Second Temple Studies

This chapter examines some of the assumptions that are typically employed when dealing with the development of the Hebrew Bible. The first part of the chapter is a critique of the very term "Jewish Bible." It points out some of the problems with the term and make a plaidoyer against being politically correct. The second part focuses on what it means to explain the "development" of the Hebrew Bible and suggests that diachronic analysis alone cannot fully explain its formation. In this author's view, proper understanding of the development of the Bible requires drawing upon intellectual and literary models more commonly associated with the period of the “reception of scripture” than with conventional composition history.

Recent arcaeological research has revealed a vast amount of data enabling a better undersanding of building of the Herodian period. It is possible to assume that Josephus' description (War V, V.2) may refer to a certain method of paving called Opus Sectile which was used on the Temple Mount at the end the first century BCE. This method is well known from numerous Herodian sites in this region, a paving tecnique practiced with multi-colored boards which were integrated together to form varied compositions.

Most of the literature on the Temple Mount, published since the earliest scientific investigations there in the 19th century, have dealt with attempts to reconstruct the precise locations, the ground-plans and appearance of the Jewish Temples of Solomonic, post-Exilic and Herodian times.  Important work has also been concerned with recording the numerous Muslim monuments located there, which mostly date from Medieval times.  Only very restricted scientific enquiry has been conducted on the early archaeological history of the area within the Temple Mount.  This dearth of archaeological information prompted the present authors to collect together as much as was available on this topic from published and archival sources.  In pursuit of this investigation, a fresh examination of original plans and drawings pertaining to the Temple Mount was made in the map and manuscript archives of the 19th century in the Palestine Exploration Fund in London.  During the course of our work, which was undertaken at intervals between 1991 and 1995, we were pleasantly surprised to find original sketch-plans, mainly the work of Wilson and Schick, many of which had never previously been published or only produced in a schematic form.  Further research has also shed light on additional written accounts, drawings and watercolours in these archives. The purpose of this book, therefore, is to present readers with factual information about the cisterns, conduits and other underground chambers of the Haram, including the passages of the Double and Triple Gates, the subterranean vaults of the so-called Solomon's Stables and the Cave of the Sakhra under the Dome of the Rock.  We believe that we are providing a useful service by abstracting, collating and analysing both archival and previously published  material.

from the 2010 conference, to be published in in ‘And God Breathed into Man the Breath of Life’ – Dust of the Ground and Breath of Life (Gen 2.7): The Development of a Dualistic Anthropology in Early Judaism and Christianity, and Their Umwelts (ed. J.T.A.G.M. van Ruiten and G.H. van Kooten; Themes in Biblical Narrative; Leiden: Brill, forthcoming)

Some scholars say the First and Second Temples were located such that the Holy of Holies was situated at the place directly beneath the Dome of the Rock. Others say they were actually located to  the south or to the north of  that spot. Passages in the Talmud and from Muslim and Christian historians of the Umayyid conquest of Jerusalem support the third alternative.

This study will consider the materiality of the Jedaniah collection from Elephantine through the lenses of process theory of identity and temporal-spatial discourse. The Jedaniah collection is composed of ten Aramaic documents, spanning at least twenty years in the mid-fifth century BCE. The documents include copies of letters sent and received by members inside of the "Jewish" community as well as Persian-backed authority figures. Since these texts were discovered in 1907, many scholars have discussed their content in relation to their "Jewish" themes, but few have questioned the theoretical frameworks employed for examining the material nature of the documents. A methodological framework will be presented that sets process theory of identity in conversation with Thomas Tweed's temporal-spatial theory. Process theory of identity has developed in the context of post-colonial discourse in order to explore how colonialized communities construct hybrid, dynamic identities in response to the internalized experience of colonialization. The works of Jon L. Berquist, Christiane Karrer-Grube, and Katherine E. Southwood, in particular, suggest that both the rule of the Persian Empire over the community at Elephantine and the broader inter-cultural interactions in this sub-province of the Persian Empire should be examined through a lens that accounts for the dynamics of imperial power and the hybridity of process identity common to colonized communities. Moreover, it is appropriate to consider temporal-spatial movement in the Persian Empire as it is reflected and developed through the material artifacts of the Aramaic missives in the Jedaniah collection, since a missive by nature is a temporally-delayed text sent between geographically separated communities. The result of this missive communication is an imperially-structured distal community discourse, which develops over time in a network of spatially removed community nodes and authorities. Tweed's analysis of space as differentiated, kinetic, interrelated, generated, and generative is used in this study as a productive means of analyzing these Aramaic letters as texts that actively construct the identity of this colonized group across space and time. In addition, analysis in light of process theory of identity and temporal-spatial theory will shed light on the challenges of this community's debated "Jewish" identity. As a conquered province within the Achaemenid empire, the population of Yev (‫,יב‬ that is, Elephantine), and its subgroups are an ancient context ripe with characteristics in common with modern day displaced and colonized communities. Having been dispossessed of their lands and political autonomy, the inhabitants of Yev exhibit the hybridity of their colonial identities through their intertwined relationships with the Persian authorities and one another. The missives central to this study, the Jedaniah letters (5 th c. BCE), are a fruitful source of data for the process of identity formation, since they themselves both record and advance an inter-group conflict on the island of Yev. 1 The letters in this collection originated over the course of at least twenty years on Elephantine Island, from 419 to post-407 BCE. The majority of them are addressed to or mention an individual named Jedaniah bar Gemariah, a leader in the community. 2 The content of the letters 1 This collection is composed of 10 documents, including copies of letters sent to Yev and letters received at Yev from other locations, referenced in The Textbook of Aramaic Documents as A4.1-A4.10 (Porten, Bezalel, and Yardeni, Ada, eds, Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt (Magnes, 1986)). 2 P. Grelot, 'Études sur le 'Papyrus Pascal' d'Elephantine', Vetus Testamentum, 4 (1954), 349-384.

