Public Baths

This study was car­ried out to pro­vide an overview of the fun­gal load in Al­ger­ian tra­di­tional baths (Ham­mams) as well as to iso­late and iden­tify the main path­o­genic fungi. Over a pe­riod of four months, ten baths were ex­am­ined and screened for fun­gal con­t­a­m­i­na­tion from sev­eral parts of the hot steamy rooms (floor, wall, door, air and mar­ble mas­sage plat­form). In to­tal, 7157 fungi iso­lates were re­cov­ered from the sur­veyed Ham­mams and the most abun­dant molds were Peni­cil­lium spp. (45.12%) fol­lowed by As­pergillus spp. (28.80%). In ad­di­tion, molds flora in tra­di­tional baths was char­ac­ter­ized by a large num­ber of hy­drophilic species like Cla­dospo­rium, Fusar­ium, Rhi­zo­pus, Mu­cor and Al­ternaria. Eight can­dida-like ap­peared fre­quently (C. al­bi­cans, C. glabrata, C. trop­i­calis, C. lipoly­t­ica, Ge­ot­richum sp., Tri­chosporon sp., Rhodotorula sp. and Cryp­to­coc­cus sp.) of which C. al­bi­cans was the com­mon iso­lated yeast (35.14%). The re­sults in­di­cate a sig­nif­i­cant dif­fer­ence (p = 0.007) in species rich­ness be­tween molds and yeasts and their dis­tri­b­u­tion var­ied sig­nif­i­cantly among sam­pled po­si­tions in baths. AN­COVA re­vealed a sig­nif­i­cant in­crease in fun­gal loads re­lated to the av­er­age num­ber of cus­tomers and mean open­ing year of the Ham­mams, in con­trast with lo­cal­ity (fa­vored or pop­u­lar dis­trict). This study in­di­cates that Ham­mams pre­sent a po­ten­tial source of path­o­genic fungi which may im­pose a real threat on pub­lic health

Retracing the steps of London's history through the lenses and medium of its body of waters -  this paper investigate the roles of waterways, canals and docklands as essential aspects of the making for the city we know now. Through artist intervention examples, fictional narrative, discourses around political philosophy and capitalism, the paper aim to give a better understanding of how the current system influences our life in the city and our attitude towards it. While getting closer to the present, it also questions the role of citizenship and the urge in activating public spaces connected to the element of water. Almost a manifesto, the paper contain a suggestion for a performative civil disobedience that can create the space to imagine an alternative to the seemingly inescapable passivity of the 'flaneur'.

Il volume esamina le attività collaterali alla balneazione che avevano luogo presso i maggiori impianti termali urbani imperiali ‒ e di cui le fonti antiche lasciano soltanto indirettamente intuire lo svolgimento ‒ attraverso la ricostruzione della casistica, delle caratteristiche e degli spazi in cui avevano sede, in particolare presso il giardino e il recinto perimetrale. Le Terme di Diocleziano vengono utilizzate come caso di studio non soltanto per il fatto di costituire il maggiore impianto termale romano, ma anche perché, collocandosi quasi al termine dell’esperienza costruttiva termale romana, rappresentano un punto di osservazione privilegiato per l'analisi di elaborazioni architettoniche, soluzioni tecniche e tecnologiche, e fenomeni culturali e sociali consolidati. Lo studio da un lato ricostruisce la storia (antica, moderna e contemporanea) del complesso e del quartiere circostante (ridefinendo anche il rapporto con il costruito preesistente e coevo, la cronologia di dismissione e le trasformazioni successive), dall'altro analizza le evidenze letterarie, iconografiche e archeologiche (conservate e/o registrate nei documenti d'archivio) relative allo svolgimento di pratiche diverse da quelle balneari (prevalentemente, culturali, intellettuali, educative e sportive), senza prescindere dal costante confronto con gli impianti analoghi. Vengono, quindi, avanzate delle proposte di identificazione di contenuto, apparato, forma, funzioni e protagonisti delle attività extratermali svolte in questo particolare complesso alla luce del contesto storico nel quale fu edificato e utilizzato, e ridefinite alcune ipotesi funzionali relativamente alle attività collaterali di alcuni altri grandi impianti termali urbani.

