Roman Limes

Lo storico dei Longobardi Gian Piero Bognetti (1902-1963) ha sostenuto in un saggio di molti anni fa (Santa Maria "foris portas" di Castelseprio e la storia religiosa dei Longobardi, 1948) che la ventennale resistenza bizantina sul Lario, terminata nel 588 con l'espugnazione dell'Isola Comacina da parte di Autari, sia stata possibile  grazie all'esistenza di un vero e proprio limes a protezione del Lario. Questa ipotesi, pur subendo nel corso del tempo svariate correzioni da parte di alcuni storici, è rimasta sostanzialmente indiscussa. Questo scritto intende mostrare come il limes bizantino a difesa del Lario sia, con ogni probabilità, una leggenda.

At first glance, one of the constants in the history of the Lower Danube territories during the last years of
the first century BC and especially in the first century AD and the first decades of the next century, is represented by
the armed conflicts between the Roman forces and the Sarmatians attempting to attack the Roman possessions.
However, the diplomatic relations between the Sarmatians and the Romans are relatively early attested. At the end of
the first century AD and during the first decades of the next century the arrival of Sarmatian communities in
Wallachia1 is attested by archaeological discoveries. The settlement of the Sarmatians on the Wallachian territory
takes place with the consent and under the supervision of the Roman authorities. Based on the archaeological finds,
the first stage of the Sarmatian presence in the Lower Danubian limes area is characterized by the presence of certain
communities probably small in terms of numbers, in which the warriors, judging on the whole, are not very visible.
The settlement of the Sarmatian groups in the mentioned area probably took place in close connection with the
functioning of the Lower Danubian limes, not so much as military aid, but rather for reasons of supplying the Roman
military units. The Sarmatians receiving stipends and whose kings were friends of the Roman Empire seem to be
others than those established in Wallachia. The second stage of Sarmatian arrival in the areas neighbouring the limes
of Moesia inferior is occasioned by the motions occurring in the Barbaricum at the same time with the Marcomannic
wars. Several arguments could suggest a possible tightening of the Roman control over the Sarmatian communities in
Wallachia, sometime in the second half of the second century AD and during the first half of the next century.
Sometime around the middle of the third century AD, the Roman control over Wallachia ends.

Almásfüzitő római kori tábora Magyarország egyik legjobban megőrződött ilyen jellegű lelőhelye volt mindaddig, amíg a timföldgyártáshoz kapcsolódó vörösiszap tároló (VII. kazetta), a maradványokat elpusztítva meg nem épült. A kisebb volumenű régészeti kutatásokon kívül csupán a korabeli távérzékelési adatokra támaszkodhatunk a lelőhely kutatásával kapcsolatban, melyben hatalmas előrelépést jelentett, hogy a fényképalapú 3D modellezésnek köszönhetően tanulmányozhatjuk a megsemmisített nyomokat.

