Roman aqueducts

Presentamos una metodología para la delimitación, protección y por tanto conservación de los acueductos romanos. Éstos, desde la Antigüedad hasta prácticamente el siglo XIX han abastecido de agua a la mayoría de las ciudades y demás asentamientos humanos, por lo que se trata de una pieza fundamental de los sistemas de gestión integral del agua desarrollados en las diferentes épocas históricas. Este tipo de patrimonio hidráulico presenta unas características propias que dificultan su protección y conservación por parte de las autoridades competentes. Presentamos, por último, un caso práctico consistente en la reconstrucción del trazado hipotético del acueducto romano de Cádiz y los riesgos y afecciones reales que presenta dicho elemento patrimonial.

Στόχος της διατριβής ήταν η διερεύνηση της δομής και λειτουργίας των δικτύων υδροδότησης και αποχέτευσης της Θεσσαλονίκης από τον 8ο αιώνα ως την άλωση από τους Οθωμανούς το 1430. Κύριο δεδομένο αποτέλεσε το δημοσιευμένο αρχαιολογικό υλικό. Παράλληλα, μελετήθηκαν οι ακόλουθοι παράγοντες: 1. Η μορφολογία του εδάφους και το οδικό δίκτυο στο εσωτερικό της πόλης. 2. Η πορεία και οι απολήξεις των εξωτερικών υδραγωγείων, που καθόριζαν τις θέσεις εκκίνησης της διανομής στο εσωτερικό. Επίσης, οι δεξαμενές, αγωγοί, φρεάτια και πύργοι νερού ταξινομήθηκαν και αναλύθηκαν από κατασκευαστική και λειτουργική άποψη. Ακόμη εξετάσθηκαν συστήματα άλλων πόλεων που λειτούργησαν παράλληλα, ενώ αποδόθηκε σχεδιαστικά η μορφή του δικτύου της οθωμανικής περιόδου, με βάση δημοσιευμένα αρχειακά δεδομένα.
Η πρόταση οργάνωσης του δικτύου ύδρευσης διαμορφώνεται ως εξής: Η κυκλοφορία του νερού στις περιοχές της Άνω Πόλης γινόταν με γραμμές αγωγών με βάση τις ισοϋψείς. Νοτιότερα, η υδροδότηση των προς την θάλασσα κατοικημένων περιοχών γινόταν με δίκτυα οργανωμένα κατά μήκος των δρόμων. Εντοπίζονται πέντε “κατακόρυφες” ζώνες διανομής, που συσχετίζονται άμεσα και με τις διοικητικές υποδιαιρέσεις, τις γειτονίες, της πόλης.
Για το αποχετευτικό σύστημα η παροχέτευση του μεγάλου όγκου των νερών και των λυμάτων γινόταν προς τη θάλασσα μέσω κτιστών αγωγών. Ιδιαίτερο ρόλο έπαιζαν οι ρωμαϊκοί συλλεκτήριοι αγωγοί μεγάλης διατομής, οι οποίοι συνέχιζαν να χρησιμοποιούνται σε όλη τη βυζαντινή περίοδο. Οι αγωγοί αυτοί βοηθούσαν στον έλεγχο και τη διευθέτηση των ρεμάτων της πόλης, παροχετεύοντας τα νερά τους. Αποτέλεσμα των σεισμών του 7ου αιώνα ήταν η μερική καταστροφή του αποχετευτικού συστήματος, που αύξησε τις πλημμύρες στο εσωτερικό της πόλης και επιτάχυνε την μεταφορά του εδαφικού υλικού, κυρίως στα νοτιοδυτικά τμήματά της, στο διάστημα από τον 7ο ως τον 14ο αιώνα.
Διερευνήθηκε, ακόμη, η συσχέτιση της οργάνωσης, των λειτουργιών και της βιοτεχνικής παραγωγής της Θεσσαλονίκης με τα δίκτυα υποδομής. Ο έλεγχος του νερού από την κεντρική εξουσία τεκμηριώνεται ως τον 14ο αιώνα. Η συσχέτιση της χωροθέτησης σημαντικών μοναστηριακών ιδρυμάτων με τις κομβικές θέσεις αποθήκευσης και διανομής του υδροδοτικού δικτύου απέδειξε ότι όλες οι σημαντικές δεξαμενές βαθμιαία βρέθηκαν στο εσωτερικό ή στον περιβάλλοντα χώρο μοναστηριών. Έτσι διασφαλίσθηκε η κανονική συντήρησή τους, που είχε άμεση συσχέτιση με την αποφυγή επιδημιών, παράλληλα όμως η Εκκλησία ελέγχει σε μεγάλο βαθμό τη διαχείριση του νερού. Ιδιαίτερη σημασία στην επιβίωση των συστημάτων υποδομής είχε η τεχνική κατάρτιση των συντηρητών των δικτύων.
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The goal of this doctorate dissertation was the investigation of the structure and operation of the water supply and sewer systems of Thessaloniki, from the 8th century to the fall of the city to the Ottomans in 1430. The data used was mainly extracted from already published archaeological work. The following factors were also considered: 1. The morphology of the land and the road networks inside the city. 2. The route of the aqueducts, as well as their endpoints, which determined the starting points for the water distribution network within the walls of the city. Cisterns, pipes, water channels and water towers, found in previous archaeological work, were categorized and analysed from both a construction and an operational perspective. Additionally, water systems that were operational in other cities during the same timeframe were studied. The Ottoman water distribution system of the city was also designed, based on published archival data.
The water supply system proposal is as follows: Water circulation in the Upper City occurred through water channels laid out following the contour lines. In contrast the supply of the inhabited zones towards the south was achieved with water channel networks laid out along the roads. Five ‘vertical’ zones can be found, perpendicular to the east-west avenues, directly correlated to the administrative division of the city into neighborhoods, ‘γειτονίες’.
The highest volume of waste water flowed through a sewer system comprised of built conduits. The Roman sewer water collection ducts held a special place in the system and were continuously used in the Byzantine period, due to their large diameter. These ducts were also utilised to guide the naturally occurring streams through the city. As a result of earthquakes in the 7th century, part of the sewer system was destroyed. This increased the occurrence of floods in the city and accelerated sediment movement towards the southwest outskirts until the 14th century.
Another area of study, was the interrelation between the administration, organisation, artisanal production and the infrastructure systems of Thessaloniki. The control of the water system by the central authority can be documented up to the 14th century. A connection between important nodes of the water supply system and monastery complexes can be made. As time passed, these nodes were found on the grounds of the monasteries, ensuring their proper maintenance and giving the Church control of the water supply system. The technical training of the maintenance workers was of special importance to the survival of the infrastructure systems.

