Psychobiology

This paper provides an initial, multidimensional map of the complex relationships among consciousness, mind, brain and the external world in a way that follows both the contours of everyday experience and the findings of science. It then demonstrates how this reflexive monist map can be used to evaluate the utility and resolve some of the oppositions of the many other “isms” that currently populate consciousness studies. While no conventional, one-dimensional “ism” such as physicalism can do justice to this web of relationships, physicalism, functionalism, dualism, neutral monism, and dual-aspect monism can all be seen to provide useful ways of understanding different aspects of the relationships among consciousness, mind, brain and the external world when these are viewed in either a first- or a third-person way from within this web of relationships by sentient creatures such as ourselves. For example, physicalism and functionalism provide a useful understanding of consciousness, mind, brain and external world when viewed from a third-person perspective, while neutral monism provides a useful way of understanding first- versus third-person views of external phenomena. On the other hand, dual-aspect monism provides a useful way of understanding first- versus third-person views of mind, including Eastern versus Western views of mind.  Dual-aspect monism also provides a useful understanding of the “unconscious ground of being” that gives rise to, supports and embeds all these observable phenomena. For an integrated understanding one needs to understand how these phenomena and relationships combine into an integrated whole.

The nucleus accumbens, in view of its afferent and efferent fiber connections, appears to hold a key position for "limbic" (e.g., hippocampal and amygdaloid) influences to reach somatomotor and autonomic brain structures, and it has therefore been considered as a limbic-motor interface. The nucleus accumbens can be subdivided into a shell and a core region, which both contain further inhomogeneities. The present account first summarizes the detailed topographical anatomical relationships of inputs from different dorso-ventral parts of the hippocampus and different rostrocaudal parts of the basal amygdaloid complex at the level of the accumbens. Subsequently, the electrophysiological characteristics of hippocampal and amygdaloid inputs in the accumbens are described. Interactions between hippocampal and amygdaloid inputs appear to exist primarily in the medial parts of both the shell and the core of the nucleus accumbens. In the short term, stimulating amygdaloid inputs appear to facilitate hippocampal throughput (heterosynaptic paired pulse facilitation), whereas stimulation of hippocampal inputs depresses amygdaloid throughput in a paired pulse paradigm. Tetanic stimulation of hippocampal inputs to the accumbens leads to a decrementallong-term potentiation (LTP) of this fiber pathway (homosynaptic LTP) but, along a similar time range, to a depression of amygdaloid inputs (heterosynaptic long-term depression). The involvement of dopaminergic, GABAergic, and glutamatergic mechanisms in these interactions is discussed. Finally, it is suggested that the interactions between hippocampal and amygdaloid inputs at the level of the nucleus accumbens playa role in different aspects of associative learning. The nucleus accumbens (Acb) is a brain area located in the rostroventral part of the basal forebrain. Following the seminal paper by Heimer and Wilson in 1975, the Acb has been considered a component of the so-called ventral The authors wish to thank Wil 1. A. J. Smeets for his critical comments on the paper, Martijne Mendes-de Leon and Jolinda Kos for secretarial assistance, and Dirk de Jong for his photographic contribution. A.B.M.

Despite its long and auspicious place in the history of psychiatry, dissociative identity disorder (DID) has been associated with controversy. This paper aims to examine the empirical data related to DID and outline the contextual challenges to its scientific investigation. The overview is limited to DID-specific research in which one or more of the following conditions are met: (i) a sample of participants with DID was systematically investigated, (ii) psychometrically-sound measures were utilised, (iii) comparisons were made with other samples, (iv) DID was differentiated from other disorders, including other dissociative disorders, (v) extraneous variables were controlled or (vi) DID diagnosis was confirmed. Following an examination of challenges to research, data are organised around the validity and phenomenology of DID, its aetiology and epidemiology, the neurobiological and cognitive correlates of the disorder, and finally its treatment. DID was found to be a complex yet vali...

The effect of sensory input on hormones is essential to any explanation of mammalian behavior, including aspects of physical attraction. The chemical signals we send have direct and developmental effects on hormone levels in other people. Since we don t know either if, or how, visual cues might have direct and developmental effects on hormone levels in other people, the biological basis for the development of visually perceived human physical attraction is currently somewhat questionable. In contrast, the biological basis for the development of physical attraction based on chemical signals is well detailed.

Objective: Despite its long and auspicious place in the history of psychiatry, dissociative identity disorder (DID) has been associated with controversy. This paper aims to examine the empirical data related to DID and outline the contextual challenges to its scientific investigation. Methods: The overview is limited to DID-specific research in which one or more of the following conditions are met: (i) a sample of participants with DID was systematically investigated, (ii) psychometrically-sound measures were utilised, (iii) comparisons were made with other samples, (iv) DID was differentiated from other disorders, including other dissociative disorders, (v) extraneous variables were controlled or (vi) DID diagnosis was confirmed. Following an examination of challenges to research, data are organised around the validity and phenomenology of DID, its aetiology and epidemiology, the neurobiological and cognitive correlates of the disorder, and finally its treatment. Results: DID was found to be a complex yet valid disorder across a range of markers. It can be accurately discriminated from other disorders, especially when structured diagnostic interviews assess identity alterations and amnesia. DID is aetiologically associated with a complex combination of developmental and cultural factors, including severe childhood relational trauma. The prevalence of DID appears highest in emergency psychiatric settings and affects approximately 1% of the general population. Psychobiological studies are beginning to identify clear correlates of DID associated with diverse brain areas and cognitive functions. They are also providing an understanding of the potential metacognitive origins of amnesia. Phase-oriented empirically-guided treatments are emerging for DID. Conclusions: The empirical literature on DID is accumulating, although some areas remain under-investigated. Existing data show DID as a complex, valid and not uncommon disorder, associated with developmental and cultural variables, that is amenable to psychotherapeutic intervention.

