is produced by the vibration of solid (metallic or wooden) bodies, of a nature sufficiently elastic to be capable of keeping up the vibratory motion imparted to them, usually by percussion. They include

(a)Instruments of definite pitch, such as Bells, Glockenspiel, and Celesta.

(b)Instruments of indefinite pitch, such as Triangle, Cymbals, Gong, Castanets, and so on.

The Membrane Instruments are, in a word, the Drums. They include

(a)Instruments of definite pitch, such as the Kettle-Drums.

(b)Instruments of indefinite pitch, such as the Side-Drum, Bass-Drum, Tenor-Drum, and Tambourine.

This subdivision of the Percussion into Autophonic and Membrane Instruments depends for its logic solely on the degree of elasticity in the struck surface. It seems to be based rather on musical than on scientific considerations. We shall therefore content ourselves by classing all the elastic and semi-elastic beaten surfaces together as Percussion Instruments. However, a musical subdivision of the whole group must be made. This is not difficult. In some of these instruments the vibrations in the elastic material set up irregular vibrations in the air. These are the "Unmusical Percussion Instruments. Others set up regular vibrations. These are the Musical Percussion Instruments." The former produce noise, but not sounds of definite musical pitch. The latter produce sounds of definite musical pitch.

UNMUSICAL PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS.

(1)Side-Drum.

(2)Bass-Drum.

(3)Tenor-Drum.

(4)Tabor.

(5)Tambourine.

(6)Triangle.

(7)Cymbals.

(8)Gong.

(9)Castanets.

(10)Special-effect Instruments such as the Rattle, the Wind-machine, and the Anvil.¹

MUSICAL PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS.

(11)Kettle-Drums.

(12)Bells.

(13)Glockenspiel.

(14)Celesta.

(15)Dulcitone (Typophone).

(16)Xylophone.

NOTE.—In two other instruments—the Hungarian Cimbalom (or Dulcimer) and the Pianoforte—the sound is produced by means of the percussion of stretched strings by hammers. In the Cimbalom the hammers are directly under the control of the player. In the Pianoforte there is an intervening mechanism between the player’s hand and the strings. In strictness these two instruments belong both to the "Musical Percussion group and to the String group. However, our present rough orchestral classification is one of Percussion, Brass, Wood, and Strings. It will therefore be more convenient and more satisfactory from the musical point of view if these two instruments are excluded from the list of Percussion Instruments and dealt with under the heading Stringed Instruments."

We shall now briefly describe the 16 instruments in the above list. Sufficient detail will be given to furnish the student with an adequate knowledge of their mechanism and their compass,—if any. Very few musical examples, however, will be included in this section. There is no very great urgency for special quotations to illustrate the use of Percussion Instruments. But references will be found under each instrument to such examples of its use as are scattered through the book.

No. 1. The Side-Drum.

Fr. Tambour (militaire) or Caisse claire; It. Tamburo militare; Ger. Kleine Trommel.

This, the smallest orchestral drum,² is cylindrical in shape. The shell is made of brass. At each end of the shell is a parchment head, that is to say, a circular sheet of prepared sheep-skin. The parchment heads are lapped over small hoops, which are themselves pressed down and held in place by means of larger hoops. An arrangement of brass rods and screws or of cords and leathers keeps the heads taut. The upper head—that on which the player beats—is called the "batter-head": the lower, the snare-head.

Underneath the snare-head—that is to say, at a distance of two parchments and a layer of air from the place where the drum-sticks hit the batter-head—are the snares. These are thin pieces, or a single long thin piece, of catgut, not unlike a rough Violin-string. They are stretched to and fro across the snare-head, from a nut on the one side to a screw-hook on the other. The number of snares varies according to the player’s taste. They may be only two or three, or as many as a dozen. It is found, however, that the most brilliant effect is to be obtained with a fairly large number of snares. However many are used, it is essential that they should be screwed tight down into close contact with the snare-head.

Two sticks are used. These are made of hard wood, with a small olive-shaped knob at the end. When the player attacks the batter-head its vibrations set up waves in the air which is contained in the shell. These waves are communicated to the snare-head, and so to the snares themselves. The immediate effect is to alter the character of the air-waves and to double the number of the vibrations. The explanation of this doubling seems to be that the snares continually impinge on the parchment, and so set up a constant series of points of nodal contact. In this way the pitch of the snared drum appears to be about an octave higher than that of the same instrument when unsnared. The student should note that it is on these snares that the peculiar quality and brilliance of the Side-Drum depend.