A look at the Roman Aqueducts located in Tarragona, Spain from and civil engineering perspective. Focused on the construction and history of aqueducts, this paper looks at how ancient Tarraco solved its water resource issues and how the Les Ferreras Aqueduct has been view and utilized throughout history.

An architecture & structural engineering, research and study-abroad experience academic paper.

Drexel University- Architecture and Interior's Intensive Study Tour Abroad- Barcelona 2015

Faculty Advisers:
Mark Brack, Department of Architecture
Debra Ruben, Department of Interiors

Mots clés : Nîmes, Uzès, Remoulins, Rome, aqueduc romain, Pont-du-Gard, tour Magne, castellum.

Le Pont-du-Gard et l’aqueduc romain de Nîmes ont-ils été construit sous le règne des empereurs Claude ou Néron, comme il est écrit dans tous les ouvrages savants ? Ont-ils été construit en 20 ans, comme la pyramide de Khéops ?
Et, jusqu’à quand cet incroyable aqueduc a-t-il fonctionné ?

Voilà quelques-unes des questions qui se posent, parmi beaucoup d’autres, auxquelles cet article, concentré sur la datation de l’ensemble de l’aqueduc, répond, en 71 pages et plus de 100 photos exclusives.
Chaque tronçon de l’aqueduc, depuis la Fontaine d’Eure à Uzès, point de départ de l’aqueduc, jusqu’à son bassin d’arrivée, le castellum, à Nîmes, est étudié et daté très précisément, de façon à apporter à la connaissance tant des savants et des spécialistes du monde romain, que du simple curieux ou du touriste, l’histoire véritable et stupéfiante de ce formidable ouvrage d’art, de sa vie et de sa mort aussi brutale que celle de ces deux empereurs qui en sont, peut-être, à l’origine.
Au-delà de l’aqueduc, l’auteur s’est aussi penché sur la datation précise de la célèbre tour Magne, à Nîmes, mais aussi, sur celle de la magnifique mosaïque découverte au cœur de la ville d’Uzès, lors des fouilles de sauvetage, conduites par l’INRA en 2017 et, du coup, sur les débuts de l’histoire romaine du duché.

