Theory-Ladenness of Observation and Fact

This is the Spanish translation, by Claudio Abreu and Rene Campis, of Wolfgang Stegmuller’s German text “Walther von der Vogelweides Lied von der Traumliebe und Quasar 3 C 273 – Betrachtungen zum sogenannten Zirkel des Verstehens und zur sogenannten Theorienbeladenheit der Beobachtungen”, published in 1979.

This document is published within the series 'Integrative Risk and Security Research'. All publications can be downloaded from https://www.th-koeln.de/anlagen-energie-undmaschinensysteme/schriftenreihe-integrative-risk-and-security-research_17446.php,; or you use http://tinyurl.com/oaj4r7a Despite thorough revision the information provided in this document is supplied without liability. The document does not necessarily present the opinion of the editors.

En el marco del debate sobre el realismo científico, a finales de los ochenta el estructuralismo de Worrall supo ser el caballo de batalla superador para hacer frente al argumento antirrealista de la meta-inducción pesimista. Una década más tarde el empirismo se puso a la altura desde el estructuralismo de van Fraassen, sin embargo, su posición corre el riesgo de ser aventajada por el realismo de no poder resolver el problema de la perdida de realidad en tándem con el del progreso acumulativo del conocimiento. Proponemos analizar esta situación y mostrar cómo puede resolverse combinando un análisis de la tesis de la carga teórica junto con una estrategia desarrollada por Sabina Leonelli y otra por Nélida Gentile.

The triumph of the Copernican revolution is commonly associated with the introduction of the scientific method, mainly by Galileo. The nature of science presumably depends on the way observation passes judgment on theory. This is how, according to empiricism, the practice of science improves our worldviews. Some historically inclined philosophers of science, most notably Kuhn and Feyerabend, have insisted on paying attention to what Galileo actually said and did. Shockingly, he drives a dagger through the heart of empiricism: observation does not have such priority over theory, because observation itself assumes theory. This is what he argues when dismantling Aristotle's Tower Argument, according to which a stone dropped from a tower falls straight down to the base of the tower. If this is so, the Earth cannot rotate, for it would carry the tower with it, making our observation of the stone's flight wildly different. According to Galileo, to conclude that the stone really falls vertically requires the assumption that the Earth does not movethe theoretical issue in question. Given Galileo's proper understanding of the nature of science, I view Feyerabend's principle of proliferation as the realization that a good strategy for the latter is to elaborate radical alternatives and, on their basis, reconsider what counts as evidence. Moreover, a science produced by human brains should be analyzed on the basis of evolutionary theory and neuroscience. From that perspective, we may be able to defend a sensible notion of relativism. These considerations have led me to the main arguments of my new book, A Theory of Wonder: Evolution, Brain, and the Radical Nature of Science (Philosophy of Science,

The contemporary philosophical understanding of scientific rationality fundamentally distinguishes itself from the conservative positions by what may be considered a categorial reorientation by which it is meant that it replaces the old categories by the new ones in terms of which the essential nature of the structure and dynamics of science are described and explained. In the beginning, the radicalization of the categorial framework has been brought through category transformation, which is very well exemplified in the nullification of the discovery-justification distinction. Apart from this parasitic semantic content, 'discovery' carried a negative meaning in terms of what it is not. With the nullification of the distinction, the semantic content of discovery has become not only autonomous, and positive but also, comprehensive so much as to become the focal concept in grasping the essence of scientific activity. These changes have fundamentally altered the discourse about discovery in ways that can be of momentous significance to science education (Schickore and Steinle, 2006). An attempt is made in this paper to illuminate how the denial of the divorce thesis has been justified by the philosophical arguments of

In this essay I explain why scientific research does not allow us to obtain ultimate truths. I then argue that this does not present an argument for indifference or hostility towards the sciences. I do so by examining why and how scientific discoveries do in fact provide the best available knowledge.

See: https://www.aspeditions.be/en/book/a-question-of-truth/19578

In his influential criticism of scientific realism, Bas van Fraa.ssen assumes that thzs doctrtne is incompatzble with empiriczsm, according to which the sole ultimate basis of knowledge is expe rience This claim has been generally accepted in the contempo rary literature in philosophy of science Thus, the very distinc non between scientific realism and empiricism is often forgot ten, the term 'empiricism' being now widely used to designate a range of anti-realist positions, such as van Fraassen's "constructive empiricism" In this paper it is argued, first, that empiricism, zn the traditional and proper sense of the word, is a thesis about the problem of the foundations of knowledge, and should therefore be clearly distinguished from anti realism, which concems the issue of the extenszon of knowledge It is then conceded that the main arguments for scientific realism do indeed require that extra emptrical charactenstics of scientific theories, such as sim plicity and explanatory power, should be ascribed epistemic weight Although this potra lends support to van Fraassen's claim, it is indicated here that his constructive empiricism is threatened by the same kznd of epistemological objections which he razses against his opponents Like some other scientific anu realists, van Fraassen avowedly embraces realism conceming ordinary material ob jects, but it is not clear that this form of anti realism remains tenable when explanatory power, simplicity, etc are regarded as merely pragmatic, non epistemic virtues