Judaizm czasów Jezusa był bardziej sposobem życia i widzenia świata niż systemem doktrynalnym. Być Żydem znaczyło żyć w określony sposób. Wydaje się, że więcej kontrowersji dotyczyło praktyk religijnych niż artykułów wiary. Każda dziedzina życia regulowana była przez prawo natury religijnej. Prezentacja judaizmu początków ery chrześcijańskiej opiera się na analizie materiałów źródłowych z tego okresu bądź związanych z nim nicią merytoryczną. Pierwszym zagadnieniem, które przybliża niniejsza praca, jest instytucja świątyni jerozolimskiej i łączący się z nią kult ofiarniczy oraz sposób celebracji dni i czasów świętych. Następnie omówione zostały poszczególne grupy i stronnictwa działające w Palestynie w pierwszej połowie I stulecia po Chr. Wiodącą rolę w myśli i praktyce judaizmu odegrała tradycja literacka, na czele z Torą, co szabat odczytywaną w synagodze. Autor przedstawił także szerzej pojętą spuściznę literacką judaizmu. Kolejnym przedmiotem prezentacji stała się instytucja synagogalna. Obraz judaizmu początków ery chrześcijańskiej dopełnia omówienie niektórych zwyczajów religijnych, związanych z rytmem i doniosłymi wydarzeniami życia jednostek.



Spis treści

PRZEDMOWA
WSTĘP

I. PROBLEM ŹRÓDEŁ

JÓZEF FLAWIUSZ
FILON Z ALEKSANDRII
APOKRYFY STAREGO TESTAMENTU I LITERATURA JUDEO-HELLENISTYCZNA
MANUSKRYPTY ZNAD MORZA MARTWEGO
LITERATURA RABINICZNA
II. ŚWIĄTYNIA

ZNACZENIE I ŚWIĘTOŚĆ ŚWIĄTYNI
ŚWIĄTYNIA HERODA
PERSONEL ŚWIĄTYNNY
DZIEŃ W ŚWIĄTYNI
Dzień powszedni
Szabat
Święta
Dzień Pojednania
Regalim – święta pielgrzymie.
Pascha
Święto Tygodni
Święto Namiotów
Nowy Rok
Nów księżyca
III. KULT OFIARNICZY

IDEA I ZNACZENIE OFIARY
RYT OFIARNICZY
Przedstawienie ofiary
Włożenie rąk na dar ofiarny
Zabicie zwierzęcia i ryt pokropienia
Spalenie (i spożycie) ofiary
RODZAJE OFIAR
‚olah
hattat
‚aszam
zabah szelamim
neder
zebah hattôdah
nedabah
minhah
IV. DNI I CZASY ŚWIĘTE

DNI ŚWIĄTECZNE NAKAZANE W PRAWIE
Szabat
Jom Kippur
Pesah
Sukkot
Szavuot
Rosz Ha-Szanah
Rosz Hodesz
DNI ŚWIĄTECZNE DODANE Z BIEGIEM CZASU
Purim
Hanukkah
ROK SZABATOWY I JUBILEUSZOWY
Rok szabatowy
Rok jubileuszowy
V. UGRUPOWANIA RELIGIJNE

FARYZEUSZE
Faryzeusze za czasów Chrystusa – rys historyczny
Teologia i praktyki faryzeuszy
SADUCEUSZE
Saduceusze za czasów Chrystusa – rys historyczny
Wierzenia i praktyki saduceuszy
QUMRAŃCZYCY – ESSEŃCZYCY
Qumrańczycy – esseńczycy za czasów Chrystusa – rys historyczny
Wierzenia i praktyki qumrańczyków – esseńczyków
ZELOCI I SYKARYJCZYCY
Zeloci i sykaryjczycy w czasach Chrystusa – rys historyczny
Wierzenia i praktyki zelotów i sykaryjczyków
UCZENI W PIŚMIE
Uczeni w Piśmie w czasach Chrystusa – rys historyczny
Wierzenia i praktyki uczonych w Piśmie
HERODIANIE
Herodianie w czasach Chrystusa – rys historyczny
Wierzenia i praktyki Herodian
SAMARYTANIE
Samarytanie w czasach Chrystusa – rys historyczny
Wierzenia i praktyki Samarytan
VI. TRADYCJA LITERACKA

PRAWO
PROROCY
PISMA
LITERATURA APOKALIPTYCZNA I INNE PISMA
VII. SYNAGOGA

ROLA SYNAGOG ZA CZASÓW CHRYSTUSA
MODLITWA W SYNAGODZE
VIII. NIEKTÓRE ZWYCZAJE

MODLITWA UŚWIĘCAJĄCA DZIEŃ
NARODZINY I ŚMIERĆ
Narodziny
Nadanie imienia
Obrzezanie
Wykup pierworodnych
Śmierć i zwyczaje pogrzebowe
MAŁŻEŃSTWO
Zaręczyny
Zawarcie małżeństwa
Możliwość rozwodu
ŚLUBY I PRZYSIĘGI
Śluby
Przysięgi
POSTY I DANINY
Posty
Daniny
POSŁOWIE
WYKAZ SKRÓTÓW
BIBLIOGRAFIA

L'image du grand prêtre réformateur dans la littérature du second Temple BERNARD BARC L'origine mosaïque de la Torah a été tacitement admise jusqu'à la fin du xviF s. Lorsqu'elle fut remise en question par Richard Simon, et après lui par Spinosa, le personnage d'Esdras se substitua tout naturellement à celui de Moïse. Puisque la rédaction de la Torah s'était faite par étapes, son achèvement ne pouvait en effet qu'être lié à celui qui l'apporta de Babylone à Jérusalem et en fit, avec l'aval du pouvoir perse, le texte sacré de la religion judéenne.