Des révélations à chaque page et de magnifiques photographies, dont beaucoup infaisables aujourd’hui, pour vous accompagner, chers amis lecteurs, tout au long de cette visite culturelle, mais passionnante, de l’aqueduc romain de Nîmes, et du Pont-du-Gard, le plus beau monument romain encore visible de nos jours.

Abstract : a new 2021 study with the real dates of the construction of the famous roman aqueduct of Nîmes, and his masterpiece, the Pont-du-Gard.
A new history of the aqueduct, with stunning revelations at almost every of the 71 pages of this unique article which sweep away the current knowledges about the story of the roman aqueduct of Nîmes.

Su, tarih sahnesinin en başından itibaren bütün canlılar için en önemli hayat kaynağı olmuştur. Bütün uygarlıklar suya ulaşmaya çalışmış, su için mücadele etmiş, yaşamlarını suyu referans alarak sürdürmüşlerdir. Birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapan ülkemizde de bütün toplumlar temiz suya ulaşmak için su yapıları inşa etmişlerdir. Tarih boyunca birçok ulusun topraklarına katmak istediği İstanbul şehri ise su yapıları bakımından oldukça zengindir. Özellikle şehirde hüküm süren Roma, Bizans (Doğu Roma) ve Osmanlı Devletleri temiz suya erişmek için binlerce su yapısı inşa etmiştir. Roma ve Bizans (Doğu Roma) dönemlerinde suyu biriktirebilmek amacıyla çok sayıda açık ve kapalı sarnıç yapılmıştır. Osmanlı döneminde birçok yeni su yolu inşa edilmekle birlikte Roma ve Bizans dönemlerinden kalan su yolları da yeniden yapılırcasına onarılarak hizmete alınmıştır. Kanunî Sultan Süleyman döneminde İstanbul nüfusunun hızlı bir artış göstermesi üzerine  şehirdeki su kıtlığı doruk noktalara ulaşmış ve Mimarbaşı Sinan tarafından bazı eski Roma dönemi kemerlerinin kalıntıları kullanılarak Kırkçeşme Su Yolu inşa edilmiştir. Tarihi Yarımada’yı besleyen bu isale sisteminde onlarca su kemeri, çökeltme havuzu, galeri ve maksem mevcuttur. Şehrin kuzeye doğru genişlemesi ve Beyoğlu-Beşiktaş gibi yeni yerleşim yerlerinin ortaya çıkmasıyla birlikte buradaki su ihtiyacını çözme adına Taksim Su Yolu inşa edilmiş ve tıpkı Kırkçeşme Su Yolu’nda olduğu gibi Belgrad Ormanları’nda toplanan temiz su, bu bölgelerin su ihtiyacını gidermiştir. Kırkçeşme ve Taksim isalelerinin büyük kısmının günümüzde tahrip edilmiş olmasına karşın bir kısmının özgün işleviyle hâlâ çalışıyor ve sisteme hizmet ediyor olması, su mirasımız açısından kayda değer bir gelişmedir. İki isale hattında mevcut olan su kemeri, maksem, çökeltme havuzu, baca ve galeriler su medeniyetimizin nitelikli birer tezahürüdürler. Bu eserlerin tekil ve bütüncül ölçekte korunması, özgün bir şekilde gelecek nesillere aktarılması ve bütüncül ölçekte yönetim plânlarının hazırlanarak Dünya Miras Listesi’ne dahil ettirilmesi ülkemiz için önemli bir sorumluluktur.