The role of unexplained high serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) levels in the second trimester to determine poor obstetric outcomes İkinci trimester maternal serumda açıklanamayan alfa feto protein (AFP) ve insan koryonik gonadotropin (hCG) yüksekliğinin olası gebelik komplikasyonlarını öngörmedeki rolü

Background: Many rural areas, especially in developing world, the providers of obstetric care are either family physicians or general practitioners and most of these obstetric emergencies are seen in rural areas. Typical preeclampsia could be easily diagnosed due to it classical triad of maternal hypertension after 20 weeks and before 48 hours post-delivery, proteinuria and oedema. For atypical preeclampsia the diagnosis is usually missed due to its vague nature of presentation. The classical triad features may be absent and hence delayed in the management. Most cases of atypical preeclampsia are associated with high risk of maternal/foetal morbidity and mortality. Objective: The purpose of this case report is to update the knowledge of health care providers on the sundry presentation of atypical preeclampsia. Case summary: This report, describes a unique case of atypical preeclampsia, in which a normotensive primigravida at 37 weeks gestation, presented with severe headache and sudden loss of eyesight, with spot urine protein/creatinine ratio of 1.2, abnormal quadruple analytes (human chorionic gonadotrophin, alpha foetoprotein, inhibin-A and unconjugated oestriol), platelets count of 96,700 per micro litre and packed cell volume of 24%. Conclusion: Absence of one or two of triad components should not preclude diagnosing preeclampsia, provided there are other features of organs/systems involvement.

Background: Many rural areas, especially in developing world, the providers of obstetric care are either family physicians or general practitioners and most of these obstetric emergencies are seen in rural areas. Typical preeclampsia could be easily diagnosed due to it classical triad of maternal hypertension after 20 weeks and before 48 hours post-delivery, proteinuria and oedema. For atypical preeclampsia the diagnosis is usually missed due to its vague nature of presentation. The classical triad features may be absent and hence delayed in the management. Most cases of atypical preeclampsia are associated with high risk of maternal/foetal morbidity and mortality. Objective: The purpose of this case report is to update the knowledge of health care providers on the sundry presentation of atypical preeclampsia. Case summary: This report, describes a unique case of atypical preeclampsia, in which a normotensive primigravida at 37 weeks gestation, presented with severe headache and sud...

This special issue of Synthese is in honor of Gerhard Schurz, our good friend and colleague, who contributed to philosophy in a multitude of novel and interesting ways. The idea to do such a special issue was born at a symposium on the occasion of Gerhard's 60th birthday back then in 2016. As a fun fact, the final publication of the special issue in print might be quite close to his 65th birthday in 2021. So in some sense this special issue can be expected to kill two birds with one stone. Let us start this introduction with a few words on Gerhard's life and work and on the guest editors' own relationship to him. We then zoom in and will say more about this special issue, followed by a brief description of its content.

Introduction The placenta, translates how the fetus experiences the maternal environment and is a principal influence on birth weight (BW). Objective To explore the relationship between placental growth measures (PGMs) and BW in a public maternity hospital. Methods Observational retrospective study of 870 singleton live born infants at Hospital Maternidad Sardá, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina, between January 2011 and August 2012 with complete data of PGMs. Details of history, clinical and obstetrical maternal data, labor and delivery and neonatal outcome data, including placental measures derived from the records, were evaluated. The following manual measurements of the placenta according to standard methods were performed: placental weight (PW, g), larger and smaller diameters (cm), eccentricity, width (cm), shape, area (cm 2), BW/PW ratio (BPR) and PW/BW ratio (PBR), and efficiency. Associations between BW and PGMs were examined using multiple linear regression. Results Birth weight was correlated with placental weight (R 2 ¼ 0.49, p < 0.001), whereas gestational age was moderately correlated with placental weight (R 2 ¼ 0.64, p < 0.001). By gestational age, there was a positive trend for PW and BPR, but an inverse relationship with PBR (p < 0.001). Placental weight alone accounted for 49% of birth weight variability (p < 0,001), whereas all PGMs accounted for 52% (p < 0,001). Combined, PGMs, maternal characteristics (parity, pre-eclampsia, tobacco use), gestational age and gender explained 77.8% of BW variations (p < 0,001). Among preterm births, 59% of BW variances were accounted for by PGMs, compared with 44% at term. All placental measures except BPR were consistently higher in females than in

