Viperidae

We studied beneficial difference of the skin of two snakes. Two snakes were chosen from two different habitats and two families: Colubridae (Natrix tessellata) and Viperidae (Cerastes vipera). The investigations were performed by light and electron microscopy. Histologically, the skin of the studied species show pronounced modifications that correlated with functional demands. The scales in Natrix tessellata overlapped slightly, while in Cerastes vipera they were highly overlapped. SEM shows that scales of Natrix tessellata had bidentate tips while the scales of Cerastes vipera were keeled. Histochemically, in both studied species, melanocytes and collagenous fibres were distributed throughout the dermis. Polysaccharides were highly concentrated in the epidermis and dermis of both species while proteins were highly concentrated only in the epidermis. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that the skin of both snakes consisted of keratins located in the epidermis. Some lipids and mucus were incorporated into the outer scale surfaces such that lipids were part of the fully keratinised hard layer of the snakes' skins. Lipids are probably responsible for limiting water loss and ion movements across the skin. Melanosomes from epidermal melanocytes were present only in Cerastes vipera. In aggregate, these results indicate that snakeskin may provide an ecological indicator whereby epidermal and integumentary specializations may be ecologically correlated.

The efficacies of specific Bothrops atrox-Lachesis and standard Bothrops-Lachesis antivenoms were compared in the north eastern Amazon region of Brazil. The main aim was to investigate whether a specific antivenom raised against the venom of B. atrox, the most important Amazon snake species from a medical point of view, was necessary for the treatment of patients in this region. Seventy-four patients with local and systemic effects of envenoming by Bothrops or Lachesis snakes were randomly allocated to receive either specific (n = 38) or standard (n = 36) antivenoms. In 46 cases (24 in the standard antivenom group, 22 in the other) the snake was identified either by enzyme immunoassay or by examination of the dead snake, as B. atrox in 45, L. muta in one. Patients were similar in all clinical and epidemiological respects before treatment. Results indicated that both antivenoms were equally effective in reversing all signs of envenoming detected both clinically and in the laboratory. Venom-induced haemostatic abnormalities were resolved within 24 h after the Clinical trial of two antivenoms for the treatment of Bothrops and Lachesis bites 29 start of antivenom therapy in most patients. The extent of local complications, such as local skin necrosis and secondary infection, was similar in both groups. There were no deaths. The incidence of early anaphylactic reactions was 18% and 19%, respectively for specific and standard antivenoms; none was life-threatening. Measurement of serum venom concentrations by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) confirmed that both antivenoms cleared venom antigenaemia effectively. EIA also revealed that one patient had been bitten by Lachesis muta, although the clinical features in this case were not distinctive.

Study objectives: We seek to determine the short-term outcomes associated with the use of Crotalidae polyvalent immune Fab (ovine) (CroFab; FabAV) therapy for severe crotaline snake envenomation and to better define the incidence of hypersensitivity reactions associated with FabAV use.

Background: Envenomation by crotaline snakes (rattlesnake, cottonmouth, copperhead) is a complex, potentially lethal condition affecting thousands of people in the United States each year. Treatment of crotaline envenomation is not standardized, and significant variation in practice exists. Methods: A geographically diverse panel of experts was convened for the purpose of deriving an evidenceinformed unified treatment algorithm. Research staff analyzed the extant medical literature and performed targeted analyses of existing databases to inform specific clinical decisions. A trained external facilitator used modified Delphi and structured consensus methodology to achieve consensus on the final treatment algorithm. Results: A unified treatment algorithm was produced and endorsed by all nine expert panel members. This algorithm provides guidance about clinical and laboratory observations, indications for and dosing of antivenom, adjunctive therapies, post-stabilization care, and management of complications from envenomation and therapy. Conclusions: Clinical manifestations and ideal treatment of crotaline snakebite differ greatly, and can result in severe complications. Using a modified Delphi method, we provide evidence-informed treatment guidelines in an attempt to reduce variation in care and possibly improve clinical outcomes.