This thesis examines the carnal sin of sodomy in early modern Florence, Italy (1432–1600). More specifically, this project investigates one particular sodomitical locale: the San Niccolò bathhouse. Domenico Cresti’s (called ‘Il Passignano’) Bathers at San Niccolò (1600) depicts a contemporaneous scene of all-male bathing, imbued with homosexually suggestive acts within a locatable urban space. What can this particular image tell us about the lived realities of sodomy in early modern Florence? When examined alongside topographical, legal, health, and religiopolitical archives, Bathers illuminates the intricacies of same-sex pleasure and punishment. In identifying this specific site along the Arno River, and combining Bathers with various written documents, one can better achieve a history of sexual persecution, its surveillance, and institutional efforts to control illicit sex across the urban landscape. The bathhouse, a simultaneously public and private space, was a center for relaxation, sociability and health but also functioned as an arena for homosexual encounters. Sodomy was blasphemous, generating anxiety throughout early modern Italian city-states. Citizens feared for their safety: a sodomite in their midst could provoke divine wrath, as it had in the biblical narratives of Sodom and Gomorrah—sexual sins could lead to urban destruction. Police forces were created to surveil and punish such abominable acts in order to maintain the sacrality of the urban interior. While these magistracies policed every parish, the Florentine bathhouse was more challenging: it permitted nakedness and, as such, often resulted in unsavory interactions between men. How might topographical and painterly representations of water, wantonness, and punishment allow the historian to check written accounts (legal, religious, literary) of sexual encounters within specific architectures—and vice versa? Looking at and beyond the figures in Bathers, this project investigates the represented backdrop in which sodomitical activities are depicted. In so doing, this project engages with larger historiographical issues, namely the ways in which studies on premodern sex and gender have and have not been mobilized through postmodern theories. This thesis combines Passignano’s artwork with other visual and written materials to challenge and expand on the ways in which sex, space, art, and society functioned in Renaissance Florence. © 2021 Aidan Flynn. All rights reserved.

This Master’s thesis examines buildings used for bathing in medieval Denmark (approx. 1050-
1550) focusing on the practical use, distribution and construction of these buildings. The investigations
are based on all available historical records and archaeological finds. The historical records
give a variety of information about the bathhouses and suggest that bathhouses were common in
medieval Denmark, at least in the urban landscape. The most common bath was the sweat bath
rather than tub baths. Possible features of the bathhouses are furnaces with stone coverings used to
produce steam, and water drains. However bathhouses are difficult to identify archaeologically
since these features are not unique to these structures and bathing activity leaves little or no evidence
that can be archaeologically observed. All archaeological finds from medieval Denmark interpreted
as bathhouses are described and discussed, and only two of these have almost certainly
been bathhouses.

The present study explores the origins of Jewish ritual immersion – inquiring when immersion first appeared as a rite of purification and what the reasons may have been for this development specifically at this time. Textual and archaeological evidence suggest that immersion emerged at some point during – or perhaps slightly prior to – the first half of the first century B.C.E. It is suggested here that the practice grew out of contemporary bathing practices involving the Hellenistic hip bath. Through a process of ritualization, full-body immersion emerged as a method of purificatory washing clearly differentiated from profane bathing. By way of a subsequent process of 'hyper-ritualization', some ventured further to distinguish purificatory ablutions from profane bathing by restricting use of 'drawn water' for purification and by assigning impurity to anyone who bathed in such water. Before us is an enlightening example of one of the many ways wherein Jewish religious practices evolved and adapted in response to Hellenistic cultural innovations.

Queering medieval history is a complicated and expansive task. Conflicting identities and ideas around sexuality frequently played out in the forum of the public bathhouse, yet these physical monuments are often destroyed beyond repair and socially deactivated. Traces of multifaceted and complex dynamics of desire can be found in the pages of a late medieval copy of De Balneis Puteolanis at the Pierpont Morgan library (MS G. 74), providing valuable insight into the existence of a queer medieval gaze. Painted in this manuscript is a conflict between two patrons-one who expressed desire for ambiguously sexed bodies and homoerotic iconography, and one who sought to erase those traces of exuberant lust. Through examining the pages of the Glazier manuscript, an image of a complex encounter between homosocial and homosexual desire emerges as a core element of the public bathhouse experience.

https://www.efa.gr/fr/manifestations-scientifiques/nos-anciennes-manifestations-scientifiques/2095-22-03-2022-athletic-facilities-and-bathing