This volume of updated and revised essays consolidates the work that I have done on religious experience in ancient Judaism and Christianity. Building on the text-centered work that characterizes much of Second Temple studies, these essays reintegrate ancient Jewish and Christian texts with various aspects of the flesh-and-blood experience of religion. In these essays, I aim to overcome the mind-body dualism that dominates the study of ancient texts by offering ways to imagine the phenomenological experience of these texts by ancient peoples. Available now at Peeters Press

The purpose of this volume is to illustrate the use of the Leviticus material in the Dead Sea Scrolls and "to show how closely Leviticus influenced the composition of texts in both the Qumran and pre-Qumranic communities or the wider movements of which they were a part" (8-9). Choi effectively achieved this purpose, systematically pointing to quotations, allusions, and interpretations of the text of Leviticus in several late Second Temple period works. He demonstrates how Leviticus, especially the Holiness Code of Lev 16-27, has influenced the structures, theologies, and ideologies of these works. The book is clearly written and well-organized. After a brief introduction in which Choi discusses methodological issues and approaches, the second chapter presents the manuscripts of Leviticus from the Judean Desert. Each manuscript is accompanied by a description of its content, physical characteristics, scribal features, and textual affiliation. Choi correctly considers 4QReworked Pentateuch manuscripts as copies of the Pentateuch, in accordance with the growing scholarly consensus regarding their scriptural status. The Leviticus Scroll from Nahal Arugot and Mur/ḤevLev are not included, following Eibert Tigchelaar, who described them as unprovenanced (10-11). However, the classification of the cryptic texts 4Q249j-l as scriptural manuscripts, as well as the identification of 2Q9 with Lev 23:1-3 rather than with Num 18:8-9, as suggested by Baillet in djd 3 and accepted by Tov, Kugler and Baek, Himbaza, and others, seems doubtful. Choi concludes that "there was probably a single edition of Leviticus in circulation" (47), confirming the claim that the text of Leviticus is relatively stable (Ulrich; Kugler and Baek). As most of the data in Chapter ii are already accessible elsewhere, Choi stresses that its main contribution is to point to the function of the manuscripts (11). He bases this on their material features, such as size, layout, and script, while relying on the principal editions of the various manuscripts. Unfortunately, in certain cases, such as in 4QLevc (24-25), Choi cites the material considerations offered in the respective principal editions without explication or reevaluation. Choi concludes that many of the Leviticus manuscripts can be classified as large or very large scrolls. These scrolls were prestigious copies that were suitable for public cultic settings, indicating that Leviticus was treated as important in Second Temple Judaism. However, Choi does not consider the possibility that large-format manuscripts, notably those that included not only Leviticus but also Exodus or Numbers, may have contained the entire Pentateuch. If so,

This paper explores the complicated subject of the identity of the Persian king titled "Ahasuerus" in the Bible and why this author believes a reasonable case can be made for Darius I as this Persian king of 127 provinces.

This paper also looks at the Medo-Persian administrative origins of the word "Artaxerxes" and offers an argument why this title may have been used by the author of the book of Ezra to refer to Persian kings decades before it was chosen as a throne name by the Persian king Logimanus.

Current scholarship typically treats the wilderness temptation account as a visionary experience, symbolic description, or dramatization, identifying it as haggadic midrash rather than historical narrative.  Absence of Old and New Testament analogs for the temptation prompts a search for parallels in literature of the Second Temple Period and Apostolic Age, and a direct affinity with the psychological dualism within some of these texts is demonstrated. Early Tannaitic descriptions of disputation with a personified ‘evil inclination’ (yetzer ha ra), are shown to be more relevant analogs than later Talmudic accounts of rabbis tempted by Satan. The combination of this socio-historical evidence provides strong support for a reading of the wilderness temptation as an account of Jesus’ internal struggle with his own desires, rather than a battle of will against a supernatural evil being.

This paper reexamines the problem of the origins of a popular medieval and modern image of the devil as an anthropomorphic creature with hooves and horns and seeks to reconstruct the analogous ancient image of a satyr-like devil as it could be wit- nessed in diverse sources, including Hellenistic mythology, rabbinic legends, and early Christian texts. It seems that, not belonging completely to any of these worlds, this therianthropic motif emerges from a complicated literary history wherein Greco- Roman Pan, Jewish seirim, and other mythological figures graft themselves and their imagery around the forces of the demonic. The main argument of the paper as a whole centers around the place of 3 Baruch in this complicated history. This composition may contain the only physical description and detailed treatment of demonic seirim-satyrs in early Jewish literature and the earliest notion of satyr-like demons available to us.