Most contemporary text books of neurology and of psychology pay little attention to the function of the cerebellum beyond noting it to be an organ of motor control. A historical overview of research on cerebellar function is presented, from pre-Sherrinton suggestions of sensory and motor function, through the post-Sherrinton and dominant 20 th . Century view of "motor" function, to the 21 st . century perspective of "sensorimotor" function. The intrinsic capability of the cerebellum is briefly considered in terms of: its size/complexity/capacity; its information representation/processing characteristics (with "a particular computational function"); its sensory information processing capability; and, its role in sensorimotor regulatory control. It is suggested that the cerebellum can process sensorimotor stimulus information in a statistical (connectionist type) manner and respond to in on the basis of its own learning based sensorimotor representations, albeit at a "level" that does not necessarily involve cerebral "awareness".

In this paper two diVerent models of brain regulation of exercise performance are critically compared: the central governor model proposed by Noakes and colleagues, and an alternative psycholobiological model based on motivational intensity theory.

Questo lavoro è teso ad approfondire i correlati psicobiologici del Disturbo da Deficit di Attenzione / Iperattività (DDAI, in italiano, e ADHD, in inglese, da Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) e, partendo dalle caratteristiche del disturbo, arriva a formulare alcune ipotesi suggerite dal confronto fra gli studi sullo stato di hyperfocus in soggetti con DDAI
e gli studi sullo stato di flow in campioni non diversificati in base a eventuali disturbi psicologici, che potrebbero essere verificate empiricamente in successivi studi.
I numerosi studi sui soggetti con DDAI hanno evidenziato diverse anomalie anatomiche e funzionali che, seppur con qualche incongruenza, hanno prodotto diverse teorie psicobiologiche.
Le teorie che, oltre a evidenziare il più generico deficit dell'attenzione, cercano di spiegare il disturbo come prodotto in via primaria da disfunzioni in un unico dominio clinico (funzioni esecutive, motivazione, impulsività) non sono risultate soddisfacenti.
Risultano, invece, più credibili le ipotesi che spiegano il disturbo dal punto di vista psicobiologico attraverso deficit in domini cognitivi multipli e relativamente indipendenti.
La ricerca fino ad oggi realizzata per una comprensione psicobiologica del disturbo converge nell'attribuire un ruolo centrale ai neurotrasmettitori (glutammato, GABA, dopamina e noradrenalina) e, più nello specifico, alla disfunzione di alcuni importanti circuiti dopaminergici, causata da anomalie nella densità di recettori dopaminergici DI e D2 e relativi sottotipi (DI, D5, D:, D3 e Da).
Particolare approfondimento da parte della ricerca è stato dedicato al sistema dopaminergico della ricompensa che presenta significative alterazioni nel DDAI e costituisce il correlato psicobiologico
della motivazione.
In base al DSM 5, nel DDAI la disattenzione interferisce con il funzionamento o lo sviluppo dell'individuo e i suoi sintomi hanno un'intensità tale da produrre un impatto negativo sulle abilità sociali, scolastiche o lavorative.
Tuttavia, nella letteratura viene descritto, sia dai soggetti con DDAI che dai loro familiari e dai clinici, un particolare stato di attenzione altamente focalizzata su attività interessanti per il paziente, denominato hyperfocus. Questo paradosso è stato oggetto di approfondimento da parte della presente dissertazione con lo scopo di capire se il fatto che le attività in cui si verifica questo stato siano interessanti per il soggetto possa essere in qualche modo collegato alla motivazione.
Dalla lettura di tali studi è emerso che lo stato di hyperfocus potrebbe riferirsi allo stesso stato che viene, invece, definito flow in studi empirici condotti su soggetti non diversificati in base a eventuali disturbi e che viene concettualizzato come uno stato di motivazione ottimale, associato a performance di livello elevato. Infatti, le caratteristiche descrittive dei due stati sono molto simili e potrebbero riferirsi ad un unico costrutto a base psicobiologica.
La presente dissertazione ha lo scopo di approfondire i correlati psicobiologici del disturbo e presentare i risultati del confronto tra la letteratura esistente sui correlati psicobiologici dello stato
di flow in campioni non diversificati e quella reperita sullo stato di hyperfocus in soggetti con DDAI. Tali risultati portano a ipotizzare che una stretta interazione tra particolari caratteristiche
dell'attività e predisposizione dei soggetti con DDAI allo stato di flow possa spiegare il paradosso costituito dalla capacità di sostenere un'attenzione focalizzata e di alta produttività in soggetti con
deficit di attenzione, come in un incastro perfetto mediato dalla motivazione intrinseca suscitata dal bilanciamento tra abilità del soggetto e difficoltà del compito.
E' possibile ipotizzare che una replica di alcuni studi già effettuati sullo stato di flow, ma eseguita su un gruppo di soggetti con DDAI e gruppo di controllo, utilizzando un compito intrinsecamente motivante e capace di fornire un feedback immediato, potrebbe chiarire se il deficit del controllo cognitivo nel DDAI sia specifico al contesto.
In campioni di soggetti non diversificati in base alla presenza o meno del DDAI, compiti intrinsecamente motivanti, caratterizzati da un perfetto bilanciamento tra abilità del soggetto e difficoltà del compito e capaci di fornire un feedback immediato, si sono rivelati capaci di produrre sotto-regolazione del Default Mode Network da parte del nucleo dorsale del rafe. In studi su soggetti con DDAI, purtroppo condotti attraverso la somministrazione di compiti che non rispondono alle caratteristiche favorenti lo stato di flow individuate da Csikszentmihalyi
(1975, 1993, 1996), è stata riscontrata una ridotta capacità di regolazione negativa del DMN.
E' possibile suggerire una replica dello studio che evidenzia la sotto-regolazione del DMN nello stato di flow, questa volta in soggetti con DDAI, mantenendo costante la capacità del compito di fornire un feedback immediato e manipolando la difficoltà del compito in rapporto all'abilità del soggetto, per verificare se la ridotta capacità di regolazione negativa nei soggetti con DDAI, verrebbe compensata dallo stato di flow che, come detto, in campioni di soggetti non diversificati, produce sotto-regolazione del DMN.
Inoltre, in uno studio su un campione di soggetti che non presentano DDAI, è emersa una significativa correlazione positiva tra alta disponibilità di recettori striatali D2 e propensione allo
stato di flow e, nei pazienti con DDAI, è emersa un'alta disponibilità di recettori D2 nel caudato e nel putamen. Un approfondimento di questa corrispondenza potrebbe chiarire se nei soggetti con DDAI esiste una propensione allo stato di flow.
Si può suggerire che un approccio capace di considerare i due stati come un unico costrutto a base psicobiologica, qualora empiricamente sostenuto, potrebbe non solo orientare la clinica, ma anche fornire una prospettiva applicativa per interventi educativi, psicologici e didattici