Antes del ano de 1994 el mercado de valores de bonos y acciones era una inversion que prometia al inversionista un rendimiento aceptable a todos los que se propusieron invertir en obligaciones financieras (bonos y acciones), por lo tanto ciertos inversionistas que hubieran comprado un bono o accion un ano antes pudieron haber incurrido en perdidas en su capital. A traves de esta informacion se plantea, ?Por que generaba perdidas invertir en obligaciones financieras antes de 1994? La razon fundamental por la que el valor de esta inversion y asi como de otros instrumentos de endeudamiento disminuyo en forma significativa fue porque la reserva federal internacional decidio incrementar la tasa de interes 6 veces mas durante 1994 de tal manera que, en un solo ano el rendimiento exigido por los inversionistas aumento en mas del 2%. Como consecuencia de este incremento en las tasas de interes el valor de los instrumentos financieros disminuyo en forma notable. Por ejemplo: un bono que teni...

Introduction The placenta, translates how the fetus experiences the maternal environment and is a principal influence on birth weight (BW). Objective To explore the relationship between placental growth measures (PGMs) and BW in a public maternity hospital. Methods Observational retrospective study of 870 singleton live born infants at Hospital Maternidad Sardá, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina, between January 2011 and August 2012 with complete data of PGMs. Details of history, clinical and obstetrical maternal data, labor and delivery and neonatal outcome data, including placental measures derived from the records, were evaluated. The following manual measurements of the placenta according to standard methods were performed: placental weight (PW, g), larger and smaller diameters (cm), eccentricity, width (cm), shape, area (cm 2), BW/PW ratio (BPR) and PW/BW ratio (PBR), and efficiency. Associations between BW and PGMs were examined using multiple linear regression. Results Birth weight was correlated with placental weight (R 2 ¼ 0.49, p < 0.001), whereas gestational age was moderately correlated with placental weight (R 2 ¼ 0.64, p < 0.001). By gestational age, there was a positive trend for PW and BPR, but an inverse relationship with PBR (p < 0.001). Placental weight alone accounted for 49% of birth weight variability (p < 0,001), whereas all PGMs accounted for 52% (p < 0,001). Combined, PGMs, maternal characteristics (parity, pre-eclampsia, tobacco use), gestational age and gender explained 77.8% of BW variations (p < 0,001). Among preterm births, 59% of BW variances were accounted for by PGMs, compared with 44% at term. All placental measures except BPR were consistently higher in females than in

The aim of this study was to determine the association between three parameters of second trimester serum secreening and preterm labor and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) in patients with hyperemesis gravidarum (HG). Material and Methods: A prospective study on 429 pregnancies with HG was designed to determine the association between alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), unconjugated estriol (uE3), human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) and pregnancy prognosis in terms of preterm labor, IUGR and birth weight. Results: In our study group the mean age of patients was 25.4±3.8 years. Mean birth weight was 3180±555 g. Mean AFP, uE3, hCG levels in the study group were 1.44±0.65 MoM, 0.91±0.38 MoM, 1.09±0.64 MoM, respectively. Twenty nine (6.8%) patients delivered before 37 weeks of gestation and 52 (12.1%) patients developed IUGR. Mean MoM values of AFP among patients with preterm labor, IUGR and normal delivery were 1.35±0.45, 1.97±0.81, 1.34±0.58 MoM, respectively (p<0.001). Mean MoM values of hCG among patients with preterm labor, IUGR and normal delivery were 1.46±0.90, 1.35±0.89, 1±0.5 MoM respectively (p<0.001). Mean MoM values of uE3 among patients with preterm labor, IUGR and normal delivery were 0.75±0.25, 0.80±0.30, 0.95±0.40 MoM, respectively (p=0.003). Odds ratio of AFP>1.55 was 3.73 (95% CI, 1.99-6.98, p<0.001) for IUGR after adjustment for HCG. Conclusion: Our study suggests that AFP levels of the second trimester screening test higher than 1.55 MoM is significantly associated with IUGR in hyperemesis gravidarum. The second trimester screening test can predict poor outcome in HG.