("Such explanations are very pretty in general, but are the inventions of a very clever and laborious and not altogether enviable man, for no other reason than because after this he must explain the forms of the Centaurs, and then that of the Chimaera, and there presses in upon him a whole crowd of such creatures, Gorgons and Pegas, and multitudes of strange, inconceivable, portentous natures. If anyone disbelieves in these, and with a rustic sort of wisdom, undertakes to explain each in accordance with probability, he will need a great deal of leisure." [Phaedrus 229d-e])

When the Babylonian Talmud tells of the grave evil of שנאת חינם, or hatred without rightful cause, it should come as a historical lesson to the Jewish people that when they separated themselves from one another, defeat from an outside nation was right around the corner.  The choice to separate from the nations is an intrinsic characteristic of the collective Israelite memory whose traditions gave forth a tendency to separate also from one another.  The Bible is full of choices being made which eventually led the nation of Israel to return to Canaan, establish a monarchy and build a magnificent Temple in Jerusalem.  For brief periods in Israel's early history, there existed a balance of power between the monarchy, the priesthood and the prophets.  These institutions provided legitimacy to one another  over the centuries during the times of strength and during the separation of the kingdom into two and finally the exile of the ten tribes of Israel by Assyria in c. 722 B.C.E. which left only the kingdom of Judea ruled by King David's descendants. 
The Babylonian Exile shook the foundations of leadership amongst the Jewish people effectively putting an end to the monarchy.  When this fundamental tier was taken from the Judean people they were forced to develop a new system of national direction when Cyrus, the new Persian overlord, allowed them to return to their land in 539 B.C.E.  Regardless of the misplaced messianic hope which was placed in the descendants of the last king Jehoiachin: Sheshbazzar, Shaltiel and Zerubabel, it was obvious that the nation would never be the same.  The concentration of the people around the Temple building gave extraordinary power to the priesthood which was also entrusted to fill in the gap which the monarchy had left.  Difficulties arose as the well known idiom of, 'power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely', became true for the Judean priesthood.  The priesthood became increasingly aristocratic and separated itself from the people who began to search for other spiritual sources which they found in the Sages of the Great Synagogue. 
"The Jerusalem theocracy gradually [developed] and transformed the Priests into an exclusive caste, superior to the people, sometimes oppressing it with a high hand; they constituted the wealthy landed group, and quite naturally drew away from the poor and their troubles.  The urban population sought other intellectual leaders who lived and thought in a manner more akin to themselves.  Hence rose the class of scribes, the flesh and blood of the broad city populace, which took upon itself the task of interpreting the Torah neglected by the priests."
The Sages were remnants of the age of kings and prophets who were cautious of the fact that the Temple had been constructed under the auspices of a foreign power and they had lingering questions about its legitimacy.  It was in this environment that the various sects were born, each claiming to represent the authentic Judaism who had inherited the mantle of Israel.  This motif would characterize the banners being raised by each of the sects who would turn to foreign enemies rather than to their own people in the spirit of reconciliation.                       
As influential as the Exodus is to the Israel's formative period of development, so too was the development of sectarian politics in the Land of Israel during the Second Temple Period to Judaism.  Methodologically the longue durée of the Annales School will provide an exemplary model for addressing this vast subject in its proper context.  Just as the definition of longue durée is two fold, so too will this seminar attempt to address the development of sectarianism in the Second Temple Period.  Longue durée holds that there should be a priority given to long term historical structures over actual events and that the approach as a whole must incorporate social scientific methods into its historical model. 
      Translating this model into a history of Judean sectarianism means that a comprehensive historical survey of Second Temple Judea must be undertaken if there is to emerge a pattern of comprehensible development.  The Jewish people are a nation whose development has been taking place for thousands of years and to leave out a part of their past is to leave out an understanding of any period being discussed.  This seminar will explore six hundred years of history which defined the Second Temple Period (530 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.) with an expressed purpose of coming closer to an overall perspective of the sectarian issues which helped define the overall history of the nation.  The methodology of recognizing long term development of prominent sects in Judea is intended to bring about a greater appreciation of their ability to adapt and to understand how groundbreaking events which affected the Judean nation (i.e. Hellenism) did so through sectarian colors.  The pattern which will emerge is one that over the entire period of the Second Temple did not change dramatically.  Incorporation of social scientific methods into the model of sectarian growth calls for an extensive study into the relationship between the aristocratic caste of priests supported by foreign or domestic rulers that were opposed by a wide spectrum of observant masses led by their Sages and, at times, their own priests .  What will transpire will be a familiar social model of the rich versus the poor and the consequential social-political ramifications which impacted the Judean people as a whole.
Far be it from this author to undermine the profound influence of Hellenism during the Second Temple Judaism, but it must be kept in perspective since it was not the defining line which demarcated the major sects under discussion; instead Hellenism was a long term phenomena rising and falling in its influence upon Judeans for hundreds of years from the start of the fourth century onwards.  The reaction of the Judean people to Hellenistic influences is a vital part in the identification of sectarian development and will be explored extensively below. 
The culmination of the seminar will be to take an example of three sects in the late Second Temple Period whom historiography would have us believe were drastically opposed to one another , that of the Zealots, Essenes and the formative Christian Church, to show how sectarian commonalities give new definitions to the historical truths we take for granted.  The class conflict amongst the Jewish priests of the Second Temple will hopefully show that the divide was not between those who followed the "poor priests", which included the Zealots and the Christians; but rather, there existed a continued social polemic between the aristocratic Priests and the leaders of the poor, who just so happened to include the aforementioned impoverished priests.  The phenomenon of apocalyptic messianic personalities throughout the Second Temple Period was so common (cf. Essenes) that their crucifixion by the Roman Authorities became a daily occurrence and would not have caused much more of an outrage than was already present in classic Judean society.  The foundation church's ideology and activities, once reconstructed, will critique the dogmatism behind the Pella flight legend which supposes that the early Christians peacefully left Jerusalem with prophetic forewarning of their city's immanent destruction.  The line between the sectarian divide and the sympathies they held for one another as a single nation fighting for its freedom will become blurred leaving the groundwork for a new methodological approach to understanding the Second Temple period as a whole.