Respiratory-heart period coupling was assessed via the weighted coherence (Cw) statistic derived from cross-spectral analysis and was related to physiological response patterns during two attention-demanding tasks. Subjects with a high coherence responded with significantly larger heart period decelerations at the time of the imperative stimulus in a reaction-time task. Peak deceleration of the low-coherence subjects exhibited more temporal variability. In a vigilance task, individual differences in coherence assessed prior to task manipulations were maintained during the task and significantly decreased during the task. Individual differences in coherence between and within sessions were stable, whereas corresponding analyses for heart period, heart period variance, and spontaneous electrodermal activity reflected only significant within-session correlations. The data suggest that individual differences in respiratory-heart period coherence are stable and are related to phasic cardiac responses in a reaction-time task.

In the present study, we propose that the level of activity and organization in time and in space are the common link between motor routines in normal behavior, stereotypies, and compulsions. Specifically, an increase in activity, a shrinkage of the attended space, or an extension of time results in repetitive performance. This hypothesis is based on a discussion of stereotypies and compulsions in the context of motor routines in undisturbed behavior of the rock hyrax. Observations of hyraxes in the wild and in captivity revealed that their behavior constitutes motor routines at several levels of organization: (1) Activity is concentrated in a relatively limited region-a bush and an adjacent rocky ramp; (2) in both morning and afternoon, the hyraxes ascend the external branches of the bush, which they then leave in order to forage; (3) moving from the bush to the ramp and vice versa occurs along certain flXed routes; (4) while on the ramp, hyraxes tend to stop frequently on only certain flXed stones; (5) each such "preferred stone" has a typical location and directions of approach and departure; and (6) motor performance on the "preferred" stones typically involves crouching or sitting in certain typical postures, and is preceded and followed by only a few (if any) lateral movements. We propose that these recurrent behavioral patterns may constitute the normal foundation from which a reminiscent rigid motor performance that characterizes stereotypy and compulsive behavior develops.

Objective: Despite its long and auspicious place in the history of psychiatry, dissociative identity disorder (DID) has been associated with controversy. This paper aims to examine the empirical data related to DID and outline the contextual challenges to its scientific investigation. Methods: The overview is limited to DID-specific research in which one or more of the following conditions are met: (i) a sample of participants with DID was systematically investigated, (ii) psychometrically-sound measures were utilised, (iii) comparisons were made with other samples, (iv) DID was differentiated from other disorders, including other dissociative disorders, (v) extraneous variables were controlled or (vi) DID diagnosis was confirmed. Following an examination of challenges to research, data are organised around the validity and phenomenology of DID, its aetiology and epidemiology, the neurobiological and cognitive correlates of the disorder, and finally its treatment. Results: DID was found to be a complex yet valid disorder across a range of markers. It can be accurately discriminated from other disorders, especially when structured diagnostic interviews assess identity alterations and amnesia. DID is aetiologically associated with a complex combination of developmental and cultural factors, including severe childhood relational trauma. The prevalence of DID appears highest in emergency psychiatric settings and affects approximately 1% of the general population. Psychobiological studies are beginning to identify clear correlates of DID associated with diverse brain areas and cognitive functions. They are also providing an understanding of the potential metacognitive origins of amnesia. Phase-oriented empirically-guided treatments are emerging for DID. Conclusions: The empirical literature on DID is accumulating, although some areas remain under-investigated. Existing data show DID as a complex, valid and not uncommon disorder, associated with developmental and cultural variables, that is amenable to psychotherapeutic intervention.