Background: Envenomation by crotaline snakes (rattlesnake, cottonmouth, copperhead) is a complex, potentially lethal condition affecting thousands of people in the United States each year. Treatment of crotaline envenomation is not standardized, and significant variation in practice exists.

Snake venom peptidomes are valuable sources of pharmacologically active compounds. We analyzed the peptidic fractions (peptides with molecular masses o 10 000 Da) of venoms of Vipera ammodytes meridionalis (Viperinae), the most toxic snake in Europe, and Bothrops jararacussu (Crotalinae), an extremely poisonous snake of South America. Liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS), direct infusion electrospray mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and matrix-assisted desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) were applied to characterize the peptides of both snake venoms. 32 bradykinin-potentiating peptides (BPPs) were identified in the Crotalinae venom and their sequences determined. 3 metalloproteinase inhibitors, 10 BPPs and a Kunitz-type inhibitor were observed in the Viperinae venom peptidome. Variability in the C-terminus of homologous BPPs was observed, which can influence the pharmacological effects. The data obtained so far show a subfamily specificity of the venom peptidome in the Viperidae family: BPPs are the major peptide component of the Crotalinae venom peptidome lacking Kunitz-type inhibitors (with one exception) while the Viperinae venom, in addition to BPPs, can contain peptides of the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor family. We found indications for a post-translational phosphorylation of serine residues in Bothrops jararacussu venom BPP ( À SQGLPPGPPIP), which could be a regulatory mechanism in their interactions with ACE, and might influence the hypotensive effect. Homology between venom BPPs from Viperidae snakes and venom natriuretic peptide precursors from Elapidae snakes suggests a structural similarity between the respective peptides from the peptidomes of both snake families. The results demonstrate that the venoms of both snakes are rich sources of peptides influencing important physiological systems such as blood pressure regulation and hemostasis. The data can be used for pharmacological and medical applications.

We investigated the putative toxins of Philodryas olfersii (Colubridae), a representative of a family of snakes neglected in venom studies despite their growing medical importance. Transcriptomic data of the venom gland complemented by proteomic analysis of the gland secretion revealed the presence of major toxin classes from the Viperidae family, including serine proteases, metalloproteases, C-type lectins, Crisps, and a C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP). Interestingly, the phylogenetic analysis of the CNP precursor showed it as a linker between two related precursors found in Viperidae and Elapidae snakes. We suggest that these precursors constitute a monophyletic group derived from the vertebrate CNPs.

Aim: Snake bite causes a significant number of mortality and morbidity throughout the world. So, the current study was carried out to estimate the extinct of damage caused by intraperitoneal introduction of cobra venom on kidney, lung and intestinal tissues of mice model using histological technique. Place and Duration of Study: The entire study including the treatment along with preparing histological slide was conducted in protein science laboratory, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh between December 2013 to July 2014. Methods: Twenty five mature female albino mice were divided mainly into two groups as control and envenomated group. Lyophilized Naja naja venom was dissolved in 0.9% NaCl solution and injected intraperitoneally into the mice of the envenomated group at dosages equivalent to LD 50 Reza et al.; BBJ, 6(3): 119-125, 2015; Article no.BBJ.2015.034 120 (0.25 mg/kg). Whereas the animals from control group were not received any venomous component. Both groups of animal were sacrificed for histological study and visualized under light microscope. Results: Injection of cobra venom induced a range of histological changes in all envenomated mice comparing with their control. Results from the histopathological examination showed mainly inflammatory cellular infiltration, vacuolation in renal tubules, shrinking of glomeruli, raising space between the walls of Bowman's capsule in renal tissue and alveolar haemorrhage, inflammatory cellular infiltration and edema in pulmonary tissue. No significant histopathological alterations in intestinal tissue were observed without infiltration and mild hemorrhage.

Review of the human-snake conflict in Mexico: origin, mitigation and perspectives. The conflict between humans and snakes has existed since unmemorable times. Fear of and aversion towards these animals may have an evolutionary explanation and may be justified because venomous and deadly snakes cause thousands of deaths around the world each year. Furthermore, social perception, the media, myths, and even religion, increase and feed this fear, resulting in the intentional slaughter of snakes being a common practice in many places. As Mexico is a mega-diverse country with more species of snakes than any other country, it faces a particularly difficult situation with regard to snake bites. Here we revise this human-snake conflict from different perspectives in order to better understand it, to propose possible solutions to reduce it, and to contribute towards snake conservation.