Greek gymnasia in the Eastern Mediterranean have received significant attention in research. Key features of gymnasia are well known and include palaestrae with rooms for athletic and intellectual training, race tracks (paradromis, xystos, stadion), and bathing facilities. The spread and development of gymnasia from the 4th century BC onwards as well as their long popularity until the late Roman Imperial period are also well known. In contrast, gymnasia in the Western Mediterranean have attracted less interest in scholarship and comprehensive studies are still missing. The aim of this contribution is to discuss the current state of research on gymnasia in the Western Mediterranean, focusing on the following questions: were the above-mentioned key features also standard in the West, and did western gymnasia enjoy an equally long life and popularity as in the East. The discussion is based on published literature and excavations projects in Pompeii and Agrigento. Recent excavation in the Stabian Baths of Pompeii (2021) provided evidence of a palaestra with a large laconicum that belong to the original building, constructed after 130/125 BC. The currently known parts of the gymnasium at Agrigento include race tracks and a pool, the date of which is debated (late Hellenistic or Augustan period). Based on a recent geophysical survey (2020) the location and extension of a possible palaestra can be hypothesized. It is argued that these two cases and other examples of athletic facilities testify to a creative-innovative use of the above-mentioned key features and the emergence of new hybrid concepts in the West.

Le séminaire « Regards croisés sur … », de nature fondamentalement diachronique, rassemble les membres scientifiques de l’EFA autour d’une thématique commune destinée à se renouveler chaque année.
La thématique adoptée en 2022, pour la première édition de ce séminaire, porte sur la ville qui est ainsi examinée sous l’angle de l’artisanat, de l’urbanisme, du commerce ou encore des nécropoles. Tous les mois, un ou deux membres scientifiques invitent un.e expert.e à présenter des travaux en résonance avec leurs propres recherches en cours à l’EFA.
Les séances se tiendront le mardi à 18.00 sous la forme de webinaires et, dans la mesure où la situation sanitaire le permettra, dans la salle de conférences de l’EFA.
Le séminaire est organisé par les membres scientifiques des sections antique et byzantine et moderne et contemporaine de l’EFA.
Programme 2022 à venir...

Με τον κύκλο σεμιναρίων «Διασταυρωμένα βλέμματα...», που είναι επικεντρωμένος στην διαχρονία,  τα επιστημονικά μέλη της Γαλλικής Σχολής Αθηνών και οι προσκεκλημένοι ομιλητές θα συνομιλούν γύρω από μια κοινή θεματική που θα είναι διαφορετική κάθε χρόνο. Η θεματική που έχει οριστεί για τον κύκλο σεμιναρίων που θα πραγματοποιηθούν το 2022 είναι « H πόλη »: η πόλη από την σκοπιά της παραγωγής, της πολεοδόμησης, του εμπορίου, των νεκροπόλεων. Κάθε μήνα, ένα ή περισσότερα επιστημονικά μέλη της Σχολής θα προσκαλούν έναν ειδικό ομιλητή για να συνομιλήσουν πάνω σε ένα κοινό ερευνητικό ζήτημα.
Οι διαλέξεις θα γίνονται την Τρίτη στις 18:00 και θα έχουν υβριδική μορφή (webinar και φυσική παρουσία αναλόγως με τα υγειονομικά μέτρα).
Ο κύκλος σεμιναρίων διοργανώνεται από τα επιστημονικά μέλη της Γαλλικής Σχολής Αθηνών (Διεύθυνση Σπουδών για την Αρχαιότητα και το Βυζάντιο/Διεύθυνση Σπουδών για την Νεότερη και Σύγχρονη Ελλάδα).
Πρόγραμμα 2022 προσεχώς...

Now that we no longer need a public place to cleanse ourselves, the role of the public bath has been greatly diminished, much to the detriment of modern society. This journey to baths in the Middle East and Central Europe evokes the communal intimacy, sensuousness, timelessness, and relaxation that have always characterized the public bathing experience. The places described represent a range of functions and architectural styles in the evolution of the public bath rooted in the Greco-Roman tradition as it spread from ancient Rome to the Middle East and from Medieval through modern Europe.