If there is anything that unified the Roman world almost 2000 years ago in a similar way as it brought us together for scholarly reasons at León in Spain, it is the Roman army. And just as we had to take some efforts to get there the Roman soldiers had to work hard to move from one place to another. But from our present point of view it seems that the Roman Empire was held together by " soldiers on the move ". In this session we intended to examine what was behind and around the " being on the move ". Of course it needed more than to call the movers, have all your stuff readily packed in boxes on the assigned day, let it be stowed into a van, get it driven to the new location, unload it and then place it into the shelves of your contubernium in the just in time finished barracks of your new fort. But in this session we did not want to look into the actual " move " itself, into the " what and in which way " things were packed and loaded by the soldiers. We were not concerned about the hardship of the carrying and the moving itself of the muli Mariani. This has been tested, experienced and described by many, especially M. Junkelmann and his consorts (Junkelmann, 1986/2003: particularly 17-58; 196-211) and was the topic of lectures and papers in earlier " military equipment conferences ". Also, our concern were not the prerequisites of transportation in Roman times, i.e. the network of roads, their construction and maintenance, the bridges, tunnels, mansiones and everything which may have been connected with them as well as all the aspects if water transport, like harbours, boats and all that. We rather wanted to look at or at least bear in mind all the matters which are –obviously and hidden– connected with " soldiers on the move " in a wider sense. Discussing " soldiers on the move " we have to consider the different conditions of moving. On the one side I see peacetime action, much of it connected with the regular transfer of soldiers to their various assignments. On the other side there were wartime moves under different conditions, often involving large numbers of soldiers. In principle there was a proper definition for times when the Roman Empire was at war and when it was not by the opening and closing of the gates of the temple of Ianus at Rome. However, I suppose, in practice –and this is what mattered to the soldiers– there was not always a clear cut line between peace and war. For example, a war in one province needed not to affect the rest of the Empire. Or vice versa, military conflict at one end of the Empire may have demanded reaction in a neighbouring province which may have caused the need for further steps more and more away from the initial field of action. Yet to the persons involved the increasing distance may have given the feeling of regular peacetime deployment and not of wartime activity.

This paper provides a map-based inventory of knowledge about the Roman frontier around Utrecht in the central Netherlands. With a spate of new evidence for extra-mural settlement, outposts, cemeteries, river courses, roads, bridges, ships and water management, largely the result of 25 years of developer-funded and local government-directed fieldwork, the Vechten-De Meern sector now offers one of the most detailed pictures of a typical Roman frontierscape in the Lower Rhine region.

In September 2018, the archaeological excavations of tower No 8 at the western fortress wall of Bononia continued. The archaeological site is located in the center of Vidin, in Kaleto neighbourhood, near the well-known Baba Vida fortress.
The excavations were carried out only inside tower No 8. A small trench was excavated in its northern interor part, reaching down to the foundations of the tower. Excavations were also implemented in the southern part of the tower. Stratigraphic layers, ceramics, and finds from the Ottoman period, Middle Ages and Late Antiquity (4th – 5th c. AD) were found. In the central part of the tower, a burnt layer was explored. The context is very important because there we found 17 coins, all of them from the end of the 4th – first half of the 5th c. AD. Probably, these represent new archaeological evidence regarding the Huns’ invasions described in the written sources.

El eterno dilema que supone la decisión de elegir entre materiales tradicionales y modernos viene ya desde lejos. La búsqueda de un equilibrio entre las dos posiciones puede determinar el éxito de cualquier intervención en conservación y rehabilitación. ¿Existe ese equilibrio?

Un repaso de los antecedentes, las etapas y las consecuencias de la intervención de Marco Ulpio Trajano en el limes de Germania Superior.
A review on the background, phases and consequences of Marcus Ulpius Traianus's intervention on the Germania Superior limes.

In the castle of Traismauer, a picturesque city in the heart of Lower Austria at the mouth of the river Traisen into the Danube, the new exhibition ‘Treasures of Traismauer’ (’Traismaurer Schätze’) opened recently.
Traismauer, ancient ‘Augustianis,’ was one of several Roman forts along the right bank of the Danube. With a chain of defensive buildings and the connecting Limes road, the Romans secured their northern border. Outstanding remains of this place are preserved to this day and were recently declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The exhibition presents the visitors with a holistic picture of the Roman settlement, showing well-known and several recent archaeological discoveries from Traismauer’s Roman period, researched by commercial archaeologists from companies like ARDIG and the Bundesdenkmalamt (Austrian Federal Monuments Authority).
But not only ‘treasures’ from Roman times can be visited in the rooms of Traismauer Castle. Dedicated Traismauer residents have searched for traces through the city and tracked down patterns on houses, squares, and nature. Furthermore, contemporary program booklets, original music scores by great composers such as Strauss and Ziehrer, and many other treasures that make the hearts of music lovers beat faster are on display.