The motivating question of this paper is: ‘How are our beliefs in the theorems of mathematics justified?’  This is distinguished from the question ‘How are our mathematical beliefs reliably true?’  We examine an influential answer, outlined by Russell, championed by Gödel, and developed by those searching for new axioms to settle undecidables, that our mathematical beliefs are justified by ‘intuitions’, as our scientific beliefs are justified by observations.  On this view, axioms are analogous to laws of nature.  They are postulated to best systematize the data to be explained.  We argue that there is a decisive difference between the cases.  There is agreement on the data to be systematized in the scientific case that has no analog in the mathematical one.  There is virtual consensus over observations, but conspicuous dispute over intuitions.  In this respect, mathematics more closely resembles stereotypical philosophy.  We conclude by distinguishing two ideas that have long been associated -- realism (the idea that there is an independent reality) and objectivity (the idea that in a disagreement, only one of us can be right).  We argue that, while realism is true of mathematics and philosophy, these domains fail to be objective.  One upshot of the discussion is that even many questions of fundamental physics fail to be objective in roughly the sense that the question, ‘Is the Parallel Postulate is true?’, understood as one of pure mathematics, fails to be.  Another is a kind of pragmatism.  Factual questions in mathematics, modality, logic, and evaluative areas go proxy for non-factual practical ones.

Background: Preeclampsia (PE) is a multi-systemic progressive disorder that is unique to human pregnancy, occurring usually after 20 weeks of gestation. Useful biochemical markers to be utilized for early prediction of preeclampsia continue to elude us. The search for biomarkers is aimed identifying women at increased risk of developing PE, so that medical interventions may be instituted very early in pregnancy to ameliorate its occurrence and improve maternal and fetal outcome. Aim: This study aimed to determine the association between serum levels of Cystatin C and/or free β-subunit of hCG measured in early pregnancy and the development of pre-eclampsia and its severity. Methods: This was a prospective cohort study of 290 pregnant women recruited during routine antenatal care, at the gestational age of between 13 and 19 weeks. After obtaining an informed consent from each participant, a structured questionnaire was used to collection relevant information followed by the collection...

Presento un ejercicio de lectura inspirado en la teoría de la observación de Luhmann sobre el campo de la investigación educativa relacionada con desigualdades en México, a partir de las publicaciones de ciertos eventos académicos nacionales e internacionales realizados entre 1981 y 2004. Se trata de explorar el potencial de los planteamientos de Luhmann en relación con la construcción de conocimientos acerca de las desigualdades en educación, para ubicar las distinciones que se han puesto en operación en poco más de dos décadas, indagar si hubo (o no) cambios en sus configuraciones, y con ello, comprender las trayectorias en las configuraciones discursivas a través de eventos singulares que forman parte del entramado de los conocimientos educativos especializados.In this paper I propose an exercise inspired by Luhmann’s theory of observation in the field of educational research about the inequalities in Mexico. To attain this objective I paid attention to the publications of certai...

Objective: To investigate the significance of unexplained elevated maternal serum alpha fetoprotein (MSAFP) and/or human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) on the occurrence of placental thrombotic changes. Study design: Between January 2007 to April 2009, placentas of all women who delivered and had unexplained elevated MSAFP and/or HCG (above 2 MOM) were sent to histological examination. Women were divided into 2 groups. Group A included women who had uneventful pregnancies and delivered at term. Group B included women with antepartum complications attributed to thrombosis. Women in both groups (A and B) had elevated MSAFP and/or HCG. Group C was a frequency matched group of women who had normal MSAFP and HCG levels with uneventful pregnancies and delivered at term. Main outcome measure: Incidence of placental thrombotic lesions in each group. Results: Of 9695 women who delivered during the study period there were 76 women with elevated MSAFP and or HCG, 48 in group A and 28 in Group B. Group C, included 30 women. The number of placentas in which any thrombotic lesion was identified was 22 (45.8%), 19 (67.9%) and 10 (33%) respectively. Changes differed significantly only between group B and C (p ¼ 0.03). Although the rate of changes in group A was higher than in group C it did not reach statistical significance even when considering only women with two abnormal results (MSAFP and HCG) or when a cutoff of 2.5 MOM or more was set. Conclusion: Placental histopathological changes are associated with pregnancy complications and can only marginally be attributed to unexplained elevated MSAFP and/or HCG.

In this paper I am concerned with the relation between the history of science and the philosophy of science from the perspective of philosophy. The ambition of this paper is to show that the historical study is an essential dimension of a sophisticated philosophical account of science. The debate on the relation between the history of science and the philosophy of science took various forms since the 70's. However, the idea that pursuing HPS entails the confrontation of philosophical accounts of science with historical data ('confrontation model') is persistent during all these years (Schickore 2011: 456). In short, there is a consensus, among many of the HPS scholars, that at least one way to achieve the integration between the history and the philosophy of science is to show that the historical case studies could lead to the refinement of the philosophical accounts of science.