A fragmentary isolated vertebra from the early Pliocene of Megalo Emvolon (also known Karabournou) in Northern Greece is referred to the gigantic extinct viper Laophis crotaloides Owen. This taxon was originally named on the basis of 13 vertebrae recovered from Megalo Emvolon in 1857, and subsequently lodged in the collection of The Natural History Museum in London. Unfortunately, the type remains have since been lost and the species thus ignored or relegated to a nomen dubium, in spite of its estimated body length having potentially exceeded 3.5 metres. The incomplete and isolated nature of the new Laophis specimen hinders resolution to lower taxonomic levels. However, the fossil can be unequivocally placed within Viperidae because of its proportionally wide cotyle and condyle (the latter being markedly robust), probable presence of a hypapophysis, and most notably its dorsally tilted prezygapophyseal facets. Moreover, a multivariate quantitative approach supports previous assertions of large body size with an estimated maximum length and body mass, comparable to, if not larger than Lachesis muta, the largest extant viperid - a size that distinguish Laophis as amongst the largest extinct or extant venomous snakes ever known. The presence of a colossal viperid within the late Neogene ecosystems of mainland Greece is also significant because it concurs with the distribution of other gigantic Mio-Pliocene reptiles, including the large elapid Naja sp., another substantial but indeterminate species of Vipera, the varanid lizard Varanus marathonensis, and the colossal tortoises Cheirogaster. Similar coeval taxa have been found throughout the Balkan peninsula, southwestern Europe, and Asia Minor, and coincide with the onset of widespread climatic cooling during the late Miocene–late Pliocene. The spread of savannah grasslands throughout Mediterranean Europe during this time has been used to explain increased body sizes in herbivorous tortoises via dietary selection for greater consumption of C4 vegetation. However alternative ecological and/or physiological factors must be sought for large ectothermic predators, which would have had to effectively compete within a trophic system otherwise dominated by a broad range of mammalian carnivores.

Vipera ammodytes is the most venomous European snake, whose venom has been used as antigen for immunization of antivenom-producing animals. Same as venom of any other snake, it is a complex mixture of proteins, peptides and other compounds which biochemical and pharmacological variability has been demonstrated at interspecies and intraspecies level. In this work we demonstrated intraspecific variability between 8 venom production batches using both the conventional and the new methodology. Moreover, in contrast to the literature on different venoms' variability, for the first time we were able to select those biochemical differences that are related to and give information on the venom's toxicity and immunogenicity. We have shown that methods quantifying ammodytoxin (the most toxic compound identified so far in the Vipera ammodytes ammodytes venom) content of the venom clearly distinguish between high and low immunogenic venoms.

The venom of the Lansberg's hognose pitviper, Porthidium lansbergii lansbergii, a species found in the northern region of Colombia, is poorly known. Aiming to increase knowledge on Porthidium species venoms, its proteomic analysis and functional evaluation of in vitro and in vivo activities relevant to its toxicity were undertaken. Out of 51 protein components resolved by a combination of RP-HPLC and SDS-PAGE, 47 were assigned to 12 known protein families. In similarity with two previously characterized venoms from species within this genus, Porthidium nasutum and Porthidium ophryomegas, that of P. lansbergii lansbergii was dominated by metalloproteinases, although in lower proportion. A common feature of the three Porthidium venoms appears to be a high content of disintegrins. Proteins not previously observed in Porthidium venoms belong to the vascular endothelium growth factor, phosphodiesterase, and phospholipase B families. P. lansbergii lansbergii venom showed relatively weak lethal activity to mice, and induced a moderate local myotoxicity, but considerable hemorrhage. Its isolated VEGF component showed potent edema-inducing activity in the mouse footpad assay. Significant thrombocytopenia, but no other major hematological changes, were observed in envenomed mice. In vitro, this venom lacked coagulant effect on human plasma, and induced a potent inhibition of platelet aggregation which was reproduced by its purified disintegrin components. Phospholipase A 2 and proteolytic activities were also demonstrated. Overall, the compositional and functional data herein described for the venom of P. lansbergii lansbergii may contribute to a better understanding of envenomings by this pitviper species, for which specific clinical information is lacking.