The effect of sensory input on hormones is essential to any explanation of mammalian behavior, including aspects of physical attraction. The chemical signals we send have direct and developmental effects on hormone levels in other people. Since we don't know either if, or how, visual cues might have direct and developmental effects on hormone levels in other people, the biological basis for the development of visually perceived human physical attraction is currently somewhat questionable. In contrast, the biological basis for the development of physical attraction based on chemical signals is well detailed.

The chapter uses the methods of psychobiography and object relations theory to conduct a single-case study of the life and loves of German filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl (1902-2003). Leni's childhood home was dominated by her father, who had to be cajoled, and sometimes outright deceived, into supporting his daughter's desire to enter a career in the performing arts. Unfortunately, Leni's success was often her worst enemy: Just as she evaded her father Albert's censorious glance, so did she avoid the barbs of German film critics by gaining Adolf Hitler as her patron until the fall of the Nazi regime in 1945. At this time, Leni lost not only her marriage and her film career, but even her sanity, if only for a short time. The chapter shows, through a Fairbairnian analysis, how Leni adapted to the disaster that was her early career by reinventing herself as a photographer of African tribes. Also, in her romantic life, she changed tacks. Compared with her late-in-life companion Horst Kettner, Leni's early romances were relatively shallow either because her counterpart was too involved in promoting her career (Harry Sokal) or too far removed from her working life (Peter Jacob).

People differ in what they experience as stressful and to what extent. We define a variable-stress threshold (σ)-that links the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis and the memory system in a feedback mechanism. Current σ dictates the intensity of a stimulus that turns the stress response on. On the other hand, each "jump" of the HPA axis helps long-term registration of the stressful event via concentration changes of some of its products, consequently changing the value of σ for future stressors. After the action of a strong exterior stressor, the new stressful memory acts as an internal source of stress. We assume that its intensity decreases with the rate of processing the stressful information. This process is characterized by a time parameter τ. Both σ and τ are individual: They depend on personality traits, genetic as well as acquired. The mathematical model presented here simulates the feedback mechanism between the HPA axis and the memory system involved in stress reaction.

The effects of varying the amounts of tone preexposure (latent inhibition) and posttraining self-stimulation on retention of a tone-shock association, measured by determining the amount of tone-induced suppression of drinking, were studied. Increasing amounts of pretraining tone exposure decreased retention over all levels of self-stimulation, and increasing amounts of posttraining self-stimulation increased retention over all levels of preexposure. The interaction between these two factors suggests that they both acted on the strength of the tone-shock association. The preexposure acted proactively to weaken the association, and the self-stimulation acted retroactively to strengthen it. The effects of delaying the posttraining stimulation for various times after the tone-shock pairings was also investigated. Retention was improved by selfstimulation delayed for 15 or 30 min, but was not affected by self-stimulation delayed for 1 h. These experiments are interpreted as indicating that posttraining self-stimulation acts to improve retention by interacting with normally occurring processes of acquisition and retention. Posttraining hypothalamic self-stimulation can improve the memory of rats in many different situations, including an instrumental water-finding task (Major & White, 1978), aversive and appetitive classical conditioning situations (Coulombe & White, 1980), and in a sensory preconditioning paradigm (Coulombe & White, 1981).These findings have been interpreted as indications of a noncontingent, retroactive strengthening by self-stimulation of associations between the neural representations of various sensory events. These data are consistent with the work of a number of other investigators which suggests that the medial forebrain bundle and related structures are involved in mediating an effect of reinforcement on memory (

Behavior analysis relies on the idea of a science dealing with specific interactions between the organism and its environment. Yet it is not always clearly defined what does an “organism” mean. I will contend that disagreements arise from the roles the organism is said to have in behavioral settings. I will also argue for the organismal level as appropriate for explaining behavior in an attempt to reconcile physiology with behavior analysis thus considering organismal variables as either bodily conditions or physiological mechanisms without neglecting the selective pressures of the environment for guiding behavior.

Background: Seventy-seven selected high performing soccer players of South-East Asian contingent, selected on the basis of
their consistent high soccer performance by their respective coaches, volunteered as participants in this study.
Materials and Methods: Out of a pool of one-hundred twenty-nine soccer players (who were evaluated on regular basis with
regard to their psychobiological viz. − cortical, autonomic and peripheral measures of arousal; psychomotor parameters, such
as − temporal anticipation and whole body reaction ability and psychological, for instance - cognitive flexibility and emotional
stability variables) those who were found matched according to their anthropometric, cardiovascular and performance status,
were considered as the representative young-adult soccer participants. For this present experiment all of the participants were
evaluated with tonic and phasic electrodermal activity comprising of autonomic startling response index as marker of sudomotor
nerve activity and orienting reflex indices of phasic components of electrodermal activity decomposed as orienting latency;
amplitude and recovery were assessed simultaneously while the players were engaged in evaluation of inner core emotionality.
Results: Multiple linear and polynomial regression analyses were done to observe shared aetiology in the form of direct,
inverse and supportive relationships between psychobiological and emotional indices related to performance excellence in soccer.
Conclusion: Comprehensive understanding of the confounding relationships between subjective feelings emotional resilience
and corroborative orienting reflex indices as predictor of high performance was established.