Readers have long wondered what is the meaning of the dog that briefly appears in the Jewish fairy tale known as the Book of Tobit. This article considers common answers such as influence from Ahikar, the Odyssey, influence of Persian culture and influence of folktale and goes into depth of the dog's significance in human culture, especially in connection with healing and defeating dragons and evil spirits and raises questions about the dog's possible connection to the archangel Raphael.

Сказал рабби Симеон: «Истинно, хотя члены Братства-ученики истории Творения, обла дающие познанием чудес и восприятием пу тей Святого, да будь Он Благословен, но даже среди них мало кто знает, как истолковать ее в связи с тайной великого дракона». Зогар II.34б

The present study explores the origins of Jewish ritual immersion – inquiring when immersion first appeared as a rite of purification and what the reasons may have been for this development specifically at this time. Textual and archaeological evidence suggest that immersion emerged at some point during – or perhaps slightly prior to – the first half of the first century B.C.E. It is suggested here that the practice grew out of contemporary bathing practices involving the Hellenistic hip bath. Through a process of ritualization, full-body immersion emerged as a method of purificatory washing clearly differentiated from profane bathing. By way of a subsequent process of 'hyper-ritualization', some ventured further to distinguish purificatory ablutions from profane bathing by restricting use of 'drawn water' for purification and by assigning impurity to anyone who bathed in such water. Before us is an enlightening example of one of the many ways wherein Jewish religious practices evolved and adapted in response to Hellenistic cultural innovations.

The Temple in Jerusalem, both the First and Second, was conceived and appointed in a manner intended to enhance its nature as a microcosm of the universe. I will illustrate this nature in several ways, first mentioning some of the appurtenances in the Temple, then studying the relevant texts in the Tanakh, listing some Temple portrayals in early visual  art, then reading a passage each from the Talmud and the Mandæan Book of John, then surveying other domes in ancient architecture, glancing at the special question of the Qa’aba, and closing with an examination of the Dome of the Rock, which today graces the Temple Mount.

In recent years, mainly due to the uncompromising struggle of Ultra-Orthodox activists against archaeological excavations of ancient burials, the study of such areas has become less prominent than it was in the past and the amount of new discoveries has likewise diminished. However, due to the extensive development that has taken place throughout the city and has led to hundreds of salvage excavations, several discoveries and investigations of Jewish burial caves have become possible. Some of these finds were rather extraordinary, involving proper excavation of some burial caves, whereas the investigation of others had to be less thorough.


This article describes two monumental burial caves from the Second Temple period (Early Roman Period) documented in the northern necropolis of Jerusalem.

This paper presents an analysis of the architectural components of the decorated facade followed by a general discussion and comparative study of the composition of the entire facade as a means of providing a relative dating for the burial caves.

most of the area covered by the present salvage excavation had previously been dug by B. Mazar and Ben-Dov, usually down to bedrock, and this was followed by conservation work. Thus, only a few undisturbed locations were left for us to excavate. We also dismantled some walls to facilitate reconstruction. In the case of some architectural elements, the previous expedition left no dating material, and we had to accept their conclusions without being able to recheck them. Among these elements are the easternmost of the series of large Umayyad buildings and the large Byzantine building on the southeastern side of the excavation area. These structures are not described in this report although they appear on our plans and sections. Likewise, we have no data on post-Umayyad buildings or deposits in the area of our excavation.
Our excavation (30 x 21 m) is bounded on the north by the southern wall of the Herodian Temple Mount  next to the blocked ‘Triple Gate.’ It includes four areas, extending from north to south . Area A, directly in front of the ‘Triple Gate,’ contains a large miqwe (ritual bath). Area B contains three rock-cut, vaulted rooms supporting the monumental staircase to the ‘Triple Gate.’ In Area C, south of the vaulted rooms, we dismantled two reconstructed walls, excavated the fills and exposed the entire rock-cut surface on which the walls stood. In Area D we cleaned a previously excavated rock-cut room, dubbed the ‘Secco Room.’
We shall first present the architecture and stratigraphy of Areas A–D, followed by a description of some of the artifacts and architectural fragments we uncovered, many of which originated in Herod’s Royal Stoa. Some of these fragments have bearing on the reconstruction of the Royal Stoa and so we shall conclude with a present a brief, new evaluation of this building.

A fonte mais conhecida e estudada sobre a Primeira Guerra entre judeus e romanos, certamente é Bellum Iudaicum de Flávio Josefo. Esta se trata da obra mais consultada quando queremos estudar as relações estabelecidas entre os judeus e os romanos no século I E.C., principalmente, quando objetivamos lidar com Identidades e Alteridades no Mundo Antigo. No entanto, outro autor dedicou um espaço em uma de suas coletâneas de livros. Falamos de Tácito. Este autor viveu entre 55-120 E.C., mas só passou a produzir obras a partir de 98 E.C., com sua Germânia e Vida de Agrícola. Mas foi em sua obra Histórias (105 E.C.), no seu quinto livro, que encontramos a narrativa desse conflito, cujas devidas atenções daremos nesta produção monográfica. Para o esclarecimento dessas relações judaico-romanas, segundo a ótica de um autor necessariamente romano, optamos por discutir temos como Imperialismo, Romanização e Identidade na Roma Antiga. Além destes, buscamos situar os romanos (os gregos) e os judeus no contexto que precedeu essa primeira guerra em 70 E.C., isto é, como se deram as negociações entre esses grupos humanos nesse período. As culturas judaica, romana e a de alguns outros povos, terão espaço célebre neste trabalho. Isto seria importante para buscarmos entender os alicerces por trás da eventualidade do conflito. Apresentaremos e analisaremos a fonte (o Livro V), em seus treze primeiros capítulos, incluindo uma tradução em língua portuguesa, objetivando o acesso dos falantes desta, à leitura na íntegra dessa fonte latina.