Τα λουτρά/οι θέρμες αποτελούν έναν από τους πιο χαρακτηριστικούς κτηριακούς τύπους του ρωμαϊκού πολιτισμού. Το ενδιαφέρον της έρευνάς μας επικεντρώνεται στα λουτρικά συγκροτήματα δημόσιας χρήσης. Ωστόσο, μελετούνται και τμήματα κτηρίων που η χρήση τους είναι αμφιλεγόμενη, εξαιτίας της αποσπασματικής αποκάλυψής τους, καθώς και εξακριβωμένα ιδιωτικής χρήσης οικιακά λουτρά, διότι και αυτά αποτελούν αναπόσπαστο κομμάτι του λουτρικού θεσμού. Στόχος της μελέτης είναι o εντοπισμός των λουτρικών εγκαταστάσεων στη Μακεδονία και η περιγραφή των αρχιτεκτονικών και των κατασκευαστικών τους χαρακτηριστικών. Η εκτενής επιστημονική βιβλιογραφία περί λουτρών, οι λουτρικές εγκαταστάσεις από όλη τη ρωμαϊκή αυτοκρατορία, καθώς και οι αρχαίες φιλολογικές πηγές παρέχουν συγκριτικό υλικό. Τα χρονικά όρια της έρευνας καλύπτουν μια ευρεία περίοδο ίδρυσης λουτρικών εγκαταστάσεων από τα τέλη του 1ου αι. π.Χ. έως τον 6ο αι. μ.Χ. Πρόθεσή μας είναι να ιχνηλατήσουμε τις μεταβολές στην αρχιτεκτονική των λουτρών και στις λουτρικές συνήθειες και κατ' επέκταση να θίξουμε τις αλλαγές του αστικού χώρου και των κοινωνικών ηθών από τη ρωμαϊκή εποχή μέχρι και την περίοδο της ύστερης αρχαιότητας.

The Roman public baths are one of the most salient manifestations of the Romanization of North African societies. They have retained, given their size and the multiplicity of their equipment, the same functions enjoyed by their counterparts on the northern shore of the Mediterranean. They serve as public baths and hygiene establishments without forgetting their role as a major social space in the urban fabric. Like other hydraulic installations, public baths required a permanent and regular supply of water in order to be able to fully fulfill their mission. This was achieved thanks to a set of mechanisms and systems, but also thanks to the frequency of changing the water in the basins during a single day. In this regard, it was possible to distinguish four types of baths in North African towns: (i) baths that benefited from the waters of public aqueducts and huge cisterns, (ii) baths connected to public aqueducts with cisterns that are smaller and of lesser capacity than the first, (iii) thermal baths supplied by wells, and (iv) thermal baths supplied with water by other means.

Uporaba antičnih imen, znakov in podob dobiva v Sloveniji po osamosvojitvi drugačen pomen. Antiko je vzelo "za svojo" tako potrošništvo kot zdraviliški turizem. Analiza primerov iz Slovenije je pokazala na trend "rimskih prostorov" v zdraviliščih in wellness centrih. Po vzoru iz tujine je v zadnjem desetletju "rimski trend" postal v Sloveniji zelo popularen predvsem v opremljanju savn. Zdravilišča so se v posnemanju oprla na institucijo rimskih term ter prevzela določene prostore, npr. tepidarij kot največkrat zastopani sodoben "rimski" prostor. Značilnost sodobnih rimskih savn je mešanje rimskih, grških, predvsem pa sodobnih elementov v temperaturi, načinu ogrevanja in dekoraciji prostorov.

The commercialisation ofimages and symbols from antiquity, so characteristic
of Slovenia since its independence, has been reflected over the
last decade in spa tourism as well. Since the great crises in the sixties, and
especially since the eighties, fifteen Slovene natural health resorts have
concentrated on developing wellness and activities programs. This change
in orientation has been accompanied by renovations, an expansion of the
water surfaces and capacities, and new wellbeing, wellness, spirituality and
beauty programs. An analysis of Slovene spas, wellness centres and hotel
web pages shows that they frequently offer rooms, usually saunas, which
are imitations of the Roman baths. These rooms are usually called "Roman
saunas", "Tepidarium", "Caldarium", and "Roman-Irish baths". At
Terme Ptuj, Zdravilišče Laško, Šmarješke Toplice, Grand Hotel Palace in
Portorož, and Terme Čatež, saunas have been built or renovated in the
Roman style. This trend of Roman rooms is a novelty, less than a decade
old in Slovenia. The first sauna with a Roman theme, a Roman-Irish bath,
was opened in 1997 in the Health and Beauty Centre at Terme Čatež. Modern Roman saunas are very popular, found not only in Slovenia but
also in other parts of Europe, especially Germany and Austria. Their popularity
has spread from the areas formerly occupied by the Romans to
other parts of world, for example the USA and the Republic of South
Africa. An analysis of Slovene saunas and wellness centres reveals a wellestablished
trend to recreate certain parts of the Roman baths. This is
attempted not only through Roman-style decorations, but also through
certain structures particular to the Roman baths, such as the caldarium,
tepidarium, and in one case even a laconicum. The approach, however, is
highly eclectic, blending Roman, Greek and, above all, modern elements.
The purpose of such rooms is to increase the appeal of the spas, while
their design is mostly based on the stereotyped images of antiquity in popular
culture.