Thanks to surveys and excavations carried out in the last decades in the territories of the roman border in Egypt, the concept of “limes” can be intended today in a more critical way. The outdated idea of a frontier system based on fortifications linked by roads along a fixed boundary to defend the roman empire from the nomadic menace – whose entity and strength has still to be determined – gave the way to a much wider interpretation of the subject. Many of the structures investigated, previously classified as military buildings, should be better interpreted as multifunctional installations: praetoria, mansiones, hydreumata, fortified farms, whose role can’t fit anymore with the identifications given by the first scholars.

The newly written paper for Roman imperial silver coins is expanding the studied area of counterfeited silver coins discovered on archaeological sites by analyzing a hole geographic region stretching from the middle Danube in the East to the shores of the lower Rhine in the West. Aiming to prove the existence of a centralize pattern regarding silver plated coins distribution, the study expanded its investigation to include the random appearance of hybrid and plated hybrid coins. Besides this the focus will remain on counterfeited pieces, their proportions and distribution, with a smaller case study for the Severian period during when most plated pieces were dated for. Towards the end of the study new results can finally support previous debated arguments regarding coin distribution and patterns of distribution in frontier provinces, alongside with Rome's approach to silver plated pieces.

Les forêts du massif des Vosges au nord du Donon cachent de nombreuses ruines de bâtiments et de structures antiques longtemps attribuées à une culture gallo-romaine dite "des sommets vosgiens". Cet article propose un regard sur cette occupation rurale du Haut-Empire qu'il ne faut plus considérer comme marginale et unique. Il s'agit surtout d'une très bonne conservation des vestiges de l'occupation rurale gallo-romaine d'un espace peu montagnard propices à l'agriculture. L'ensemble des plans relevés des parcellaires associés à de l'habitat est présenté et un point sur les activités est développé.

Dit onderzoek richtte zich op de in toenmalige stand van zaken betreffende de publieksvisualisatie van het
Romeinse Limes-erfgoed in de provincie Gelderland in 2018. Door middel van een inventariserend onderzoek
is een overzicht gemaakt waarin verschillende vormen van deze publieksvisualisatie zijn uitgelicht
en de bijbehorende verhalen visueel worden onderbouwd door verschillende typen media. In het
onderzoek van deze publieksvisualisaties is vastgesteld waar verbeterpunten liggen. Deze
verbeterpunten vormden aanbevelingen die de publieksvisualisatie van het Romeinse Limes-erfgoed van Gelderland kunnen optimaliseren.

L'argomento di questo studio si focalizza sulla decorazione di una corazza da parata di ottone, trovata a Castra Tricornia, oggi Ritopek, zona suburbana di Belgrado sulla riva del Danubio. Non ci sono molti dati relativi alla provenienza della corazza. Si sa che era stata trovata nel sito "Igralište" nel villaggio Ritpek, e che 1979 viene aquisita dal Museo Nazionale di Belgrado 1 . La corazza era stata trovata danneggiata; nel Museo è stata sottoposta a restauro e alcune parti di essa sono state ricostruite 2 . Anche se questa corazza era già stata oggetto di diversi studi, ci è sembrato necessario prestare nuova attenzione a questa straordinaria armatura da parata: innanzi tutto per ridefi nire il soggetto della decorazione, interpretato dai precedenti studi in due diversi modi; in secondo luogo, per analizzare il complesso delle divinità rappresentate. La maggior parte degli studiosi interpretava queste ultime come divinità militari 3 . Una parte minoritaria le riconosceva come divinità dei pianeti, sebbene questi studiosi non abbiano approfondito l'argomento, dato che l'oggetto dei loro studi era diverso 4 .