Mexico is home to a large number of reptile species and has one of the greatest diversities of venomous snakes, among which the rattlesnakes pertaining to the Crotalus genus stand out. Out of more than 40 species in the country, nine are found in Zacatecas: C. aquilus, C. atrox, C. basiliscus, C. lepidus, C. molossus, C. polystictus, C. pricei, C. scutulatus and C. willardi. Although these reptiles are important, due to their relevance in terms of ecology, cultural use and public health, their conservation is impacted by multiple factors, such as habitat fragmentation and indiscriminate killing. Thus, most species within this genus are found in some type of risk category at both the national and international level. The purpose of this study was to determine the potential distribution and diversity of rattlesnakes at the municipal level in the understudied state of Zacatecas. To do this, we analyzed and described the global distribution of nine rattlesnake species by building specie...

The eastern Russell's viper (Daboia siamensis) causes primarily hemotoxic envenomation. Applying shotgun proteomic approach, the present study unveiled the protein complexity and geographical variation of eastern D. siamensis venoms originated from Guangxi and Taiwan. The snake venoms from the two geographical locales shared comparable expression of major proteins notwithstanding variability in their toxin proteoforms. More than 90% of total venom proteins belong to the toxin families of Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor, phospholipase A 2 , C-type lectin/lectin-like protein, serine protease and metalloproteinase. Daboia siamensis Monovalent Antivenom produced in Taiwan (DsMAV-Taiwan) was immunoreactive toward the Guangxi D. siamensis venom, and effectively neutralized the venom lethality at a potency of 1.41 mg venom per ml antivenom. This was corroborated by the antivenom effective neutralization against the venom procoagulant (ED = 0.044 ± 0.002 µl, 2.03 ± 0.12 mg/ml) and hemorrhagic (ED 50 = 0.871 ± 0.159 µl, 7.85 ± 3.70 mg/ ml) effects. The hetero-specific Chinese pit viper antivenoms i.e. Deinagkistrodon acutus Monovalent Antivenom and Gloydius brevicaudus Monovalent Antivenom showed negligible immunoreactivity and poor neutralization against the Guangxi D. siamensis venom. The findings suggest the need for improving treatment of D. siamensis envenomation in the region through the production and the use of appropriate antivenom. Daboia is a genus of the Viperinae subfamily (family: Viperidae), comprising a group of vipers commonly known as Russell's viper native to the Old World 1. The Russell's viper was previously recognised as monotypic Daboia rus-selii or Vipera russelii with at least seven subspecies following an extremely disjunct distribution over a large area of Asian countries, from Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Java and islands of Lesser Sunda in Indonesia, to South China (Guangdong and Guangxi) and the insular Taiwan. Based on mitochondrial DNA and multivariate morphological analyses, Thorpe et al. 2 suggested that the Russell's viper complex diverged approximately 7–11 mybp (million years before present) into the eastern and the western clades, separated by a narrow range of mountains in northwest Burma to the north of the Bay of Bengal. This led to the revision of the entire Russell's viper complex systematics, sinking several subspecies into synonyms that followed biogeographi-cal distribution while elevating Daboia russelii russelii and Daboia russelii siamensis to their respective full species status. Currently, Daboia russelii represents the Western Russell's viper that is indigenous to South Asia, while the Eastern Russell's viper (Daboia siamensis) distributes in Southeast and East Asia, comprising the former subspe-cies limitis, sublimitis and formosensis 2–4. The differences between the two species of Russell's vipers are, in fact, not limited to their morphology and molecular phylogenies. Differences in the envenoming effects of the Russell's viper have been reported, attributable to the plasticity of snake venom as an adaptive polygenic trait of venomous snakes 5,6. The observed variations of the envenomation, however, did not conform to the phylogenetics and systematics 7–9. This implies that within each Daboia species, venom variation is common and the investigation of the venom composition should be directed toward detailed venom characterization based on the distinctive species and the geographical locale from where the venom originates. Indeed, the pathogenesis of snakebite envenomation correlates with venom