This paper reviews the currently available knowledge about the psychobiology and psychopharmacology of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It also reviews the various studies that have elucidated changes in brain function and structure in PTSD populations, including position emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and event-related potential (ERP) studies. It then reviews the literature on catecholamine and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis abnormalities in PTSD, and ®nally reviews the literature available on the psychopharmacology of PTSD. It discusses how the pathophysiology of PTSD determines the nature of psychopharmacological interventions. Psychopharmacological interventions in PTSD are largely limited to good studies on the effects of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). In order to effectively intervene in PTSD, studies of other psychopharmacological agents are necessary, speci®cally of agents which affect limbic activation, decreased frontal lobe functioning, altered HPA activity, and other biological features of PTSD.

Researchers often use the term “sensitivity ” when theorizing that certain persons may be more readily affected by various influences than others. Through a review of the literature, it is argued that some individuals are disposed toward a range of sensitivities that, in novelty as well as intensity, distinguish them from the general population. The author cites evidence indicating that such persons exhibit greater susceptibility to a range of  environmental factors including allergies, migraine headache, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue. Their immediate family members appear to be similarly affected. Additionally, these “sensitive” individuals report a high degree of anomalous perception. While no single factor in a person’s background is likely to distinguish him/her as  sensitive, eight demographic or personality factors are found to be significant.

We construct a model based on Heider's social balance theory to analyze the interpersonal network among social agents. The model of social balance theory provides us an interesting tool to see how a social group evolves to the possible balance state. We introduce the balance index that can be used to measure social balance in macro structure level (global balance index) or in micro structure (local balance index) to see how the local balance index influences the global balance structure. Several experiments are done and we discover how the social group can form separation of subgroups in a group or strengthening a social group while emphasizing the structure theorem and social mitosis previously introduced.

La psicología es una ciencia biosocial, por lo que los estudiantes de psicología deben recibir una adecuada formación en la orientación psicobiológica, neuropsicológica y psicosocial. Así se ha constituido en diversos centros de estudios de prestigio mundial, por lo que el desarrollo de la ciencia psicológica parte por concebir su objeto de estudio como un dominio de diversos factores que hace necesaria una adecuada comprensión de las bases biológicas y sociales de la conducta. Se presenta la naturaleza de la carrera acorde a la estructura Curricular de Psicología de la UNMSM, para ver en qué medida se cumple con la consigna de una formación científica integral y un entrenamiento profesional óptimo del psicólogo así como la responsabilidad que la escuela debería asumir en su compromiso con la ciencia, la tecnología y el servicio social.

We propose to read Francis Bacon's doctrine of the idols of the mind as an investigation firmly entrenched in his mental-medicinal concerns and we argue that an important role therein is played by the imagination. Looking at the ways in which the imagination serves to pinpoint several crucial aspects of the idolic mind permits us to signal the explicit or implicit cross-references between what in Bacon's tree of knowledge appear as distinct branches: the various faculties and their arts; the mind, the body, and their league; natural philosophy, moral philosophy, and the philosophy of man. The consequence of this rich picture of the diagnosis of the mind is an equally rich conception of the cure, which comprises both epistemic and physiological aspects. We extract the features of this integrated view out of Bacon's epistemological and medical natural historical writings, which we propose to read in tandem. We also propose a number of sources for Bacon's views on the imagination, whose variety accounts for the multivalent, sometimes elusive, but surely pervasive role of the imagination in the Baconian diagnosis and cure of the mind.

E tutta in sudore e tremante come erba patita scoloro: e morte non pare lontana a me rapita di mente." Saffo F 31 Lobel-Page, vv. 11-14 [tr. it. di S. Quasimodo] " io venni men così com'io morisse. E caddi come corpo morto cade." Dante Alighieri Inf V, vv. 141-142 INDICE  Capitolo I La sincope: definizione, inquadramento e diagnosi differenziale. 1.1 Definizione 5 1.2 Inquadramento: le varie classificazioni della sincope 8 1.3 Strumenti diagnostici per l'indagine della natura degli episodi di transitoria perdita di coscienza 10 1.4 Dati epidemiologici sulla sincope 12  Capitolo II Psicofisiologia della paura. 2.1 Il sistema nervoso simpatico e parasimpatico 16 2.2 Il sistema nervoso centrale e il nervo vago: la comunicazione cuore-cervello 19 2.3 Il fronteggiamento degli stimoli appetitivi e avversivi nei mammiferi e nell'uomo 24 2.4 Dalla "sincope vasovagale" allo "svenimento indotto da paura". Il contributo della "Paleolithic-threat hypothesis" 27 2.5 La sincope vasovagale è una strategia per sfuggire ai predatori o per proteggere il cuore? 31  Capitolo III Sincope vasovagale, sofferenza psicologica e trattamento. 3.1 Sincope vasovagale, disturbi d'ansia e dell'umore e qualità della vita 39 3.2 La neurocezione: orientarsi in un mondo di difese 46 3.3 Sincope vasovagale, disturbo da stress post traumatico e disturbi dissociativi 52 3.4 Lo stato dell'arte sul trattamento della sincope vasovagale 67  Conclusioni 74  Ringraziamenti 79  Bibliografia 81 3 Per più dettagliate considerazioni terminologiche si veda "Enciclopedia medica italiana", seconda edizione, alla voce "sincope", p.3721 4 "drop attack" 5 "E' assunto che in condizioni di salute ottimale, il normale flusso cerebrale è di 50-60 ml/min/100 g di tessuto cerebrale (in totale circa 800 ml/min, pari al 20% circa dell'output cardiaco). L'attività elettrica della corteccia cessa quando il flusso scende al di sotto di 16-18 ml/min/100g; un'interruzione del flusso dagli 8 ai 10 secondi induce perdita di coscienza." (Poggi et al., 2014). 6 Questa specificazione risulta necessaria per differenziare la sincope da altri disturbi come ad esempio le crisi di assenza, definite in passato "piccolo male", caratterizzate da perdita di coscienza di breve durata. In questo caso i pazienti però non cadono, né presentano convulsioni; interrompono improvvisamente l'attività e la riprendono altrettanto improvvisamente dopo la crisi, senza sintomi postictali né addirittura consapevolezza della crisi (Gélisse et al., 2015). pazienti (Brignole et al., 2011). Infatti, spesso l'episodio sincopale può essere preceduto da alcuni segni vegetativi quali pallore, sudorazione, vertigine, nausea, malessere addominale, sensazione di vuoto mentale e alterazioni della vista, i quali costituiscono il quadro clinico definito come pre-sincope. In presenza di questi segni il tempo necessario all'avvento della sincope varia da soggetto a soggetto, anche se spesso è di pochi secondi. Per quanto riguarda la durata della perdita di coscienza è breve e di solito non dura più di venti secondi, almeno nel caso in cui si tratti di una sincope vasovagale. 7 Nei casi di sincope funzionale al contrario la durata dell'attacco può essere anche di alcuni minuti. Alla luce di queste differenze è possibile definire la pseudo-sincope psicogena (PPS 8 ) come un disturbo funzionale caratterizzato da apparente perdita transitoria della coscienza (apparente T-LOC) con presenza di un elettroencefalogramma reattivo normale 9 , pressione sanguigna e frequenza cardiaca di solito relativamente elevate, occhi chiusi e presenza di movimenti intenzionali durante l'episodio. Spesso sono presenti dei prodromi sincopali simili a quelli che precedono la sincope vasovagale (Moya et al., 2009; Tannemaat et al., 2013). L'attenzione del clinico dovrebbe orientarsi nell'indagine della presenza o meno dei segni di pre-sincope, nonché sulla durata degli episodi e, nei casi in cui è possibile, sui resoconti dei presenti 10 , poiché costituiscono importanti indizi diagnostici. 7 Ovvero nel caso in cui si tratti di una reazione sincopale in presenza di trigger riconoscibili, così come descritto da Hoefnagels et al. (1991) e come anche riportato nell'Enciclopedia Medica Italiana, dove si parla di "non più di venti secondi". 8 PPS: psychogenic pseudosyncope.