Public baths, which have existed for centuries in the tradition of medieval society, have been the subject of examination by today's researchers from technical/aesthetic aspects such as the physical and architectural structuring of cities, and they are not discussed in the context of using them for different purposes. However, the public baths, which came to the forefront as an alternative living space in the Middle Ages, were sometimes places of entertainment and sometimes important meetings apart from cleaning. Apart from these activities, the public baths also draw attention as an assassination place where unwanted people were executed throughout the Middle Ages due to their favorable environment and conditions. When the information in the sources of the period is brought together, it will be seen that such attempts were not composed of a few isolated incidents, the public baths were deliberately chosen places especially for political executions and the assassination method in the public bath was a functional way to reach the final destination most of the time. In this article, the narratives about the assassination in the public bath in the medieval sources will be evaluated and the use of the public baths for this extraordinary purpose, the methods and tools, the causes and consequences will be emphasized.

Today historic baths deserve more detailed research on the characteristics of their water supply and heating systems in terms of efficiency, sustainability, economy and capacity. In this paper, to discuss these characteristics, the original water supply, surface-water discharge and heating systems of "Çukur Hamam" in Manisa (Turkey) are examined in a limited extent. Çukur Hamam, dated to the 14 th century, represents the general characteristics of its period, whereas the water supply system providing natural pressure by arranging various levels remains as a unique example. In this presentation, design principles, architectural elements and their construction techniques will be discussed with special references to water supply, surface-water discharge and heating systems.

El material constructivo latericio (ladrillos, tejas) es uno de los elementos más comunes en cualquier excavación de época romana, siendo especialmente abundante en contextos urbanos y en acantonamientos militares. Uno de los rasgos más característicos de este material es su estandarización, ya que se fabrica en determinadas formas y tamaños acordes con su empleo posterior, que pueden variar levemente de una región a otra y entre uno y otro momento. El uso de módulos estandarizados permite identificar desde el punto de vista funcional cada uno de los elementos y su procedencia concreta, además de precisar la estratigrafía horizontal del edificio y determinar fases constructivas (Fernández Ochoa et alii, 1999, 299). Además, el material latericio, que con frecuencia aparece con marcas de fábrica, proporciona una información muy valiosa sobre aspectos productivos y comerciales.

The article is concerning a bath complex that was excavated in the plot of Angelos Giannopoulos in Thassos (Limenas). The excavation revealed 12 rooms (partially in several cases) in an area of 350 sq.m. Their walls are preserved at a significant height. The building has rectangular planning and it is oriented along the NE-SW axis. The heated section occupies the southern part of the building (rooms A1 and A2), though the larger northern part is unheated (rooms Γ, Δ, Ε, ΣΤ, Ζ and Η). The proximity of the complex to other bathing architectural remains in the nearby plot of Vellios, their common orientation and dating, prompted us to relate the two buildings. The joint plan gave a compound building with an asymmetrical rectangular layout, covering an area over 550 sq.m. The bath has at least 18 rooms: 5 heated, 4 praefurnia and 10 non-heated rooms. The article presents the location of the bath in the city plot, its architectural and constructural elements and the findings from the Giannopoulos. Based on the data we date the bath in the late roman period and its operation until the early byzantine period. The building, possibly, served as a double bath, with separate sections for men and women.The protobyzantine basilica that was attached north of the bath confirms that in the specific part of the city there was a core of urban life during the late roman and the early byzantine era, when the christian basilicas were asserted into the urban landscape and became the new centers of religious and social life.