An einen Band, der neben Forschungsperspektiven sowie begrifflichen und empirischen Problemen auch einen Überblick über relevante Fragestellungen der Risikoforschung liefern soll, wird sicherlich die Erwartung gerichtet, Begriff und Geschichte des Risikos in Bezug zu setzen. Die Geschichte des Risikobegriffs und der Begriff der Risikogeschichte hängen natürlich irgendwie zusammen. Wir werfen zunächst einen kurzen Blick auf die Geschichte des Risikos, so wie sie aus heutiger Sicht erscheint, und wenden uns danach dem eher begrifflich-theoretischen Forschungsstand sowie den daraus resultierenden Perspektiven für die vorliegende Arbeit zu. Dabei wird sich das Problem stellen, mit welchen begrifflichen Vorentscheidungen die Risikothematik behandelt werden soll. Eine Einführung in die ›Risikoso-ziologie‹ darf sich nicht damit begnügen, einfach nur darzustellen, welche relevanten soziologischen Theorien bisher das Risikothema aufgegriffen haben (vgl. dazu Krimsky / Golding 1992). Darüber hinaus muss vielmehr gefragt werden, wie der Risikobegriff in die soziologische Theorie eingebaut werden und wie soziologische Theorie den Risikobegriff so verarbeiten kann, dass er für das Verständnis der modernen Gesellschaft instruktiv wird. Für diese weiter reichende Perspektive kommen durchaus nicht alle vorliegenden Konzeptionen einer begrifflich reflektierten Soziologie des Risikos in Frage (vgl. Japp 1996). Im Folgenden wird für die soziologische Systemtheorie optiert, weil sie in besonderer Weise bereits in ihren grundbegrifflichen Voraussetzungen Verweisungen auf die Risikothematik enthält (vgl. Luhmann 1991a). Wie keine andere soziologische Theorie verweist die Systemtheorie auf die strukturelle Kontingenzbelastung der modernen Gesellschaft. Dies geschieht durch binäre Codierung ihrer wesentlichen funktionsspezifischen Kommunikationen: Es geht um Recht oder Unrecht, um Wahrheit oder Unwahrheit, um Zahlung oder Nichtzahlung, um Regierung oder Opposition, und wie anders als durch Entscheidung kann die jeweilige Kommunikation in diesen Funktionsbereichen der Gesellschaft geordnet werden? Systemtheorie setzt die elementare Abhängigkeit der modernen Gesellschaft von Entscheidung und Risiko voraus. Es sind ihr keine ›modernen‹ Ärgernisse

Mediante uma análise da utilização da noção de verdade tarskiana no contexto da abordagem semântica, argumentaremos que ela é desnecessária assim como insuficiente. Ela se mostra desnecessária porque no interior desta abordagem seu papel é meramente operacional, de tal modo que pode ser cumprido por noções de verdade alternativas também de teor operacional. Por outro lado, sua insuficiência se deve ao fato de que outras concepções de verdade de um tipo mais apropriado devem ser articuladas, para satisfazer os propósitos das diversas integrantes da família semanticista, como o empirismo construtivo e o quase-realismo. Tradicionalmente, estas concepções são definidas fazendo recurso à noção de verdade tarskiana, porém elas também podem ser definidas por meio de noções de verdade alternativas.

Mediante uma análise da utilização da noção de verdade tarskiana no contexto da abordagem semântica, argumentaremos que ela é desnecessária assim como insuficiente. Ela se mostra desnecessária porque no interior desta abordagem seu papel é meramente operacional, de tal modo que pode ser cumprido por noções de verdade alternativas também de teor operacional. Por outro lado, sua insuficiência se deve ao fato de que outras concepções de verdade de um tipo mais apropriado devem ser articuladas, para satisfazer os propósitos das diversas integrantes da família semanticista, como o empirismo construtivo e o quase-realismo. Tradicionalmente, estas concepções são definidas fazendo recurso à noção de verdade tarskiana, porém elas também podem ser definidas por meio de noções de verdade alternativas.

No âmbito do empirismo construtivo, a célebre posição acerca dos objetivos da ciência de Bas van Fraassen, o ato de observar desempenha um papel crucial. Segundo Buekens e Muller defendem, em um artigo de 2012, o filósofo holandês deveria caracterizá-lo como um ato intencional, porque, na ciência, as observações são realizadas com um propósito. Nesta análise, que abordará também a distinção entre observar e observar que, introduzida por Hanson e Dretske, será mostrado que, ao contrário, considerações ligadas à intencionalidade do ato de observar são supérfluas para traçar a distinção entre entidades observáveis e inobserváveis da qual o empirismo construtivo depende.