Mata adalah organ penglihatan yang mendeteksi cahaya. Yang dilakukan mata yang paling sederhana tak lain hanya mengetahui apakah lingkungan sekitarnya adalah terang atau gelap. Mata yang lebih kompleks dipergunakan untuk memberikan pengertian visual. Mata adalah suatu struktur sferis berisi cairan yang dibungkus oleh tiga lapisan. Sebagian besar mata dilapisi oleh jaringan ikat yang protektif dan kuat di sebelah luar, sklera, yang membentuk bagian putih mata. Di anterior (ke arah depan), lapisan luar terdiri atas kornea transparan tempat lewatnya berkas-berkas cahaya ke interior mata. Lapisan tengah dibawah sklera adalah koroid yang sangat berpigmen dan mengandung pembuluh-pembuluh darah untuk memberi makan retina. Lapisan paling dalam dibawah koroid adalah retina, yang terdiri atas lapisan yang sangat berpigmen di sebelah luar dan sebuah lapisan syaraf di dalam. Retina mengandung sel batang dan sel kerucut, fotoreseptor yang mengubah energi cahaya menjadi impuls syaraf. Struktur mata manusia berfungsi utama untuk memfokuskan cahaya ke retina. Semua komponen-komponen yang dilewati cahaya sebelum sampai ke retina mayoritas berwarna gelap untuk meminimalisir pembentukan bayangan gelap dari cahaya. Kornea dan lensa berguna untuk mengumpulkan cahaya yang akan difokuskan ke retina, cahaya ini akan menyebabkan perubahan kimiawi pada sel fotosensitif di retina. Hal ini akan merangsang impuls-impuls syaraf ini dan menjalarkannya ke otak. BAB II PEMBAHASAN 2.1 ANATOMI MATA Bola mata berdiameter ±2,5 cm dimana 5/6 bagiannya terbenam dalam rongga mata, dan hanya 1/6 bagiannya saja yang tampak pada bagian luar. Gambar 2.1 menunjukan bagianbagian yang termasuk ke dalam bola mata, bagian-bagian tersebut memiliki fungsi berbeda, secara rinci diuraikan sebagai berikut : 1. Sklera : Melindungi bola mata dari kerusakan mekanis dan menjadi tempat melekatnya bola mata 2. Otot-otot : Otot-otot yang melekat pada mata : a. muskulus rektus superior : menggerakan mata ke atas b. muskulus rektus inferior : mengerakan mata ke bawah 3. Kornea : memungkinkan lewatnya cahaya dan merefraksikan cahaya 4. Badan Siliaris : Menyokong lensa dan mengandung otot yang memungkinkan lensa untuk beroakomodasi, kemudian berfungsijuga untuk mengsekreskan aqueus humor 5. Iris : Mengendalikan cahaya yang masuk ke mata melalui pupil, mengandung pigmen. 6. Lensa : Memfokuskan pandangan dengan mengubah bentuk lensa 7. Bintik kuning (Fovea) : Bagian retina yang mengandung sel kerucut 8. Bintik buta : Daerah syaraf optic meninggalkan bagian dalam bola mata 9. Vitreous humor : Menyokong lensa dan menjaga bentuk bola mata 10. Aquous humor : Menjaga bentuk kantong bola mata Bola mata dibagi menjadi 3 lapisan, dari luar ke dalam yaitu tunica fibrosa, tunica vasculosa, dan tunica nervosa.