The problem of keeping clean in a medieval town - functions and importance of public baths with Elbląg as an example

The problem of keeping towns clean and orderly in the Middle Ages in one of the vital issues of the study of everyday life in towns of the time. Therefore it is necessary to take into consideration the role public baths played in those days. A complete analysis of the problem has not been carried out so far and a further close collaboration of both historians and archaeologists is required to examine the subject fully.
There were a few public bath houses in the medieval settlement of Elbląg. The earliest mention of public bath is dated to 1297. In 1385 income from two baths in the Old Town were noted. There was also a bath house in the New Town of Elbląg. Baths were a considerable source of income which was collected by the Town Council in the Old Town and by the Teutonic Order in the New Town. The personnel had to both run the bath and to perform minor surgeries.
A public bath played an obvious role of a place where people could exercise their personal hygiene, but it was also an important social meeting point. It was also connected with the emergence of a new institution, so called Seelbäder, well documented in testamentary legacies in Germany. Testators bequeathed defined sums of money to pay for the bath of the poor and they did so in order to attain salvation of their souls. Thus custom was partly a result of baths not being available fir all people. Apprentices visited baths rarely and the poor hardly ever, which - together with the housing conditions - increased the quite high death rate among the lowest social classes. But baths remained one of a few meeting places in the public space, just like inns and market squares. They were a special place where social barriers, strictly defined in a medieval society, became unimportant for a short time. What is interesting is that Church condemned the immoral aspects of using the baths, but on the other hand tried to invest it with religious significance being - as one cal easily guess - in favour of the baths for the poor. In this way dirt and cleanliness in both physical and spiritual aspects interweaved symbolically in the bath houses which were an important part of the public space in towns and cities in those days.

ABSTRAK
Penggunaan air dalam kehidupan rumah tangga ataupun industri setiap harinya sangat tidak mungkin terhindarkan. Sistem pengaturan penggunaan air menjadi sangat dibutuhkan, terutama dalam hal penghematan energi.
Penggunaan level pengendali pada bak penampungan air, menjadi suatu solusi untuk melakukan hal tersebut. Masalah yang timbul dari sistem konvensional adalah tidak terkendalinya pemakaian kebutuhan air. Pemborosan energi listrik dan kerusakan pompa air adalah hal yang menjadi masalah tersebut.
Dengan demikian penggunaan pengendali level air ini sangat aplikatif dalam kehidupan rumah tangga dan industri. Sehingga tidak lagi terjadi masalah – masalah seperti pada teknologi konvensional.
Hasil Penelitian dari alat ini adalah untuk membantu dalam pengendalian penggunaan air sehingga tidak berlebih sesuai yang dibutuhkan, jadi alat ini berfungsi apabila level air yang dikeluarkan sudah melampaui batas maka secara otomatis alat ini akan mematikan pompa untuk memberhentikan air yang keluar.
Kata Kunci : Level Air, Pemancar AM
ABSTRACT
Using water in industrial or domestic life every day is very unlikely inevitable. Regulatory system of water use become indispensable, especially in terms of energy savings.
The use of control levels in water reservoirs, into a solution to do so. Problems arising from the conventional system is the uncontrolled use of water needs. Electrical energy wastage and damage the water pump is the problem.
Thus the use of water-level controller is very applicable in domestic life and industry. So no longer be a problem - a problem as in conventional technology.
The result of the final project of this tool is to assist in controlling water usage so that no excess as needed, so it works when the water level has exceeded the limit it is issued automatically it will turn off the pump to stop water coming out.
Keywords: Water Level, Transmitter AM

116th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America
January 8-11, 2015 New Orleans, Louisiana

Colloquium Session: Social Life in Public Baths in the Ancient Mediterranean and Beyond
Organizer: Alissa Whitmore (University of Iowa, [email protected])

While scholarship on Roman public baths has been popular for some time, sustained dialogue between specialists of different regions has often been limited. Scholars of urban public baths typically have only passing familiarity with military bathhouses, and researchers focusing on Romano-British baths often have limited acquaintance with those in the eastern provinces. Given the vastness of the Empire, no scholar can attain expertise in all facets of ancient bathing, but the lack of integration in bathing scholarship can prevent researchers from becoming familiar with other cultures, approaches, and datasets. Furthermore, this isolation limits our knowledge of similarities, differences, and temporal changes in public bathing culture in and around the Mediterranean.

To acknowledge and address this issue, this colloquium offers an inclusive and diachronic study of social life in ancient public baths. Session papers, integrating a variety of approaches and datasets, focus on bathing culture in different time periods, regions, and societies. Adrienne Hagen (Violence and Vulnerability) incorporates ancient literature, inscriptions, and iconography to reveal the higher risk of violence that women, children, and slaves faced in Roman baths. Maryl Gensheimer (Decoration and Discourses) analyzes free standing and architectural sculpture to evaluate the different experiences of elite and subaltern bathers in the Baths of Caracalla. Alissa Whitmore (Bathing on the Edge) uses small finds and architectural layouts to investigate the activities and social identities of bathers in Romano-British and Gallo-Roman military baths. Robert Darby (Drawn to the Baths) evaluates graffiti and inscriptions found in the Near Eastern 'Ayn Gharandal fort and military baths to illuminate the significance of bathing for ancient soldiers. Stefanie Hoss (The Influence of Christianity) integrates ancient texts and architectural spaces to examine the impact of religion on changing bathhouse layouts in Late Antiquity. Fikret Yegül concludes the session with a discussion of these topics and papers.