Η λειτουργία οργανωμένων υδραγωγείων τεκμηριώνεται στη Θεσσαλονίκη ήδη από τη ρωμαϊκή εποχή. Στην εργασία αυτή παρουσιάζεται πρόταση για τη χάραξη της πορείας του υδραγωγείου Λεμπέτ σε τοπογραφικό χάρτη της περιοχής με δεδομένα τα αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα, πληροφορίες από ιστορικές και νεότερες πηγές και επιτόπια έρευνα. Επιλύονται προβλήματα που αφορούν τη διαδρομή, τις κλίσεις και τις απολήξεις του υδραγωγείου στην πόλη και προκύπτουν συμπεράσματα για το επίπεδο των τεχνικών γνώσεων των κατασκευαστών και συντηρητών του υδραγωγείου. Ταυτόχρονα δημιουργείται ένα εργαλείο που θα βοηθήσει όχι μόνο την αρχαιολογική έρευνα αλλά και την κατανόηση ζητημάτων που σχετίζονται με την εξέλιξη της κοινωνικής και οικονομικής ζωής της Θεσσαλονίκης. / The operation of aqueducts in Thessaloniki is documented since the Roman era. In this paper a path for the Lebet aqueduct is proposed. It is superimposed on a topographical map of the area, based on data from archaeological finds, historical and newer sources and on the spot investigation. Solutions are proposed for problems regarding the path, its gradient and the terminus of the aqueduct in the city. Deductions about the technical knowledge of the builders and maintainers are, also, made. At the same time a tool is created that will not only help with archaeological research, but it will also lead to the understanding of issues concerning the social and economic life of Thessaloniki.

This contribution is an open access article, and may be found by searching with DOI 10.3390/w14010028,  or on https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/1/28.
In Roman times long distance water transport was realized by means of aqueducts. Water was conveyed in mortared open channels with a downward slope from spring to destination. Also wooden channels and clay pipelines were applied. Until today over 1600 aqueducts have been described, Gallia (France) alone counting more than 300. Whenever a valley was judged to be too wide or too deep to be crossed by a bridge, pressure lines known as ‘inverted siphons’ or simply ‘siphons’ were employed. These closed conduits transported water across a valley according the principle of communicating vessels. About 80 classical siphons are presently known with one out of twenty aqueducts being equipped with a siphon. After an introductory note about aqueducts in general, this report treats the ancient pressure conduit systems with the technical problems encountered in design and function, the techniques that the ancient engineers applied to cope with these problems, and the texts of the Roman author Vitruvius on the subject. Reviewers noted that the report is rather long, and it is. Yet to understand the difficulties that the engineers of those days encountered in view of the materials available for their siphons (stone, ceramics, lead), many a hydraulic aspect will be - and must be - discussed. Aspects that for the modern hydraulic engineer may be common knowledge and of minor importance when constructing pressure lines with modern construction materials. It was different in Vitruvius’s days.

The remains of Rome’s first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, which Appius Claudius Caecus contracted as censor in 312 B.C., are no longer accessible. Late nineteenth and early twentieth century scholars’ interpretations of then-extant ruins disagree, negating one another. Moreover, since antiquity, many historians have fallen back uncritically on a common assumption, that the first of Rome’s aqueducts functioned in similar ways as imperial public water works did: to tap drinking water sources for growing populations, to water elite villa gardens, and to supply public baths. Archaeological evidence reveals that during the middle Republic, wells and cisterns provided adequate drinking water, and neither baths nor gardens had developed to the point of requiring dedicated water supplies. Why, then, did Appius Claudius Caecus build Rome’s first aqueduct?
I propose different and more complex motives from those commonly assumed for early Roman aqueducts. First, I analyze existing archaeological reports, population data, and interpretations of engineering and architectural technologies, arguing that commonly-held assumptions about aqueduct form and function cannot apply during the middle Republic. Second, I examine literary evidence, situating Appius’ political actions within a historical context that suggests the first aqueduct played an explicit role in Rome’s political and military domination of the Italic peninsula. Third, I probe the Claudian censor’s biographical context and suggest that personal imperatives moved him to build for family prestige. In the end, reinterpretation of evidence pertaining to Rome’s first aqueduct permits a wider reassessment of how aqueducts functioned within a republican context, and insists they should not simply be read as precursors to empire.