The assessment of the capacity of antivenoms to neutralize the lethal activity of snake venoms is the gold standard in the preclinical analysis of antivenom efficacy, and is routinely performed by manufacturers and quality control laboratories. However, the complexity of snake venom composition and toxicological profile demands that, for many venoms, such as those of viperid snakes and some elapids, the neutralization of lethality be complemented with the analysis of the neutralization of other relevant toxic activities, such as hemorrhagic, myotoxic, necrotizing, procoagulant and defibrinogenating effects. This expanded protocol for preclinical testing of antivenoms should be used when a new antivenom is developed or when an existing antivenom is introduced in a new geographical setting for the neutralization of either homologous or heterologous venoms. In recent years, the assessment of the immunological reactivity of antivenoms has been enriched by the use of proteomic tools, with a methodology named 'antivenomics'. This allows the identification of venom components to which antivenoms have, or lack, antibodies, and thus complements the data gathered in neutralization tests, paving the way for a knowledge-based improvement of antivenom design and efficacy. International projects involving participants of manufacturing, quality control and academic research groups should be promoted in order to gain a deeper understanding on the preclinical neutralizing spectrum of antivenoms.

A blunt-nosed viper specimen, Macrovipera lebetina obtusa is recorded from Hıdırlık village, Divriği, Sivas province in Central Anatolia. Previously Erzincan-Kemaliye was the westernmost locality known for this species in central Anatolia. Information on new locality and morphological features of this endangered subspecies is given.

The scientific name Vipera ammodytes would indicate that this viper is typically sand-dwelling but the reality is that this habitat is unusual for the species. Though it was formally described by Linnæus (1758), earlier works portrayed the species in much more detail and explained the curious name. In this context the works of Aldrovandi (1639) and Gessner (1589) are discussed. However, they erroneously included Libya in its distribution. That mistaken information might have been caused by confusion with the genus Cerastes, which can possess up-ward horn-like projections although not on the snout (C. cerastes), and may live in sandy habitats (C. vipera). However, members of Cerastes had already been described in separate entries, so the background for the misinformation cannot be fully explained. Even though Gessner's (1589) Historia Animalium was published nearly half a millennium ago, it is still relevant to link his observations with current field studies.
From a trip to the Peloponnese in April 2008, observations on V. ammodytes were made at three localities. The first (Achaia Feneos, northern Peloponnese) being a typical macchie habitat whereas the second (Strofilia, northwestern Peloponnese) was formed by a sandy forest habitat. In the third case one individual was found on a main road on the south-western Peloponnese. In terms of habitat selection, V. ammodytes is a true habitat generalist occurring in a wide range of habitats, also exceptionally in fully sandy habitats.

The Neogene vertebrate fossil record of Greece is famous for its rich mammal assemblages, which were documented as early as the 19th century. In contrast, the equally diverse but comparatively understudied coeval reptile faunas have only recently gained research attention, both as an important source of information on palaeobiogeographical radiations, and as a potential centre for the early cladogenesis of Europe’s modern herpetofauna. Snake remains have been particularly enigmatic because, despite their ubiquity, they are almost always poorly preserved. Nonetheless, these isolated specimens, consisting almost entirely of vertebrae, reveal a range of taxa including typhlopids, boids, pythonids, colubrids sensu lato, elapids and viperids. To date, only two species have been formally named: the endemic pythonid Python euboicus and the gigantic viperid Laophis crotaloides. Both of these taxa were described in the 19th century and their holotypes are now lost, yet L. crotaloides arguably remains one of the most mysterious snake fossils from Europe. Derived from the early Pliocene (MN 15) of Megalo Emvolon in Northern Greece, L. crotaloides was thought to be a gigantic viper in its initial description. The holotype comprised 13 vertebrae, which although figured only as a schematic diagram, have proven sufficient to identify more recently recovered material, including a large precloacal vertebra (centrum length 16.3 mm) from the type locality. Size estimates based on the new specimen suggest a body length possibly exceeding 3 m, and a mass range of up to 26 kg that would place it amongst the largest venomous snakes ever to have lived. The presence of a gigantic viperid within the late Neogene ecosystems of mainland Greece concurs with the distribution of other largebodied Mio-Pliocene snakes, including the elapid Naja sp. and an indeterminate species of Vipera. Conversely, their palaeoenvironmental coincidence with cool, dry climates is puzzling and prompts speculation about the ecological and/or physiological factors that must have favoured large ectothermic predators in such an atypical setting.