With its range of approaches, regions, and time periods, this colloquium represents a step toward a more integrated study of ancient bathing. Each paper situates public baths in their larger cultural contexts, revealing similarities and differences between bathing cultures and underlining the interplay of baths, social organization, power, and belief systems. Several papers, as well as the diachronic (1st – 7th c. C.E.) nature of the colloquium, provide insights into temporal and cultural changes in ancient bathing culture. Others offer a more comprehensive understanding of the social experiences of lower class bathers and life in military baths. Together, these papers illustrate diverse approaches which can shed light on ancient social life and the utility of a more unified study of public bathing.

Presenters and Papers
Adrienne Hagen (University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA) – Violence and Vulnerability in the Roman Baths
Maryl B. Gensheimer (University of Maryland, USA) – Decoration and Discourses on Social Status within the Baths of Caracalla
Alissa M. Whitmore (University of Iowa, USA) – Bathing on the Edge: Roman Military and Vicus Baths in the Northwest Provinces
Robert Darby (University of Tennessee, USA) – Drawn to the Baths: Daily Life and Desert Leisure in the Cohors II Galatarum.
Stefanie Hoss (University of Cologne, Germany) – The Influence of Christianity on the Culture of Bathing and Bathhouse Design.
Discussant: Fikret Yegül (University of California, Santa Barbara, USA)

Studies in recent years have shown that Athens in the Early Byzantine era remained an important city, with strong fortifications, which often repaired and strengthened. The main roads of antiquity remained active and connected Athens, through the medieval gates of the walls, with the extra muros neighborhoods. Some residential insulae remained active, but mainly new byzantine neighborhoods appeared with the corresponding needs, such as bath complexes.

After the raid of Heruli, the city returned to its normal rhythm and from the 4th c. AD a new impetus to the city’s social life was given, mainly resulting from the operation of the philosophical schools. The new beginning is reflected in the construction of new bath facilities.

After the abolition of the Athenian philosophical schools by Justinian (529 AD), Christianity strongly penetrated the formerly pagan Athenian society and a special attention was paid to the urban Christianization of the city. Most of the roman bath facilities were out of use after the 7 th c. AD.

Bath-houses in Medieval Denmark – A Cultural History

The subject of this article is bath-houses in medieval Denmark. The text is based on all available written sources from Denmark but in order to get a fuller perspective on some aspects of the history of bath-houses it has also been necessay to use German sources as a supplement.

Based on the scarce historical records dealing with the course of the actual bathing activity, it is argued that the most common bath was the sweat bath (similar to modern  sauna) rather than tub baths. A stove covered with granite boulders was heated and the bathers would produce sweat using either the direct heat of the stove or from steam produced by pouring cold water onto the hot stones. The sweating was further stimulated by beating the body with bundles of birch twigs and the bath culminated with a rinsing in cold water. It is argued that, similar to the situation in Germany and Sweden, bath-house staff would offer haircuts, bleeding and treatment of wounds in addition to the actual bath (fig. 5-6).  Referring to specific medieval illustrations some argue that men and women would bathe together in the public bathhouses which would lead to sexual excesses. However the relevant illustrations often depicts brothels and not public baths.
It is evident from historical records that members of all social classes frequented the public bath houses – even royalty. From the early 14th century onward we have historical evidence of so-called soul baths i.e. donations by wealthy people to the poor to enable the latter to have a bath, often including a meal. Such donations were common in the late 15th century but disappeared abruptly with the reformation. The use of bathhouses was also considered important in order to maintain health according to medieval records.

The earliest indications in historical records of the existence of bath houses in Denmark are found in Saxo’s chronicles from the last 12th century. From the 1260’s onward specific bath houses in town appear in the historical records. Judging from the number of bath houses mentioned in the Danish towns it is argued that public bath houses was a common feature in the urban landscape of medieval Denmark.