Der Ort Kesselstadt, 1907 in die Stadt Hanau eingemeindet, befindet sich am Nordufer des Mains, etwa 10 km flussaufwärts von Frankfurt gelegen. Bereits in vorgeschichtlicher Zeit war das Gebiet besiedelt. 1 Auf der Kesselstädter Gemarkung wurden in römischer Zeit zwei Kastelle angelegt, um den strategisch bedeutsamen 1 Jüngling, Peter: Eine Notbergung im Bereich des römischen Vicus auf dem Salisberg bei Hanau-Kesselstadt, in: Hanauer Geschichtsblätter 28 (1982), S. 40-41; ders.: Kesselstadts Vorgeschichte. Von den ersten Menschen bis zu den Kelten, in: Stadtzeit Kesselstadt. 950 Jahre Ersterwähnung Kesselstadt -Schlaglichter auf zwei Jahrtausende, hg. v. Richard Schaffer-Hartmann u.a. (= Stadtzeit 7), Hanau 2009, S. 8-13. Hanau-Kesselstadt und seine Lage im Grenzgebiet der Provinz Obergermanien. Die Provinzhauptstadt Mogontiacum/Mainz liegt etwa 50 km, Heldenbergen etwa 15 km entfernt (Grafik: Simon Sulk, nach Vorlage Deutsche Limeskommission).

Im römerzeitlichen Deutschland konzentrierte sich die Bevölkerung in coloniae, Legionslagern sowie in den Kastellen an der Grenze. Die mehrmalige Verlagerung der Grenze des Römischen Reiches führte zu umfassenden Verschiebungen großer Teile der Bevölkerung im Laufe der Zeit. Anhand eines Überblicks bekannter Gräberfelder der vici, civitas-Hauptorte und canabae wird das besondere Ausmaß dieser Bevölkerungsverschiebungen fassbar, die als Massenmigration gedeutet wird. An vielen Bestattungsplätzen ehemaliger Grenzorte sinkt mit der Verlagerung der Kastelle die Anzahl gut datierbarer Gräber auf 0–8 % der vormaligen Belegung. An den neuen Limites steigt sie hingegen von Null auf viele hundert Bestattungen, bis sich in der Spätantike die entgegengesetzte Entwicklung vollzieht. Die bisherigen Bevölkerungsschätzungen beruhten hingegen auf der Annahme stabil bevölkerter Siedlungsplätze. Aufgrund der Bedeutung der Migration zur Grenze wird für die Blütezeit des 2. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. eine niedrigere Bevölkerungsgröße in den vici, civitas-Hauptorten und canabae vorgeschlagen.

Abstract: Studies on population density and migration in Upper Germania and Raetia. An overview based upon selected cemeteries

In Roman period Germany population concentrated in coloniae, military camps and auxiliary forts near the roman frontier. The multiple shifts of the imperial boundary resulted in extensive movements of large parts of the population over time. The extent of these displacements can be made visible through an overview of known cemeteries of vici, civitates and canabae, and can be understood as a kind of mass migration. Due to the relocation of the forts the number of well-dated graves at cemeteries of former military camps near the Roman frontier declines to 0–8 % of the previous inhabitation, whereas the number rises at new military vici and camps near the Limes from zero to many hundred burials. This trend is then reverted in Late Antiquity. Previous estimations of the population rest upon the assumption of steadily inhabited settlements. Due to the significance of the migration to the border a lower number of people are suggested for the vici, civitates and canabae during the heyday of the 2nd century AD.

Résumé: Études sur la densité démographique et la migration en Germanie supérieure et Rhétie. Un aperçu basé sur une sélection de nécropoles

La population de l’Allemagne romaine se concentrait dans les coloniae, les camps légionnaires et les castra frontaliers. Le déplacement répété de la frontière de l’Empire romain a déclenché au cours du temps plusieurs mouvements d’une grande partie de la population. Un aperçu de nécropoles connues des vici, capitales de civitates et canabae révèle l’ampleur particulière de ces mouvements de population interprétés comme une migration de masse. En de nombreux anciens lieux frontaliers, le déplacement des castra s’accompagne d’une réduction des tombes datables à 0–8 % de l’occupation précédente. Aux nouvelles frontières, ces nombres explosent pour atteindre plusieurs centaines qui connaîtront une tendance inverse dans l’Antiquité tardive. Les estimations démographiques se basaient jusqu’ici sur l’idée que l’occupation des agglomérations restait stable. L’importance de la migration vers la frontière permet de proposer une population moins élevée dans les vici, chefs-lieux des civitates et canabae à l’apogée du 2e siècle ap. J.-C.