An antivenom protein has been identified in the blood of the snake Crotulus durissus terriJicus and proved to act by specifically neutralizing crotoxin, the main lethal component of rattlesnake venoms. The aim of this study was to purify the crotoxin inhibitor from Crotulus serum (CICS), and to analyze its mechanism of action.

Direct, dose dependent effects of the nose-horned vipers (Vipera ammodytes ammodytes) venom on various parameters of cardiac action in isolated rat hearts were examined. Biochemical (protein content, SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) and biological (minimum haemorrhagic and necrotizing dose and lethal dose (LD 50 )) characterization of the venom was performed before testing. The hearts were infused with venom doses of 30, 90 and 150 µg/mL for 10 min followed by 30 min of wash out period. Left ventricular pressure, coronary flow, heart rate, atrioventricular conduction, myocardial oxygen consumption, incidence and duration of arrhythmias were measured and relative cardiac efficiency was calculated. Cardiac CPK, LDH, AST and troponin I were measured as biochemical markers of myocardial damage. The venom caused dose dependent electrophysiological instability and depression of contractility and coronary flow. Effects on the heart rate were biphasic; transient increase followed by significant slowing of the frequency. Relative cardiac efficiency decreased as oxygen consumption remained high relative to the heart rate-contractility product, indicating purposeless expenditure of oxygen and energy. Effects by the dose of 30 µg/mL were highly reversible while the dose of 90 μg/mL caused damages that were mostly irreversible. The dose of 150 μg/mL induced irreversible asystolic cardiac arrest.

The West African Gaboon viper (Bitis rhinoceros) is a master of camouflage due to its colouration pattern. Its skin is geometrically patterned and features black spots that purport an exceptional spatial depth due to their velvety surface texture. Our study shades light on micromorphology, optical characteristics and principles behind such a velvet black appearance. We revealed a unique hierarchical pattern of leaf-like microstructures striated with nanoridges on the snake scales that coincides with the distribution of black colouration. Velvet black sites demonstrate four times lower reflectance and higher absorbance than other scales in the UV -near IR spectral range. The combination of surface structures impeding reflectance and absorbing dark pigments, deposited in the skin material, provides reflecting less than 11% of the light reflected by a polytetrafluoroethylene diffuse reflectance standard in any direction. A view-angle independent black structural colour in snakes is reported here for the first time.

The presence of intraspecific color polymorphism can have multiple impacts on the ecology of a species; as a consequence, particular color morphs may be strongly selected for in a given habitat type. For example, the asp viper (Vipera aspis) shows a high level of color polymorphism. A blotched morph (cryptic) is common throughout its range (central and western Europe), while a melanistic morph is frequently found in montane populations, presumably for thermoregulatory reasons. Besides, rare atypical uniformly colored individuals are known here and there. Nevertheless, we found in a restricted treeless area of the French Alps, a population containing a high proportion (>50%) of such specimens. The aim of the study is to bring insight into the presence and function of this color morph by (i) studying the genetic structure of these populations using nine microsatellite markers, and testing for (ii) a potential local diversifying selection and (iii) differences in dispersal capacity y between blotched and non-blotched vipers. Results: Our genetic analyses support the occurrence of local diversifying selection for the non-blotched phenotype. In addition, we found significant color-biased dispersal, blotched individuals dispersing more than atypical individuals. Conclusion: We hypothesize that, in this population, the non-blotched phenotype possess an advantage over the typical one, a phenomenon possibly due to a better background matching ability in a more open habitat. In addition, color-biased dispersal might be partly associated with the observed local diversifying selection, as it can affect the genetic structure of populations, and hence the distribution of color morphs.