Uno dei criteri in base ai quali l'ebraismo rabbinico scelse, tra la vasta letteratura religiosa ebraica antica, quali libri si dovessero considerare Sacra Scrittura e quali no, fu proprio il ruolo che in queste opere rivestono gli angeli. Presentati nella Bibbia canonica come semplici portaordini di Dio (come nel sacrificio di Isacco) o suoi tirapiedi per i compiti più imbarazzanti (come nella distruzione di Sodoma), nei testi non canonici risalenti al periodo del Secondo Tempio gli angeli appaiono come figure molto più complesse e importanti. Il loro ruolo è alle volte tradizionalmente subordinato a quello divino: possono essere latori del volere divino agli uomini e delle preghiere umane a Dio, o sacerdoti del suo culto spirituale nell'alto dei cieli, o esercito del bene in battaglia contro le forze del male alla fine dei tempi (come nella Regola della guerra dei Figli della Luce contro i Figli delle Tenebre da Qumran). Ma essi appaiono anche come detentori di poteri sovrumani e magici che gestiscono autono-03 Capelli.indd 57 03 Capelli.indd 57 4 I titoli delle sezioni nella vecchia Bibbia CEI chiamavano ancora «angelo» l'antagonista notturno di Giacobbe allo Jabboq (Gen 32), che per il testo masoretico è un 'ish («uomo»), e che per la sostanza del testo è Dio stesso (cfr.

"This highly innovative collection of essays effectively orients students of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament to the many facets of contemporary Pentateuch studies. One of the major benefits of the volume is that it truly offers several ‘new models’ for Pentateuch studies that are not hampered by tenuous and lengthy discussions of redaction criticism. Further, these new models are informative for as well as intelligible to non-specialized audiences. This volume is bound to make a valuable addition to the bookshelves of students, seminarians and scholars alike.”
—Andrew B. Perrin, Toronto Journal of Theology 24 (2008) 262–263

“This collection of 14 substantive essays aims to account for the reception of the Pentateuch as a uniquely authoritative document in the Persian and Hellenistic periods. The distinguished contributors to this erudite volume propose different models for how, when, why and where this took place. Readers will appreciate the introductory essay by the editors that surveys the complex and contested field explored, for the essayists present a bewildering array of theories. Most of the essays interact with the theory of a ‘Persian imperial authorization’ of the Torah, and this book represents the most sustained discussion of that theory since Persia and Torah (2001), edited by James W. Watts. . . . This is a useful volume for anyone who wants to come up to speed with what is happening in Pentateuchal studies. It shows the field is in flux, indeed it appears to be in crisis, with no theory able to secure a scholarly consensus.”
—Gregory Goswell, Australian Biblical Review

“This informative and well-written volume provides an excellent entry-point for scholars, advanced undergraduates and graduate students to explore the fast-changing world of Pentateuchal theory and the relationship of the Torah to its literary and cultural environment.”
—Daniel M. O’Hare, Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 8 (2008): 253–57

“These excellent essays were first presented as papers or oral presentations at the 2006 international meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature, and they were edited (very nicely) for publication in this volume in ways to render them more accessible to a wider audience of biblical scholars.

“Even though the central theme is the emergence of an authoritative Pentateuch, the authors touch on a number of topics that can be valuable for the scholarly interests of readers in the wider field of biblical studies and Judaica.”
—Robert Gnuse, Catholic Biblical Quarterly 70 (2008): 867–69

“The contributors to this volume seek models helping to understand the Pentateuch’s rise to prominence as a foundational collection of Scriptures in early Judaism and Samaritanism. Most of them focus on the growing acceptance of the Pentateuch in the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods. In their endeavour Frei’s theory of a Persian imperial authorization often serves as a starting point. In their instructive introduction, the editors sketch the larger issues that lie at the background of the questions dealt with in the volume. . . . The volume is very well edited. Indexes enhance the usefulness of the collection.”
—J. Lust, Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 84:1 (2008)

“The articles collected in this volume originated in four panels on biblical and ancient Near Eastern law convened during the 2006 International Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature in Edinburgh. The panels investigated ‘the promulgation and acceptance of the Pentateuch as a prestigious writing in the late Persian and early Hellenistic periods’ (p. 1). However, the editors correctly note that the collection of articles goes well beyond conventional conference proceedings. All the articles were extensively revised, often repeatedly, in a thorough peer review process involving referees and the editors. While the editors offer thanks and apologies for the work they imposed on the authors, they need make no apologies to the readers of the final volume. The extensive review process shows in the consistently high quality of the work included.”
—David A. Bosworth, Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 9 (2009)

“There are many more very fine essays in this volume, and anyone interested in pentateuchal and/or Achaemenid studies would greatly benefit from every one of them.”
—Charles Halton, Bulletin of Biblical Research 19:2 (2009)

“Never [before, has there been] so many interesting details and far reaching aspects of the canonization of the Pentateuch presented in one book. I feel obliged to thank the editors for having organized this conference and done such an excellent editorial work. As they tell (p. 18) all essays were ‘doubly refereed’ and ‘extensively revised’ in order to provide the volume with a higher degree of consistence and legibility than normal. And I can confirm that the editors succeeded in their demanding task in most case.