This volume was published on the occasion of the 70th birthday of an outstanding Polish historian of antiquity, Professor Leszek Mrozewicz. It consists of 53 scientific texts in English, German, French, and Italian, written by scholars from Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Spain and Switzerland. They deal with the various problems of classical archaeology, ancient history, classical philology, Byzantine studies and the reception of antiquity.
The subject matter of texts is diverse and chronologically covers the period from the Hellenistic times to the Late Antiquity and Byzantine Empire. However, the main focus is on topics related to the history of the Roman army and the Danubian provinces, as well as Latin epigraphy, which is Professor Leszek Mrozewicz's main interest. The volume also contains several texts devoted to a wide range of political events and social and cultural issues of the ancient world and, in addition, contributions dealing with the reception and study of antiquity in Poland. The scholarly biography of Professor Leszek Mrozewicz and the complete list of his publications are also included.

Bei dem vorliegenden PDF handelt es sich um die überarbeitete Magisterarbeit, die der Autor im Jahre 2007 am Archäologischen Institut, Abt. II Archäologie und Geschichte der römischen Provinzen sowie Hilfswissenschaften der Altertumskunde der Goethe Universität Frankfurt eingereicht hatte. Aufgabenstellung dieser Arbeit war die vollständige Aufnahme und Auswertung der Befunde und Funde einer frühalamannischen Siedelstelle, die im Ortsgebiet von Aalen-Unterrombach-Hofherrnweiler in der Talaue des Sauerbachs gefunden worden war. Die Siedelungsreste wurden 1997 und 1998 vom Landesamt für Denkmalpflege im Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart unter Leitung von Rüdiger Krause im Rahmen einer Notgrabung (LDA 1997-18) beim Bau der B 29 in Teilen freigelegt. Sie datiert aufgrund dendrochronologischer Untersuchungen spätestens zu Anfang des 4. Jhs. n. Chr.

In the period from the 1st to the 3rd century the Romans along the edges of their Empire erected a linear military fortification system. In places, in the end of the 3rd and in the 4th century they secured this area as a wider defensive zone. Likewise, due to archaeological excavations and non-destructive surveys which both provide an insight into the appearance, size and state of conservation of some of the Roman fortifications in what is today the region of Hrvatsko Podunavlje, in Croatia we are also now able to differentiate two types of protection of the former Roman frontier, conceived differently in time and space. The one that originates from the Principate is the topic of this paper.
No permanent Roman legionary fortress in the territory of Baranja, Slavonia and Srijem in Croatia was built. It is unclear whether in between the therein auxiliary forts, running in parallel along the right bank of the Danube River, a series of watchtowers was ever built; however, there are indications of their locations. The linearity of the Limes in Croatia was on one side secured by the Danube river and on the other side by a Limes road. As some of the Early Roman Imperial fortifications in this territory are endangered as a result of atmospheric or anthropogenic activity, it is necessary to ensure more on-site effective protective measures. Locations which are so far demonstrated as well preserved could be added as a part of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire monument to the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Roman limes in military campaigns of the Barbarians �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 Krzysztof Narloch Archaeological footprints of a superpower in hostile territory�Recent research on the traces of Roman military activities in the barbarian region north of the Middle Danube �����������������������������������������������������10