This thesis compares the Roman water systems in Pompeii and Nîmes in order to understand the relationship of the water systems to the urban layout of the city. Analyzing the nature and location of an urban water system enables a better understanding of the urban functions within a city, as well as prediction of the nature and location of particular structures within an urban plan. I examine the primary sources of Vitruvius and Frontinus, the topography of each city, the urban orientations, the hydro-technologies employed, and the public and private buildings to which water would have been supplied. My survey of water systems begins with the source of water and the aqueduct that supplies each city and also assesses the relationship of the aqueduct to the rural landscape. In both Pompeii and Nîmes, water from the aqueduct is deposited in a central settling tank within the city and dispersed from the settling tank to various destinations. I have analyzed the buildings, public and private, that had or would have required direct access to this water source and created water supply routes for each colony.

From the beginning of history and onwards, water has been the most important source of life for all living beings. All civilizations tried to access water, fought for water, and continued living, with water being at the focus of their lives. Also, all past communities that lived within our nation, which has been home to many past civilizations, had built water structures in order to access clean water. This city of Istanbul, which many countries tried to add to their own soil, is extraordinarily rich in terms of their water structures. The governing Empires of the city in the past such as the Roman, Byzantine (east Rome) and Ottoman Empire, especially built thousands of water structures to access clean water. In the Roman and Byzantine times (east Rome), thousands of open and closed cisterns were built with the aim of collecting water. During the Ottoman Empire, many water supplies were constructed, and they also restored water supply systems that had remained from the Roman and Byzantine Empires. In the time of Kanuni Sultan Suleyman, the water shortage hit an all time high when there was a fast increase in the population of Istanbul, so The Famous Ottoman Architect Sinan constructed the Kirkcesme Water Supply by using the remains of aqueducts that were left behind from the old Roman times.There are many aqueducts, settling basins, galleries and distribution chambers to be found in this conveyance system that nourished the Historic Peninsula. With the city widening towards the north and with the emergence of many residential areas such as Beyoglu-Besiktas, the Taksim Water Supply was constructed with the intention of solving the water problem, and just like it was with the Kirkcesme Water Supply, the clean water that was collected in the Belgrade Forest, was used to supply water to these areas. In our current day, although the majority of Kirkcesme and Taksim Water Supply systems have been destroyed, there's still some that continue to work in it's original way and serve the system, and this a very big achievement in terms of our water heritage. The aqueducts, settling basins, galleries and distribution chambers that can be found on the two water supply systems, are each extraordinary signs of our water civilization. It is a very important responsibility of our nation for these artefacts to be protected on a singular and holistic scale, for it to be transferred to future generations in an original way, and for them to be added to the World Heritage List by preparing management plans on a holistic scale.

Built under Hadrian the 40 km Degirmendere aqueduct supplied Efesos for about 230 years. Some 30 years after completion and upstream from the two story Bahcecikbogaz bridge half way the trajectory, an earthquake lowered a substantial section for about 2 meters, depriving Efesos of its waters. During the reign of Antonin a new channel was constructed towards the Bahcecikbogaz bridge starting from the lowered  end, forcibly at lesser gradient than the original. Downstream from the bridge also a new channel was built at lesser gradient to arrive at Efesos at a higher level. This report envisages to estimate the discharge the Degirmendere aqueduct.To determine the discharge channel dimensions,, roughness of walls and floor, bed slope and water level in the channel should be determined. The walls and floor of the Degirmendere channel are covered with several layers of waterproof mortar, opus signinum, on which calcareous incrustation (sinter)  became deposited as soon as the aqueduct was put into use. The roughness of sinter is generally higher than of the opus signinum, which means that the aqueduct in its initial stage transported more water than with sinter deposits. Moreover the channel dimensions change when sinter deposits grow. The water level in the final stage may be deduced from the sinter traces on the walls of the channel.

The author summarizes the conclusions of the Austrian and mainly Hungarian research of this water channel in terms of the most recent excavations. The research process demanded a time period of more than half a century. The starting point of the Savarian water channel was the Bozsoki Valley, where the springs were connected to the main channel having been as long as cc. 25 kms, which was adapted to the topographic conditions and worked by the principle of gravity feed. Chlorite schist that composes the surrounding hills was used for the construction. Approximately, an amount of 42.000 to 43.000 m³ of this raw material together with slacked lime and sand was built in the structure. The channel was most likely capable to operate at the end of the 1st century. The track of the Savarian aquaeductus is more or less known, but certain sections, such as the catchments of spring, the connection between Creek Rohonci and the channel, the relations of the parts in Sé to each other that were produced by various technical solutions, the precise hydrology, the location of the castellum divisorium and the water distribution system within the city require further research.