The number of public bath houses in towns declined in the beginning of the 16th century and even though a few bath houses existed in the major cities up until the 1700 the popularity of these institutions went down. Reasons for this are epidemics of syphilis from the 1490’s onward, the phasing out of soul baths and possibly a change of attitude towards nudity and personal hygiene that resulted in a decline in the general cleanliness in post medieval times.

We have the task to study indigenous traditions in the public baths in Moscow megapolis today, study the social relations of its visitors, their motivation (mental and physical health, beauty procedures and internal bath communications). Traditions, customs, taboos, which we observe in the public baths, help to analyze one of the aspects of spiritual life of the citizens, reveal one of the components of the modern world in everyday life.

The attention of researchers has been for many years focused on studies of the city of Athens concerning the classical era and as hence it is the best studied period. In fact, for many years the prevailing view was that, after the roman era, Athens declined and was a small provincial town.

However, studies in recent years have shown that Athens remained an important city, with strong fortifications, which often repaired and strengthened. At the beginning of the 11th c. AD, Athens had a strong defense with three successive enclosures: the ancient Themistoclean wall, the post herulian wall and the wall around Acropolis.

The main roads of antiquity remained active and connected Athens, through the medieval gates of the walls, with the extra muros neighborhoods. Some residential insulae remained active, but mainly new byzantine neighborhoods appeared with the corresponding needs, such as bath complexes.

A big reduction in bath construction can be observed in Athens from the Roman to the Byzantine era. However, this can be considered as normal, if we take into account that after the Heruli invention, in 267 AD, Athens suffered a demographic and urban disaster. Gradually, the city returned to its normal rhythm and from the 4th c. AD a new impetus to the city’s social life was given. The new beginning is reflected in the construction of new bath facilities. Most of the roman bath facilities were out of use after the 7 th c. AD.

Master's thesis. Θέμα της μεταπτυχιακής εργασίας αποτελεί η μελέτη του συγκροτήματος θερμών που βρίσκεται στον κεντρικό δρόμο (cardo maximus) του Δίου. Στόχος της εργασίας είναι η περιγραφή του αρχιτεκτονικού σχεδίου, η περιγραφή και αναγνώριση των χώρων του και εν τέλει η διάκριση και η χρονολόγηση των οικοδομικών φάσεων του κτιρίου. Παράλληλα γίνονται παρατηρήσεις για τον ρόλο των δημόσιων λουτρών στην καθημερινή ζωή και θίγονται τα προβλήματα που αντιμετωπίζει η έρευνα αυτών των οικοδομημάτων.

Τα λουτρά/οι θέρμες αποτελούν έναν από τους πιο χαρακτηριστικούς κτηριακούς τύπους του ρωμαϊκού πολιτισμού. Το ενδιαφέρον της έρευνάς μας επικεντρώνεται στα λουτρικά συγκροτήματα δημόσιας χρήσης. Ωστόσο, μελετούνται και τμήματα κτηρίων που η χρήση τους είναι αμφιλεγόμενη, εξαιτίας της αποσπασματικής αποκάλυψής τους, καθώς και εξακριβωμένα ιδιωτικής χρήσης οικιακά λουτρά, διότι και αυτά αποτελούν αναπόσπαστο κομμάτι του λουτρικού θεσμού. Στόχος της μελέτης είναι o εντοπισμός των λουτρικών εγκαταστάσεων στη Μακεδονία και η περιγραφή των αρχιτεκτονικών και των κατασκευαστικών τους χαρακτηριστικών. Η εκτενής επιστημονική βιβλιογραφία περί λουτρών, οι λουτρικές εγκαταστάσεις από όλη τη ρωμαϊκή αυτοκρατορία, καθώς και οι αρχαίες φιλολογικές πηγές παρέχουν συγκριτικό υλικό. Τα χρονικά όρια της έρευνας καλύπτουν μια ευρεία περίοδο ίδρυσης λουτρικών εγκαταστάσεων από τα τέλη του 1ου αι. π.Χ. έως τον 6ο αι. μ.Χ. Πρόθεσή μας είναι να ιχνηλατήσουμε τις μεταβολές στην αρχιτεκτονική των λουτρών και στις λουτρικές συνήθειες και κατ' επέκταση να θίξουμε τις αλλαγές του αστικού χώρου και των κοινωνικών ηθών από τη ρωμαϊκή εποχή μέχρι και την περίοδο της ύστερης αρχαιότητας.


The bathing facilities in Macedonia. during the roman imperial and early byzantine period