Ausgangspunkt der Arbeit bildet die Frage, wie mithilfe von Sichtfeldern und -verbindungen Hinweise zur ehemaligen Höhe valentinianischer Grenzanlagen am Hochrhein gewonnen wer-den können.
Als Einstieg in die Thematik folgt in einem historischen Überblick die Behandlung der Zeit ab der Aufgabe des Obergermanisch-Raetischen Limes und der Rückverlegung der Grenze an Rhein, Iller und Donau Ende des 3. Jh. Dieses auf Flüssen basierende Grenzsystem, das im Gegensatz zum Obergermanisch-Raetischen Limes wesentlich einfacher zu versorgen und zu überwachen war, wurde unter Diokletian (284–305), Konstantin dem Grossen (306–337), Juli-an (360–363), aber vor allem unter Valentinian I. (364–375) ausgebaut. Ab dem Beginn des 5. Jh. nimmt der Grad der Überlieferung zwar ab, in der Forschung geht man heute jedoch davon aus, dass am Hochrhein weder die römische Herrschaft noch der römische Einfluss zum Erliegen kam und auch kein vollständiger Truppenabzug erfolgte.
In der archäologischen Forschung gab es verschiedene Versuche, die ehemalige Höhe von Wachttürmen zu rekonstruieren. Neben ikonographischen Vergleichen, bei denen die Trajans- und die Marcussäule in Rom herbeigezogen werden, gibt es auch den Ansatz, anhand der Spitzgräben, die gemäss militärischer Logik vom Turm aus ohne toten Winkel einsehbar sein mussten, die Turmhöhe zu rekonstruieren. Meistens wird aber mit dem archäologischen Befund ar-gumentiert, wobei vor allem die Stärke des Fundaments resp. des Mauerwerks herbeigezogen wird. Ausgehend von der Voraussetzung von Sichtverbindungen zwischen den Türmen konnte ferner am Odenwaldlimes zwischen den Türmen 10/8 und 10/9 eine Mindesthöhe bestimmt werden. Die vorgeschlagenen Höhen für die Türme am Obergermanisch-Raetischen Limes liegen im Bereich zwischen 7.50 und 12 m. Jene für die spätantiken Anlagen zwischen 10 und 20 m. Aufgrund dieser Angaben wurde der Untersuchungsbereich der valentinianischen Anlagen auf eine potentielle Höhe zwischen 0–20 m beschränkt.
Inwieweit Sichtbarkeitsanalysen überhaupt zur Rekonstruktion der Höhe von Wachttürmen herangezogen werden können, hängt massgeblich von dem spätantiken militärischen Signalwe-sen ab. Grundsätzlich geht es also darum, zu schauen, welches Wissen potentiell im 4. Jh. zur Verfügung gestanden wäre. Aus der griechischen Antike sind verschiedene Signalsysteme be-kannt, allerdings waren diese im zerklüfteten Griechenland wohl verbreiteter als in den römischen Provinzen mit ihrem weitausgebauten Strassensystem. Trotzdem gibt es mit Flavius Vegetius, Ammianus Marcellinus und dem sog. Byzantiner Anonymus verschiedene spätantike Quellen zum Signalwesen. Hinterfragt und tendenziell als ungünstig betrachtet wird wegen hoher Fehleranfälligkeit eine Signalisation von Wachtturm zu Wachtturm und eher davon ausgegangen, dass hinter den Wachttürmen an topographisch günstig liegenden Orten Signaltürme positioniert waren.
Bezüglich der Berechnungen stellten sich in methodischer Hinsicht einige Fragen. Schwierig war vor allem zu entscheiden, welche Anlagen in die Analyse mit einbezogen werden sollten. Hier wurde ausgehend von den Angaben in der Literatur nach folgenden Kriterien entschieden: Wies eine Anlage weder einen rhombischen Grundriss, noch einen Balkenrost oder römische Funde auf, so wurde sie nicht berücksichtigt.
Anschliessend wurde ein dem Rhein entlang von Turm zu Turm verlaufendes Relief erstellt und für jede Anlage untersucht, wie hoch sie hätte gewesen sein müssen, wenn die benachbarten Türme eine Höhe zwischen 0–20 m gehabt und Sichtverbindung bestanden hätte. Die auf diese Weise ermittelten Mindesthöhen liegen alle zwischen 0 und 10 m. Abgesehen von den Sicht-verbindungen wurde für jeden Turm auch ein Sichtfeld mit einem Radius von 10 km berechnet und graphisch dargestellt, bei welcher Turmhöhe welches Gebiet hätte überblickt werden können. Interessant ist, dass viele Türme bei der Erhöhung um einem Meter auf 5, 7 und 12 m relativ viel überblickbares Gebiet hinzugewinnen.
Zusammenfassend kann deshalb gesagt werden, dass eine Höhe von 7–13 m nicht unwahrscheinlich ist, wenn man nicht von einer einheitlichen Höhe aller Türme ausgeht. Allerdings sind diese Ergebnisse mit Vorsicht zu betrachten, denn sie gelten nur unter bestimmten Vorbehalten, wie dass zum Beispiel keine zusätzlichen Türme fehlen, dass das Gelände sich in den letzten 1‘650 Jahren nicht verändert hat oder dass die Sichtverbindung damals überhaupt eine Rolle spielte.