Background:Spontaneous preterm delivery (sPTD) is one of the most common global problems causing perinatal morbidity and mortality. However, there is no effective universal screening method for predicting sPTD. Therefore, we want to evaluate the extra benefit of quadruple maternal serum biomarkers for Down syndrome (DS) screening to predict sPTD. Moreover, to propose an effective model to predict sPTD.Results: From total of 2,822 pregnancies who underwent DS screening, 2604 (92.3%) were included in the study. There were 183 (7.02%) pregnant women had randomly measure cervical length. sPTD occurred in 221 (8.5%) of participants, 32 (14.5%) had early sPTD (&lt;34 weeks gestation) and 189 (85.5%) had late sPTD (delivery between 34-36+6 weeks). The median MoM of AFP was significantly higher in women with early sPTD (1.2 VS 1.0, p =0.04), but uE3 had tendency to be lower than the women with term delivery. The most effective model to predict sPTD was the combination of serum AFP level &gt...

In dit stuk leg ik uit waarom de wetenschap zich niet leent tot het verkrijgen van ultieme waarheden. Daarna beargumenteer ik dat dit geen grond is voor onverschilligheid of vijandigheid ten opzichte van de wetenschappen. Dat doe ik door dieper in te gaan op de vraag hoe en waarom wetenschappelijke vindingen dan wél de beste beschikbare kennis opleveren.

wurde. Zusammenfassend ist es den Veranstaltern mit der Tagung gelungen, einen sehr positiven Beitrag zur Diskussion über verantwortungsvolle Forschung mit genetischen Daten und Biomaterial zu leisten. Anmerkung 1) Weitere Informationen über die Tagung (inkl. der Präsentationen) unter http://www.iri.uni-hannover. de/tagungsvortraege.html (download 22.4.08) « » Umgang mit Risikenein interdisziplinärer Diskurs Bericht vom Deutschen Geographentag

Experience, it is widely agreed, constrains our thinking and is also thoroughly theoryladen. But how can it constrain our thinking while depending on what it purports to constrain? To address this issue, I revisit and carefully analyze the account of (scientific) observation provided by Norwood Russell Hanson, who introduced the term 'theory-ladenness of observation' in the first place. I show that Hanson's account provides an original and coherent response to the initial question and argue that, if suitably developed, his account provides a distinctive, powerful, and attractive alternative to relationalist and standard representationalist conceptions of experience.

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In this article we will analyze the work of Carnap in order to re-evaluate a period of philosophy of science whose influence can still be detected in current research of an empiricist orientation and should not be filed away simply as an object of historical research or literary nostalgia. We will evaluate the proposal of a revisionist reading of Carnap, in particular by Friedman, and we will conclude by articulating a minimalist position of Carnap's philosophy, identified with the logic of science and concerned with the empirical interpretation of scientific language.

Risks, from natural or human sources, shape our physical, natural, and human environments. Most people demand healthy and safe products, trust that technologies that are meant to serve them do not act against their vital interests, and expect regulatory agencies to reduce risks to levels deemed tolerable by the majority of people. However, the scientific foundation for understanding and controlling risks is still far from being established. The main reason for this open situation is the multidisciplinary nature of risk. Risk means something different in the natural, engineering, psychological, social, and cultural disciplines. The first part of this review is an attempt to summarize the main disciplinary approaches to understanding and analyzing risk. It also seeks to provide some overarching categories that may help risk professionals in the academic and practical (risk management) fields to familiarize themselves with the fragmented field of risk studies and approaches, and to use...

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to determine if circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1, a marker of chronic inflammation, is present in amniotic fluid in midtrimester, is increased in patients with elevated maternal serum a-fetoprotein level, and is associated with intrauterine growth retardation. STUDY DESIGN: Amniotic fluid Circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels were assayed by enzyme-linked immunoassay in 273 samples obtained by midtrimester amniocentesis in gestations involving a single, structurally normal fetus. The control group consisted of 108 patients with normal maternal serum a-fetoprotein levels and 165 patients with elevated levels. Intrauterine growth retardation was diagnosed if birth weight was < 10th percentile for the clinically estimated gestational age. RESULTS: Circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 was detectable in amniotic fluid in 105 of 273 samples (38%). In the control group it was detectable in amniotic fluid in seven of 108 (6%). In patients with elevated maternal serum a-fetoprotein 97 of 164 (59%) had detectable levels (p < 0.001). Of the 273 cases 38 (14%) had intrauterine growth retardation. Of these 23 (59%) had detectable circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels (p < 0.001). Of the seven cases of intrauterine growth retardation with normal maternal serum a-fetoprotein levels, one (14%) had detectable circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1. Of the 31 cases of intrauterine growth retardation with elevated maternal serum a-fetoprotein 22 (71 %) had detectable circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1. When circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 was detectable in amniotic fluid, increasing levels was significantly related to decreasing gestational age at delivery (p < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Midtrimester amniotic fluid from normal pregnancies does not generally contain detectable circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1. Detectable amniotic fluid levels are significantly related to a birth weight < 10th percentile at delivery and to elevated midtrimester maternal serum a-fetoprotein levels. IncreaSing circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels are related to shortened length of gestation. This test may contribute to risk assessment for intrauterine growth retardation and prematurity. Circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 is a known marker of inflammatory processes; its further study may also improve understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanisms of certain cases of intrauterine growth retardation and prematurity.