"Jadin, R.C., Townsend, J.H., Castoe, T.A. & Campbell, J.A. (2012). Cryptic diversity in disjunct populations of Middle American Montane Pitvipers: a systematic reassessment of Cerrophidion godmani. —Zoologica Scripta, 41(5): 455–470.

The discovery and taxonomic recognition of cryptic species has become increasingly frequent with the application of molecular phylogenetic analyses, particularly for species with broad geographic distributions. In this study we focus on the venomous pitviper species Cerrophidion godmani that is widely distributed throughout the highlands of Central America. We provide evidence based on both molecular phylogenetic analyses and morphological data that C. godmani represents three deeply divergent lineages and is possibly non-monophyletic. These three lineages are relatively conserved in their morphology and tend to be highly variable among individuals, but we do find sufficient morphological characters to diagnose them as evolutionarily distinct. We apply these data, together with known geographic distributions of populations, to infer boundaries of these three divergent evolutionary lineages. Based on the body of evidence, we formally name and describe two new species of Cerrophidion and redescribe C. godmani sensu stricto."

Bothrops xanthogrummuslas envenoming in Ecuador. P er, B. atrox and Lachesis muta are probably responsible for most cases of severe n recent years, the most widely used antivenom (<Myn' Ronti, imported from Mexico) has proved clinically ineffective. There is an urgent need to identify an effective alternative for clinical testing. Five antivenoms with activity against Bothrops venoms were compared using standard World Health Organization rodent and in vitro assays: (i) 'Myn', Ronti Mexico SA ('B. atrox', 'Crutulus terrijkus'), (ii) Institute Butantan (Bothrops polyvalent, Brazil), (iii) Instituto National de Higiene y Medicina Tropical (Bothrups polyvalent, Ecuador), (iv) Instituto National de Salud (B. asper, C. durissus and Lachesis mura, Colombia), and (v) Laboratorios Probiol (Bothrops, Lachesis and Crotalus, Colombia). The venoms against which these antivenoms were tested were Ecuadorian B. mox, B. asper and B. xanthogrammus. Brazilian antivenom proved to be the most effective, followed by the Ecuadorian and Colombian antivenoms. Mexican antivenom was corn letely ineffective m neutralizing the lethal effects of Ecuadorian Bothrqs venoms. Monospecific Brazilian E mura annvenom (Instituto Butantan) proved effective against EcuadorIan L. mutu venom, but the Colombian polyspecific antivenoms did not. Clinical trials of Brazilian and Ecuadorian antivenoms are planned in the Amazon region of Ecuador in the near future.

A particular subgroup of toxins with phospholipase A 2 (PLA 2 ) structure, but devoid of this enzymatic activity, is commonly found in the venoms of snakes of the family Viperidae, and known as the PLA 2 homologues. Among these, the most frequent type presents a lysine residue at position 49 (Lys49), in substitution of the otherwise conserved aspartate (Asp49) of catalytically-active PLA 2 s. A brief and updated overview of these toxic PLA 2 homologues is presented, emphasizing their various biological activities, both in vivo and in vitro. The relevance of these bioactivities in relation to their possible adaptive roles for the snakes is discussed. Finally, experiments designed to assess the validity of such hypothetical roles are suggested, to stimulate future studies in this field.

Envenoming by Protobothrops mucrosquamatus and Viridovipera stejnegeri accounts for the majority of venomous snakebites in Taiwan. We conducted a retrospective study to systematically examine the clinical manifestations and responses to antivenom therapy after P. mucrosquamatus and V. stejnegeri envenoming. Information on demographic characteristics, treatments, and systemic/local complications were abstracted from medical charts between 1991 and 2006. One hundred forty-nine patients with P. mucrosquamatus envenoming and 51 with V. stejnegeri envenoming were eligible for the final analysis, and they differed in terms of patient age, bite site, local bruising, proportion of patients needing ≥ 3 vials of antivenom, and mean hospital stay. Univariate analysis revealed that P. mucrosquamatus envenoming had a higher risk of developing rhabdomyolysis, cellulitis, necrosis, and skin graft. Our findings suggested that P. mucrosquamatus envenoming was associated with a greater risk of severe clinical events, and monitoring for major clinical complications would be recommended.