“Thus, this significant volume makes good progress in clarifying the circumstances, under which the Torah has been canonized. It will be appreciated by all scholars, who are engaged in the recent Pentateuchal discussion, to which it has made a remarkable contribution.”
—Rainer Albertz, Journal for the Study of Judaism, 40:3 (2009): 420–24

“This volume significantly advances our understanding of the processes leading to the establishment of the Torah in its present forms as the foundation document of the Jewish and Samaritan communities. . . . The essays . . . taken as a whole . . . form a contribution which no future work on the subject will be able to ignore.”
—W. J. Houston, Vetus Testamentum 59 (2009)

“This volume of essays is a “must have” for any researcher, teacher, graduate student, or high-level undergraduate student interested in the promulgation and acceptance of the Pentateuch/Torah as authoritative sacred writings for the Jewish and Samarian communities during the late Persian and early Hellenistic Periods. While these 14 essays started out as papers given at an international meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature held in Edinburgh (July 2006)m collectively, they read as much more than a standard proceedings volume. Each essay provides an overview of past research into an aspect of the development of Torah during the post-exilic period, a critique of weaknesses in those approaches, and a proposal for (a) new way(s) of understanding how the first five books became the foundational text not only for the Jewish communities in Yehud/Judea and the diaspora but also for (b) the Samarian (later Samaritan) community.

“The editors are to be congratulated for focusing on ‘cutting edge’ issues, helping to transpose these conference papers into tightly-organized but accessible essays (with all lengthy German and French quotations translated into English), and bringing these provocative pieces of first-class scholarship to a wider audience speedily.”
—Gordon J. Hamilton, Studies in Religion, 2008

“The Torah as the Pentateuch stimulates thinking, keeps the debate alive, and is a good resource for pentateuchal studies.”
—Patrick Mazani, Andrews University Seminary Studies 46 (2008): 282–86

“. . . valuable collection of essays.”
—Graham I. Davies, SOTS Book List 2009 =JSOT 33 (2009): 157–58

“Der vorliegende Aufsatzband ist das Ergebnis einer Tagung der Arbeitsgruppe ‘Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Law’ der Internationalen Konferenz des Society of Biblical Literature in Edinburgh, 2006, und gibt einen hervorragenden Einblick in die aktuelle Diskussionslage in der Pentateuch-Forschung.”
—Tobias H. Duncker and Reinhard Achenbach, Zeitschrift für Altorientalische und Biblische Rechtsgeschichte 14 (2008): 499–506

“Le volume reflète le travail d’un atelier organisé lors de la rencontre internationale de la Society of Biblical Literature à Édimbourg en 2006. Ces rencontres forment un lieu important d’échanges entre l’Europe et l’Amérique du Nord en matière d’exégèse biblique. En ce qui concerne la problématique liée à la promulgation de la Torah en tant que loi religieuse, le volume prouve surtout que l’on est encore très loin d’un quelconque consensus.”
—Jan Joosten, Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieuses 88 (2008): 233–35

“Insgesamt ergibt sich mit dem Sammelband ein repräsentativer Überblick über die derzeitige Forschung zum Themenbereich um Abschulss und Durchsetzung des Pentateuchs. Der Sammelband bietet sich dabei auch für einen schnellen Neueinstieg in diesen wichtigen Forschungsbereich an und ist trotz der besonderen Ausrichtung auf den englischsprachigen Markt auch für den deutschsprachigen Wissenschaftsraum sehr zu empfehllen.”
—Raik Heckl, Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 105 (2010): 197–203""

Approximately thirty tefillin cases were discovered in the Judean Desert. The publishers of these finds distinguished between single-compartment cases, which they identified as "arm-tefillin," and four-compartment cases, which they identified as "head-tefillin." Here I present a further typological distinction between two subtypes among the four-compartment tefillin cases: (1) the "simple-type," in which a single line of stitching separates the compartments from one another, and (2) the "split-type," in which the compartments are separated by incisions in the leather and each compartment is stitched closed individually. It seems likely that some kind of ritual issue is at stake, and an allusion to these two types as competing halakhic practices may be found in the tannaitic literature—with the rabbis ultimately rejecting the "split-type." The Judean Desert finds may represent a synchronic debate between competing groups, a diachronic development, or perhaps practices followed contemporaneously by members of one and the same group.

The purpose of this book is twofold. It aims at providing a survey of – and a Spanish introduction to, which was heretofore lacking – the "radical new perspective on Paul". Yet it also intends to contribute to the latter by re-examining afresh Paul's Jewish background in light of contemporary Second Temple scholarship. – Carlos Segovia

"Carlos A. Segovia has, in several ways, made an important contribution to the study of Paul and Second Temple Judaism. It is hoped that Spanish-speaking communities on both sides of the Atlantic will take notice of this important work. To my knowledge, it represents the best and most updated treatment of Paul within his Second Temple Jewish matrix written from the so- called radical new perspective. . . . The quality and breadth of Segovia’s work merits its translation into English. Pauline scholars across the globe should take notice." – Isaac W. Oliver (Bradley University).