RESUMO: A noção de comunidade epistêmica é essencial para a caracterização da observabilidade, conceito-chave para o empirismo construtivo de Bas van Fraassen. Segundo o filósofo holandês, com efeito, observável seria uma abreviação de observável-para-nós. Neste trabalho será mostrado que a suposta rigididade do autor de A Imagem Científica, o qual parece não estar disposto a admitir mudanças na composição da comunidade epistêmica (constituída, segundo ele, pela raça humana), é na verdade uma assunção de modéstia e de bom senso; trata-se do reconhecimento de que o empreendimento científico nada mais é do que uma atividade humana, entre muitas outras. ABSTRACT: The notion of epistemic community is crucial for the characterization of observability, a cornerstone for Bas van Fraassen&#39;s constructive empiricism. As a matter of fact, observable is, to him, a short for observable-by-us. In this work, it will be shown that the alleged rigidity of the author of The Scientific Image, appa...

Neste ano de 2020, celebra-se o quadragésimo aniversário de The Scientific Image, o seminal livro de Bas van Fraassen. Causa surpresa, depois de tanto tempo, ainda mais considerando o quanto a proposta desse autor foi debatida nestas quatro décadas, a publicação, no número de março da revista Metascience, de mais uma resenha da obra do fundador do empirismo construtivo. Em “Concluding unscientific image”, Hans Halvorson defende que nela não se propõe apenas uma defesa de uma perspectiva antirrealista acerca da ciência - e, ao mesmo tempo, uma crítica ao realismo científico -, mas se coloca também em discussão o próprio modo de fazer filosofia que, desde Quine, parecia dominar a filosofia analítica. O presente estudo pretende focar nas alegações de Halvorson acerca daquilo que a afirmação da adequação empírica de uma teoria comportaria - e que segundo ele, van Fraassen teria em mente - e mostrar que talvez não correspondam àquilo que van Fraassen realmente defende em seu livro.

Martin Kusch has recently defended Bas van Fraassen’s controversial view on microscopes, according to which these devices are not “windows on an invisible world”, but rather “image generators”. Both authors also claim that, since in a microscopic detection it is not possible to empirically investigate the geometrical relations between all the elements involved, one is entitled to maintain an agnostic view about the reality of the entity allegedly represented by the produced image. In this paper I argue that, contrary to what Kusch maintains, this might not be a neutral way to render scientific evidence. Moreover, a constructive empiricist can support a realist interpretation of microscopic images. In fact, constructive empiricism and van Fraassen’s own anti-realism do not necessarily amount to the same thing.

A ênfase no papel da observação, uma das características salientes do empirismo, está reafirmada no empirismo construtivo de Bas van Fraassen através da primazia atribuída por esse à distinção entre observável e inobservável. Neste artigo será mostrado que, apesar de sua atualidade em filosofia da ciência, particularmente graças â enfase que van Fraassen lhe atribui, a questão da observação e da observabilidade na verdade é tão antiga quanto a própria filosofia e remete ao desejo, definitório do empirismo, de manter-se ‘dentro dos limites’.

issn 2179-9180 a rigorous characterization of observability, later endorsed, apparently, by van Fraassen (cf. Muller & van Fraassen 2008). However, an analysis of what it means to observe is needed to secure Muller's 'definition'. Van Fraassen always maintained that observation is an empirical matter, but I argue that a philosophical analysis is also needed and that van Fraassen himself relied on philosophical principles to address the issue of observability.

Early modern empiricists thought that the nature of perceptual experience is given by citing the object presented to the mind in that experience. Hallucination and illusion suggest that this requires untenable mind-dependent objects. Current orthodoxy replaces the appeal to direct objects with the claim that perceptual experience is characterized instead by its representational content. This paper argues that the move to content is problematic, and reclaims the early modern empiricist insight as perfectly consistent, even in cases of illusion, with the realist contention that these direct objects of perception are the persisting mind-independent physical objects we all know and love.