This paper presents the results of the analysis of the Roman pottery from Voorburg-Arentsburg (the harbour Forum Hadriani, Civitas Cananefatium). The pottery is imported along the river Rhine from the Lower Rhine region and the Mosel region. There are many similarities with the pottery from later forts at the Obergermanisch-Raetische Limes. Striking are the special (ritual) depositions in the gully.

This work is dedicated to the computer reconstruction of Roman fortress Nag el-Hagar in Egypt. This fortification was situated to the south of Luxor (ancient Thebes), not far from Kom Ombo (ancient Ombos). Apparently the fortress was built during Diocletian’s rule. Its architectural features are similar to other examples of Roman military architecture of the period of tetrarchy in Egypt. We chose Nag el-Hagar for the reconstruction because this fortress is a specimen of the classical Roman castrum which belongs to the period of Diocletian and at the same time it has some original architectural features. The remains of the palace of the Governor or a military commander which we can find inside the fortress are of a great interest to specialists in late Roman architecture. In this work we consider similar examples of late Roman military architecture both in Egypt and throughout the Roman Empire. Their architectural peculiarities give us the idea how the fortress and the palace in Nag el-Hagar could look like. Beside that, we have made an attempt to examine some problems of computer 3D reconstructions in general. This computer reconstruction of Nag el-Hagar shows that a late Roman fortress in Egypt was a majestic ensemble and its architectural and planning features were influenced not only by its military function, but also by the artistic concepts of the late Roman architects who built it.

This contribution is the follow-up of a paper published in Britannia (2018) which has re-argued the case for an earlier start of the building of Hadrian's Wall, well before the imperial visit of AD 122. What issued from Hadrian's inspection, it is argued, was not so much the inauguration, but a drastic revision of the Wall project. The most incisive change was the implantation of a dozen forts on the line of the Wall, soon followed by the decision to narrow its width. This invites renewed examination of what had been built on the eve of 'dislocation' and how the 'fort decision' impacted on what followed. Of particular interest is the question where the Wall's fortified gateways, the milecastles, belong in the structural sequence. The concept of path-dependency is used to contextualise another novelty of the Wall, the Vallum. The priority accorded to this backup earthwork seems to have markedly decelerated the initial project of the mural barrier. A security crisis, possibly fuelled by the measures of AD 122 and answered by the expeditio Britannica, may have led to a complete cessation in the mid-120s. Major work, both on the forts and the mural barrier, was still in progress in the 130s. This paper addresses several long-standing Wall problems, resulting in a revised chronology for the building of this mega structure which was probably still incomplete when its principal died in 138. The proposed pathway places Hadrian's Wall more centrally in the mainstream of frontier development and sheds a fascina ting light on the making of a military megaproject in the Roman imperial context.