"This book surveys with great clarity the results of the so-called radical new perspective on Paul, which has so far received very little attention in the Spanish-speaking countries and to which the author himself contributes with new insights. A must for all Spanish scholars on, and Spanish readers interested in, Paul." – Antonio Piñero (Universidad Complutense de Madrid).


ABSTRACT:

Was Paul moved by a desire to replace or to reform Judaism, or did he simply want to incorporate the Gentiles into Israel through Christ? To be sure, this is one of the most thoroughly debated issues in contemporary Pauline scholarship – an issue upon which this book tries to shed new light (in dialogue with the work of scholars such as Krister Stendahl, Lloyd Gaston, John Gager, Stanley Stowers, William Campbell, Mark Nanos, Pamela Eisenbaum, Caroline Johnson Hodge, Paula Fredriksen, and David Rudolph) by re-examining the apocalyptic roots of Paul's message in its Second-Temple Jewish setting.

ABSTRACT:

¿Se propuso Pablo superar el judaísmo, reformarlo o simplemente integrar a los gentiles en Israel por medio de Cristo? En otras palabras: ¿fue Pablo cristiano conforme al significado que habitualmente asignamos a este término o continuó siendo judío? He ahí una de las cuestiones más intensamente debatidas hoy en los medios académicos internacionales y a la que este libro trata de dar respuesta. Su hipótesis, adelantada en los útimos años por autores como Krister Stendahl, lloyd Gaston, John Gager, Stanley Stowers, Mark Nanos, Pamela Eisenbaum, Caroline Johnson Hodge y Paula Fredriksen y David Rudolph (partidarios, todos ellos, del que viene llamándose el "nuevo enfoque radical" sobre la figura del Apóstol), es la siguiente: Pablo no abandonó el judaísmo, sino que buscó incorporar a los gentiles a Israel ante la inminencia del fin de los tiempos, instándolos a cooperar con los judíos en la preparación del reino de Dios y en la restauración final de Israel, que ha de verse como el horizonte de su misión a los gentiles. Pero con ello, afirma el autor, Pablo no sólo se opuso a cualquier presunción gentil ante la resistencia de algunos judíos a creer que Jesús era el mesías, sino también a los seguidores de Jesús que pensaban que no todo Israel se salvaría. Este libro reexamina además las raíces apocalípticas del mensaje paulino. """""

To the Jews, Rome was an ancient enemy. Persia had been a haven for a millenia. In 614CE, Persia took Jerusalem from Byzantium, Jews were crucial in this conquest Then Persia betrayed the Jews. This led to massacres of Jews and forced conversions to Christianity under Byzantium The Jews looked for a redeemer. A new prophet was rising in Himyar at this pivotal time, he was considered by some Ish Hamudot-and his name was Muhammad.

Ehud Netzer was the leading figure in Herodian archaeology right up to his sudden death in October 2010, specialising in the architecture of  Herod’s palaces. In the course of his career, there was scarcely a site in Israel where there was a known Herodian palace which Netzer did not excavate. His archaeological findings were so considerable that their
significance is still being evaluated by scholars. This article examines one aspect, namely the light that has been cast on the extent of Roman influence on the art, architecture and construction methods of Herod’s extensive building projects.

In the first century CE Jewish identity was defined in a context of significant religious diversity. This presents those who read Paul’s Letters with a problem: how to locate Paul’s thought within the complicated matrices of Jewish intellectual traditions of this period. This study locates Paul within the matrix of Jewish messianic thought between the second century BCE and the first ccentury CE by comparing conceptual elements of messianic traditions in the Parables of Enoch and the undisputed Letters of Paul. Comparative analysis of the nature and functions of the messiah figures in the Parables and the Letters of Paul demonstrates a remarkable combination of shared elements, indicating that Paul was familiar with the Enochic messiah traditions. The extraordinary combination of shared elements is so striking as to preclude the possibility that the Parables and Paul constituted independent developments. The evidence indicates that Paul developed his concept of the Kyrios out of the Enochic Son of Man traditions, or that Paul was at least influenced by these traditions.

The synagogue at Dura-Europos is undoubtedly the most prominent of the Jewish remains uncovered at the site. Dozens of Jewish coins found in excavations throughout the city have merited far less attention. Alfred Bellinger published a list of these coins in 1949; among the corpus of 14,017 coins found altogether at the site, 47 were identified as coins minted in Judea by Jewish rulers. This study offers the first comprehensive presentation and analysis of these Jewish coins. Following a review and analysis of the limited data on all 47 Jewish coins published in the original report, a full report is presented for the six coins from the Dura collection which are currently housed at the Yale University Art Gallery. This is followed by a discussion about the possible reasons why such a large assemblage of Jewish coins found its way in antiquity from Judea to distant Dura-Europos.

The chalk vessels presented in this chapter belong to a unique group that first appeared in the second half of the 1st century BCE and all but disappeared after the Bar Kokhba Revolt of 132–135 CE. Although vessels in this group have been found at hundreds of sites throughout the country, only a few significant assemblages have been published to date.

The present corpus, which derives in its entirety from a small section of the city dump, excavated on the eastern slope of the City of David (Area D3), is comprised of 1003 fragments of various types of chalk vessels: mugs, pitchers, bowls, lids, stoppers, goblets, trays, large kraters, debitage and additional assorted objects. The quantity of fragments in our assemblage is unrivaled by any other published corpus and provides the first opportunity to conduct a statistical analysis of the frequencies of the various chalk vessel types in use in Jerusalem during the 1st century CE.