Alla luce delle più recenti scoperte sul cervello umano e sulla presenza di "automatismi" (ossia, azioni compiute involontariamente), il diritto deve rivedere le proprie convinzioni sotto i profili dell'imputabilità e della colpevolezza, in ambito penale, e della capacità di agire, in ambito civile, al fine di avvicinare il più possibile la concezione giuridica dell'uomo a quella biologico-scientifica.

Negli ultimi anni si è compreso anche come fattori collegati all'alimentazione e, in generale, allo stile di vita possano essere implicati nell'esacerbazione, nel mantenimento e nella remissione di moltissime malattie; il paradigma della psiconeuroendocrinoimmunologia, a questo proposito, si propone di fornire gli strumenti teorici per indagare il nesso tra le variabili biologiche, psicologiche e comportamentali all'interno di numerose condizioni cliniche (Bottaccioli, 2011). Per realizzare interventi che rispettino il paradigma biopsicosociale appare allora necessario partire dallo studio delle realtà cliniche di interesse in una ottica integrata, tenendo in considerazione sin dall'inizio variabili che comprendano: lo stato psicologico, il livello di stress, le abitudini alimentari e di vita del paziente, proprio alla luce dei modelli integrati proposti.  La letteratura a questo proposito descrive il rapporto tra psoriasi e obesità, tra psoriasi e disturbi del comportamento alimentare, tra psoriasi e diversi tipi di addiction, tuttavia sembra non esista ancora una visione unitaria e integrata di tutti questi fattori, i quali potrebbero influire sulla gravità della patologia cutanea ed agire da fattori di mantenimento. Un lavoro orientato verso questa direzione potrebbe rappresentare quindi una opportunità per accrescere la conoscenza rispetto all'interazione di queste variabili nell'andamento della malattia.

Students have a variety of learning styles.  And communicating with them in their preferred style in ways that open their receptivity to new information is one of the keys to increasing their learning.  Doing this one-to-one, during an office consultation for example is relatively easy.  But, in the classroom where there is a mixture of styles presents an interesting challenge for the effective professor, does it not?  Continually sticking to the facts in a monotone drone during a lecture is not often music to students’ ears. And speaking in unstructured ways often muddies the water.  Clearly, in order to get the greatest learning, one must present one’s ideas so students can literally visualize the points being made, hear the nuances, and internally connect with what is being presented.  Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) provides a number of language pattern tools that can be used to meet this challenge.  This paper presents several of these patterns including Charisma; VAKOG Modalities; Meta Model; Milton Model; Pace-Link-Lead; And-But; and Credibility.

Rispetto alla popolazione generale, gli individui per cui venga formulato un giudizio ARMS (At Risk of Mental State) presentano un rischio cento volte maggiore di sviluppare la schizofrenia (Fusar-Poli et al. 2012). Tuttavia, allo stato attuale della ricerca nella diagnosi precoce, le strategie di riconoscimento degli stati prodromici di malattia non consentono ancora di discriminare tra chi necessita di un intervento preventivo di tipo intensivo e chi invece non ne trarrebbe sufficiente beneficio. Per questo motivo, si auspica un'integrazione di marker neurobiologici e neurocognitivi con i dati clinici, al fine di quantificare in modo affidabile il rischio portato da ciascun singolo soggetto. Nella presente rassegna, si cercherà di render conto di tale complessità presentando le caratteristiche dell'esordio precoce, delineando poi le principali tendenze di ricerca e i risultati da esse conseguiti. Al fine di valutare la solidità del costrutto di diagnosi precoce, verranno presentati diversi modelli predittivi proposti in anni recenti ed evidenziate alcune criticità a livello metodologico, cercando di capire se si tratti di carenze strutturali o se invece vi sia adito a miglioramento tramite best practice e accorgimenti nell'impostazione degli studi. Si passerà quindi a considerare diverse aree oggetto di studio relativamente alla schizofrenia e conseguentemente alle sue fasi prodromiche o precoci, con particolare attenzione verso i soggetti già considerati a rischio o aventi sperimentato un primo episodio psicotico. Nello specifico, si analizzeranno i cambiamenti epigenetici riscontrabili all'insorgere del disturbo e la loro relazione con lo sviluppo neurale; il concetto di " endofenotipo " così come teorizzato dalla psichiatria genetica e una sua esemplificazione pratica; le alterazioni strutturali e funzionali, nonché le anomalie a livello elettrofisiologico, quali possibili indicatori da utilizzare nello screening. Successivamente, si esamineranno due ambiti ˗ l'infiammazione e la neuroendocrinologia ˗ interessanti da un punto di vista teorico in quanto strettamente legati alla patofisiologia della schizofrenia e alle condizioni di