Cyrene, the only Greek colony in Africa, was a metropolis of great size and great monumentality, especially from the Hellenistic age onwards. One topic of research that had not yet been studied in depth concerns the theme of water management, to be understood as an analysis of the processes and means that allowed the city to use rainwater and groundwater - i.e. water supply and disposal systems - but also as the evaluation of the role that water took on within the different spatial contexts (for example in sanctuaries). The work represents an organic synthesis of the material published on the subject for the site of Cyrene and for the main cities of Cyrenaica, which also makes use of archive documents and bibliography of difficult access. To this material are integrated the data obtained of in recent year' s surveys. The final objective is to provide a diachronic picture inherent to the water cycle in Cyrene, presenting all the existing archaeological and epigraphic documentation, functional to the theme of the research



Cirene, unica colonia greca d' Africa, fu una metropoli di grandi dimensioni e di spiccata monumentalità, soprattutto a partire all' età ellenistica. Dalla sua riscoperta archeologica all' inizio del XX secolo, è stata oggetto di una serie di studi da parte di numerosi ricercatori, che hanno permesso di avere un' immagine ampia e articolata della città e della sua storia.
Un settore di ricerca che ancora non era stato approfondito riguarda il tema della gestione idrica, da intendere come analisi dei processi e dei mezzi che permettevano alla città di usufruire dell' acqua meteorica e di falda - dunque i sistemi di approvvigionamento e di smaltimento idrico -, ma anche come la valutazione del ruolo che l' acqua assumeva all' interno dei diversi contesti spaziali (per esempio nei santuari). Il volume è suddiviso in due sezioni inerenti al ciclo dell' acqua nell' area urbana ed extra urbana, all' interno delle quali si è scelto di adottare una divisione in capitoli e sottocapitoli, in relazione alle linee topografiche che contraddistinguono la storia dell' urbanistica del sito. Tutte le strutture in qualche modo legate con l' acqua sono state mappate, descritte e documentate; quando possibile, in riferimento a condotti e ambienti ipogei, è stata effettuata anche un' indagine diretta all' interno delle strutture. Il lavoro rappresenta una sintesi organica del materiale edito in materia per il sito di Cirene e per le principali città della Cirenaica (in appendice), che si avvale anche di bibliografia di difficile reperibilità e di archivio. A questo materiale si integrano i dati ottenuti negli ultimi anni, risultato di indagini autoptiche.
Obiettivo finale è quello di fornire un quadro diacronico inerente al ciclo dell' acqua a Cirene, presentando tutta la documentazione archeologica ed epigrafica esistente, funzionale al tema della ricerca.

Lorenzo Cariddi

Anno di Edizione: 2020
Edizione: L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER
Collane:
Monografie di Archeologia Libica, 48
ISBN: 9788891319623
Rilegatura: Brossura
Pagine: 300, 34 ill. B/N, 5 ill. Col.
Formato: 21 x 29,5 cm

A highly visible reminder of the ancient past, the Roman
aqueduct of Tyre is represented in numerous travelers’
accounts as well as in plans and illustrations. Many of
its sections are well preserved, and the half that extends
from Ras el-‘Ain reservoirs to the Tell Maashouk region is
still—remarkably—functioning. The other half, extending
from Tell Maashouk to El-Bass, is only partially preserved
and has been exposed to both natural and human
encroachments. This article details the history and use of
this well-known but understudied monument, describes
its architectural patterns, and discusses its technical
aspects and the construction and repairs that have taken
place over the years.

Editorial introduction to a special issue of Water History, on the Roman and Byzantine empires. (Full document available on SpringerLink.)