Estimado docente Informo a Ud. que revisé y tomo conocimiento de la actividad práctica/ aplicada (ENE) y de la rúbrica (pauta de revisión) con la que seré evaluado, según mi desempeño en la realización de la tarea. "G&P ASESORÍA CONTABLE" En materia financiera, es muy importante considerar que las empresas se ven enfrentadas a la necesidad de tomar decisiones que están asociadas a aquellos activos en los que deberán invertir para posibilitar sus operaciones, y a la forma de financiarlos. Dado lo anterior, toda empresa, no importando su giro comercial ni envergadura, debe aprender a discriminar entre administración financiera de corto y largo plazo.

Objectives Our primary objective was to determine the association of maternal serum analytes in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) stratified by umbilical artery (UA) Doppler versus pregnancies with appropriately grown for gestational age (AGA) and its potential use as screening model. Methods Retrospective cohort evaluating first and second trimester maternal serum aneuploidy screening markers in women complicated with IUGR [90 with absent or reversed end diastolic velocity (AREDV), 46 with UA systolic/ diastolic ratio ≥95th percentile and 215 with normal UA Doppler] versus 2590 women with AGA fetuses (control). Results Extreme levels of each analyte were significantly more common in the IUGR/AREDV group than in AGA group: inhibin A >97th percentile [≥2.27 multiples of the median (MoM)], OR: 41 (95% CI: 21-80); unconjugated estriol <3rd percentile (≤0.6 MoM), OR: 17.2 (95% CI: 8.1-42); AFP >97th percentile (≥1.88 MoM), OR: 15 (95% CI: 8.2-27); PAPP-A <3rd percentile (≤0.33 MoM), OR: 13 (95% CI: 6.6-25.5); and free-beta human chorionic gonadotrophin second trimester >97th percentile (≥3.24 MoM), OR: 11.6 (95% CI: 4.2-32). In a subgroup of pregnancies in which all markers were evaluated on each patient, a combination of abnormal markers detected 73% (95% CI: 54-87%) of IUGR/AREDV fetuses. When maternal risk factors were included into the risk calculation, it increased to 91% (95% CI: 76-98%). Conclusions Abnormal maternal serum aneuploidy markers preferentially identify those pregnancies at greatest risk of IUGR with AREDV in the UA.

O objetivo do presente estudo e analisar o conceito de observabilidade segundo Bas van Fraassen e a relevância desse conceito para a vertente filosofica conhecida como Empirismo Construtivo. Nosso exame mostrara como a questao da discriminacao entre a parte observavel e a parte inobservavel do mundo desenvolve um papel crucial na discussao acerca do empreendimento cientifico, independentemente das posicoes filosoficas conflitantes. A dicotomia observavel / inobservavel e fundamental para o empirismo logico, mas nao deixa de ser relevante para a posicao adversaria, o realismo cientifico. Procuraremos demonstrar que a emergencia de uma nova forma de antirrealismo, o empirismo construtivo de van Fraassen, como uma terceira via entre as duas vertentes, sera alicercada nessa dicotomia. A centralidade da nocao de observabilidade no debate atual da filosofia da ciencia sera tambem evidenciada neste trabalho.

Introduction: Four tests are performed on the 20th to 15th week of gestation . These tests include Triple Markers and Inhibin A Markers. Research has shown that abnormal levels of quadruple markers are useful in predicting side effects of pregnancy, and several studies have shown that there is a significant relationship between abnormal levels of four tests and preterm delivery, preeclampsia, pregnancy pressure, intrauterine growth restriction, and premature rupture of fetal curves. There are few previously published large studies that evaluated combination of quad screen markers,the aim of this study was to predict the predictive value of quadruple tests in the second trimester of pregnancy in the diagnosis of complications, especially the prediction of fetal death and abortion at birth. Method: This is a longitudinal study. All pregnant women in their second trimester who referred to Zabol city labaratory in 1995 and 1996 for Quad Marker testing were included. The exclusion criter...

Resumo: O presente trabalho utiliza a chamada "concepção semântica" das teorias físicas para examinar o estudo realizado por Descartes sobre o fenômeno do arco-íris. Essa concepção parece ser a mais adequada para esse caso, tendo em vista o privilégio dos modelos na abordagem cartesiana. Nesse sentido, não parece ser possível concluir que esse estudo se configure como uma teoria física, como estimam alguns autores, embora Descartes tenha obtido valores corretos para o raio do arco-íris,ao fazer uso da lei de refração. Palavras-chave: modelos, Descartes, concepção semântica, teoria física, arco-íris.