Side-Drum playing is an art in itself, and a very difficult art to acquire. It differs from all other Percussion Instruments in that its technique is founded not on a single stroke, but on double alternate strokes with each hand. Thus, in the Long-roll or Daddy-Mammy, the player strikes the batter-head not Left-Right-Left-Right, but LL–RR–LL–RR. In each pair of strokes the latter becomes, by incessant practice, a sort of controlled rebound stroke.

A word must be said with regard to the notation of the roll. Two methods are in use, one inaccurate and the other accurate. The inaccurate way is to write out the length of notes required, and to add semiquaver or demisemiquaver strokes, thus,—

This is bad; first of all, because, however many strokes are used, it does not represent the sounds correctly: second, because it sometimes leaves a doubt as to whether the final note should be detached or not. Besides that, the inaccurate way is also the most tiresome to write.

The accurate way to indicate a roll on any percussion instrument is to write out the length of notes required, slur them to each other for as long as the roll continues, and add an unbroken trill line to the whole, thus,—

Do not write it in this way,—

as it looks like a fresh attack on each bar. If you do not wish a detached stroke at the end, slur right on to the last note. If you do wish it, omit the last slur and see that the comes short of the last note. If you wish a specially strong accent on the last or any other beat, omit the previous slur and mark the accent in the ordinary way, thus,—>.

The above remarks apply generally to all the instruments of the Drum family and will not be repeated. Note, however, that in Side-Drum parts it is practically always necessary to write a detached note on which to finish the roll. The sudden cessation of the roll, except in the faintest pianissimo, sounds untidy and does not suit the genius of the instrument. Even if there are musical reasons for not wishing the sound to continue for the extra quaver, it is still better to write the finishing note to the roll. In this case, put it back a quaver or a crotchet, according to the rhythm of the piece.

In a very long roll, it is not absolutely necessary to add slurs to all the notes. The drummer will not be tempted to make a fresh attack provided the sign is continued. If you actually want a fresh attack anywhere, end the roll with a detached quaver or semiquaver, followed by a rest. Then begin a new roll.

In addition to the roll there are two other strokes commonly used on the Side-Drum. These are

(1) The Flam.

(2) The Drag.

The Flam consists merely of two notes in this rhythm .

When the first note is on the accented beat of the music it is called an open flam.

When the second note is on the accented beat it is called a closed flam.

The Drag is a series of two, three, four, five, or six strokes fused into a sort of instantaneous roll, and preceding an accented note, thus

The Paradiddle is not really a rhythm, as is often supposed, but a method of arranging the strokes of a rhythm so as to secure an alternate left-handed and right-handed attack on successive principal beats. Thus, if the following simple rhythm occurred in one single bar only of a Side-Drum part, the player would probably perform it,—| L–R–L–R–L–R–L–R | But if the eight-quaver rhythm were persistent through many bars he would probably play it as a paradiddle, so that the attack of any two successive bars would read thus,—| L–R–L–L, R–L–R–R | L–R–L–L, R–L–R–R | In this way he would keep his attention on the alternation of Left and Right, and so secure a stronger rhythmic impulse.

Side-Drum parts are written either on a single line or, conventionally, on a stave in the treble-clef. If the part is combined with any other, such as that of the Bass-Drum, the tails of the Side-Drum part should all be turned upwards, its entry clearly marked with the letters S.D., and its exit with a rest.

The quality of the Side-Drum is hard, dry, and bright, with something perky, obstinate, and combative about it. In the Theatre it has been in continual use since the time of Meyerbeer and Rossini. The opportunities for its employment in Concert-music are fewer. In pieces where some strong characterization is wanted, or where it is desired to call up by association the ideas of war, or of the bustle of military preparation, its use may be appropriate. But even here, unless it is merely intended to keep up a sort of frenzied excitement, the composer must remember that when once he has shot his bolt with it there is nothing left to be done. Like almost all the other Percussion Instruments its principal effect is it entry.

EXAMPLE 1.

In writing Side-Drum parts, remember

(1) That you will always have a tendency to write too few, not too many notes.

(2) That the genius of the instrument is totally opposed to single detached notes. In fact, they should never be written.

(3) That the drag and the flam are only technical ways of accenting effectively a single beat.

(4) That practically any rhythmic combinations which you can think can be made intelligible on the instrument.

(5) That the long-roll continued either for a few beats or for many bars is equally effective p or f, but that its crescendo cannot be spread out over so many bars as that of the Kettle-Drums.

(6) That, in orchestral work at any rate, the composer should write out in full the notes which he wants played. In military bands this is matter partly of tradition, partly of the Drum-major’s discretion.

Like the other Drums, the Side-Drum can be muffled. The essential part of the muffling is