Roman mastery of hydraulic engineering, and in particular of long-distance aqueduct supply systems, enabled the growth of a distinctive urban culture characterised by public
bathing and lavish water display in both public and private settings. In the rural sphere, the extension of empire around the Mediterranean facilitated, among other things, the transfer of irrigation technologies between regions of different cultural and geological backgrounds. This led to an increasing flexibility of responses to irrigation problems, and to the development of complex schemes incorporating elements of several technologies; the growing complexity and scale of both urban water supply and rural irrigation systems required the development of legislation to regulate usage and protect the rights both of the state and of individual users of the systems. The provision, and the control, of water supply and irrigation systems, and of water-using amenities such as fountains, bath-houses and
ornamental pools, became a powerful political tool for rulers and elites, courting favour with the populace for whom these structures were provided, asserting control over the resources necessary to construct them, and sometimes over nature itself, or emphasising status distinctions by the possession of display fountains, private baths, or private latrines in one’s own house. The Roman Empire, and to a considerable extent also the Byzantine
Empire which succeeded it in the east, was marked by the conscious manipulation of water resources for both usage and display, especially in the urban landscape.

The fact that private fountains surpass public fountains greatly in number is one of the conclusions of this paper, which also concerns the delivered quantity of water.  The private fountains, and the revelation of their non-domestic display function, have produced knowledge that is incompatible with the modern urbanistic approach of how water supply to an ancient city should be viewed and understood.

Using both the physical and testimonial evidence, this article attempts to present a coherent history of the Aqua Alsietina and the Naumachia Augusti, for which the aqueduct was originally built. After a survey of the primary sources, a reassessment of Roman techniques for measuring water volume in aqueducts is offered. The meager volume Frontinus ascribes to the Alsietina makes sense only if the Naumachia was out of use by his time--a reasonable conclusion if we recognize the increasing value of the land that it occupied in the Transtiberim. The major aim of this article is to locate the Naumachia securely and to characterize three distinct phases of the aqueduct's existence: the functional life of the Naumachia, the era of the water mills on the Janiculum, and the interval in between. Lastly, it uses the evidence of the Aqua Alsietina to resolve some questions about the water rights of those who had property fronting upon an aqueduct zone in the ager Romanus.

https://revistas.usal.es/uno/index.php/0514-7336/article/view/zephyrus201474203223/12748

Las excavaciones arqueológicas llevadas a cabo en torno a los restos del acueducto que atraviesa los terrenos del campo de maniobras de la Academia Militar de Infantería de Toledo han permitido conocer con detalle la traza de uno de los sistemas hidráulicos que abastecieron a la ciudad romana. El estudio de esta obra se centró además en definir pormenorizadamente su forma constructiva y características técnicas –pendiente y volúmenes portables–, lo que permite diferenciar netamente a este acueducto del procedente de la presa de la Alcantarilla, también vinculado con el sistema de abastecimiento a la antigua Toletum. Queda así patente que nos hallamos ante dos conducciones diferentes, que deben unirse, no obstante, en las cercanías de la ciudad. Dentro del recorrido de la conducción excavada se construyó la torre hoy conocida como el Horno de Vidrio, un ele-mento singular por sus características dentro de la ingeniería hidráulica romana. La situación de esta estructura facilitaba al acueducto un trazado menos abrupto hacia Toledo, a la vez que permitía la pérdida de carga en un canal de pendiente excesiva. Palabras clave: Toletum; Acueductos; Ingeniería hidráulica romana; Sistemas de pérdida de carga. Abstract: Archaeological works carried out in connection with the aqueduct located in the fields of the Military Academy of Infantry of Toledo have allowed us to know new and interesting data about the Roman water supply to the ancient city of Toletum. These excavations were focused on reporting the route, design and technical characteristics –gradients and capacity–. Every data obtained show that the channel through the lands of the Academy is distinctly different of the Roman aqueduct from the Alcantarilla dam, although we supposed that both of them should join in some point near the city. The pressure drop tower popularly known as the Horno de Vidrio is located in the final section of the aqueduct that has been studied. It is a very singular structure with double aim: first, to facilitate the aqueduct a less steep path towards Toledo. Second, to lose height in an aqueduct with excessive slope.

Much is been written about the construction of aqueducts but none have done a sufficiently convincing study of how the planning and construction of the aqueduct came about. In this article it is argued that the geology of the landscape with the then present roads and rivers were used in the planning and construction. The land surveying instruments of that time were not used to determine the heights, but the input of water in parts of the canal could have served as a surveying instrument. With an analysis of the available data about this aqueduct, such as the route and elevations, this article discusses how the planning and construction of the aqueduct took place.