The climatic preferences of Pelias barani, a rare Pontic endemic viper, are analysed and a new locality record
is reported. According to species distribution modeling, with the average test AUC was was 0.904 ± 0.068, bioclimatic
variables such as Precipitation of driest month (45.5%), Temperature seasonality (18.9%), Precipitation seasonality
(17.9%) and Maximum temperature of warmest period (14.7%) appear to have the most useful information on
geographic distribution of Pelias barani. Distribution models of Pelias barani under current climatic conditions showed
better adaptation to the northwest and northeast part of Turkey.

Disclosures: HA and TK are both paid employees of BTG International Inc, manufacturer of CroFab Crotaline polyvalent immune Fab, ovine, which is mentioned in this article. SS is a paid consultant for BTG International Inc. The professional nurses on the panel (SS, SSS, JC, LZ, and TME) were compensated for their participation on the panel.

We describe here the first known documented case of human envenomation by the burrowing asp Atractaspis congica. The patient received a single fang puncture in the index finger and suffered local pain, discolouration, blistering and swelling of the finger, hand and forearm. Analgesics were given, but no antivenom. Recovery was complete within 48 h, saves some moderate swelling, blistering and hypersensitivity.

We report the comparative proteomic characterization of the venoms of two related neotropical arboreal pitvipers from Costa Rica of the genus Bothriechis, B. lateralis (side-striped palm pit viper) and B. schlegelii (eyelash pit viper). The crude venoms were fractionated by reverse-phase HPLC, followed by analysis of each chromatographic fraction by SDS-PAGE, N-terminal sequencing, MALDI-TOF mass fingerprinting, and collision-induced dissociation tandem mass spectrometry of tryptic peptides. The venom proteomes of B. lateralis and B. schlegelii comprise similar number of distinct proteins belonging, respectively, to 8 and 7 protein families. The two Bothriechis venoms contain bradykinin-potentiating peptides (BPPs), and proteins from the phospholipase A 2 (PLA 2 ), serine proteinase, L-amino acid oxidase (LAO), cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP), and Zn 2+ -dependent metalloproteinase (SVMP) families, albeit each species exhibit different relative abundances. Each venom also contains unique components, for example, snake venom vascular endothelial growth factor (svVEGF) and C-type lectin-like molecules in B. lateralis, and Kazal-type serine proteinase inhibitor-like proteins in B. schlegelii. Using a similarity coefficient, we estimate that the similarity of the venom proteins between the two Bothriechis taxa may be <10%, indicating a high divergence in their venom compositions, in spite of the fact that both species have evolved to adapt to arboreal habits. The major toxin families of B. lateralis and B. schlegelii are SVMP (55% of the total venom proteins) and PLA 2 (44%), respectively. Their different venom toxin compositions provide clues for rationalizing the distinct signs of envenomation caused by B. schlegelii and B. lateralis. An antivenomic study of the immunoreactivity of the Instituto Clodomiro Picado (ICP) polyvalent antivenom toward Bothriechis venoms revealed that L-amino acid oxidase and SVMPs represent the major antigenic protein species in both venoms. Our results provide a ground for rationalizing the reported protection of the ICP polyvalent antivenom against the hemorrhagic, coagulant, defibrinating, caseinolytic and fibrin(ogen)olytic activities of Bothriechis (schlegelii, lateralis) venoms. However, these analyses also evidenced the limited recognition capability of the polyvalent antivenom toward a number of Bothriechis venom components, predominantly BPPs, svVEGF, Kazal-type inhibitors, some PLA 2 proteins, some serine proteinases, and CRISP molecules.