Travma, travmatize olmuş mağdurların yoğun bir çaresizlik ve tehdit algısı hissetmelerine ve ilişkilerini, değerlerini ve varsayımlarını temelden sarsacak bir yıkıma neden olmaktadır. Aslında kurtulan konumda olan mağdurun beden bütünlüğünü ve diğer insanlara dair güvenini insan eliyle alaşağı eden bu durum, atlatılması en güç ruhsal ve bedensel olgudur. Birçok kuramcı ve araştırmacı bu yıkımın faillerini; yıkıcılığın mekanizmasını anlayabilmek ve bireylerin gelecekte daha sağlıklı yaşayabilmelerini sağlamak adına birtakım önerme dizgesi oluşturmuşkardır. Ancak gayrı iradi yıkıcılığın mekanizmasına çok yakın bir tarihte nörobiyolojik bulguları ile katkı sağlamış araştırmacıların saptamaları, beyin araştırmaları ve yeni tedavi yöntemleri için merak uyandırmaktadır. Birtakım tedavi evrelerinden geçerek hayata tekrardan katılabilen travma mağdurlarının iyileşme ihtimali, bazen fizyolojik işlevsizlik kaynaklı bazen de yaşam içindeki deneyimler kaynaklı psikolojik travma geçmişlerini bugüne taşıyan travma faillerinin tedavi olabilme ve değişebilme kapasitesinden daha olanaklı görülmektedir.

Kant’s pre-1770 philosophy responded to the mind-body problem by applying a theory of “physical influx”. His encounter with Swedenborg’s mysticism, however, left him disillusioned with any dualist solution to Descartes’ problem. One of the major goals of the Critical philosophy was to provide a completely new solution to the mind-body problem. Kant’s new solution is “perspectival” in the sense that all Critical theories are perspectival: it acknowledges a deep truth in both of the controversy’s extremes (i.e., what we might nowadays call eliminative materialism and an absolutely ideal folk psychology), by viewing both as ways of considering the issue, rather than as the only correct approach. Once we take into account its perspectival character, a new way of understanding Kant’s philosophy of mind emerges. The mind is no longer separate from the body, but is a manifestation of it, viewed from another (specifically human, rational) perspective. Kant’s transcendental conditions of knowledge (spatio-temporal intuition, categorial conception, and principled schematization) do not portray the mind as somehow creating the physical world; rather, they imply the opposite, that knowledge of objects is necessarily structured by a set of unconscious assumptions about the physical world. Our pre-conscious (or pre-mental, in Descartes’ sense of “mental”) encounter with an assumed spatio-temporal, causal nexus is entirely physical. A reincarnated Kant’s solution to today’s mind-body problem would be: eliminative materialism is good science; but only the “explanatory idealist” can consistently be an eliminative materialist. Philosophically, multiple perspectives are necessary in order to understand anything we say or do.

The article reviews the current knowledge regarding altered states of consciousness (ASC) (a) occurring spontaneously, (b) evoked by physical and physiological stimulation, (c) induced by psychological means, and (d) caused by diseases. The emphasis is laid on psychological and neurobiological approaches. The phenomenological analysis of the multiple ASC resulted in 4 dimensions by which they can be characterized: activation, awareness span, self-awareness, and sensory dynamics. The neurophysiological approach revealed that the different states of consciousness are mainly brought about by a compromised brain structure, transient changes in brain dynamics (disconnectivity), and neurochemical and metabolic processes. Besides these severe alterations, environmental stimuli, mental practices, and techniques of self-control can also temporarily alter brain functioning and conscious experience.

My target article (henceforth referred to as TA) presents evidence for causal interactions between consciousness and brain and some standard ways of accounting for this evidence in clinical practice and neuropsychological theory.  I also point out some of the problems of understanding such causal interactions that are not addressed by standard explanations.  Most of the residual problems have to do with how to cross the “explanatory gap” from consciousness to brain. I then list some of the reasons why the route across this gap suggested by physicalism won't work, in spite of its current popularity in consciousness studies. My own suggested route across the explanatory gap is more subterranean, where consciousness and brain can be seen to be dual aspects of a unifying, psychophysical mind.  Some of the steps on this deeper route still have to be filled in by empirical research. But (as far as I can judge) there are no gaps that cannot be filled—just a different way of understanding consciousness, mind, brain and their causal interaction, with some interesting consequences for our understanding of free will.  The commentaries on TA examined many aspects of my thesis viewed from both Western and Eastern perspectives. This reply focuses on how dual-aspect monism compares with currently popular alternatives such as “nonreductive physicalism”, clarifies my own approach, and reconsiders how well this addresses the “hard” problems of consciousness. We re-examine how conscious experiences relate to their physical/functional correlates and whether useful analogies can be drawn with other, physical relationships that appear to have dual-aspects.  We also examine some fundamental differences between Western and Eastern thought about whether the existence of the physical world or the existence of consciousness can be taken for granted (with consequential differences about which of these is “hard” to understand). I then suggest a form of dual-aspect Reflexive Monism that might provide a path between these ancient intellectual traditions that is consistent with science and with common sense.

Additional Note for 2012 upload on Academia.edu: This reply responds to thoughtful commentaries on the target article by John Kihlstrom, Todd Feinberg, Steve Torrance, Robert van Gulick, Jeffrey Gray and K. Ramakrisna Rao. One commentary by Ron Chrisley and Aaron Sloman seriously misrepresented my views and then proceeded to criticize their own misrepresentation in ways that I make clear in my response. Ten years after its initial publication, as far as I ca tell, the analysis of consciousness-brain causal interactions presented in "How could conscious experience affect brains?" still conforms closely to both the findings of science and to everyday experience.

395] This contribution is about sense-making in music. In an attempt to bring together such diverging fields as semiotics and neurobiology, it argues for a processual approach to music which conceives of "music users" as organisms that "cope" with their environment. It is a position which calls forth ecological and epistemological assumptions and which stresses the importance of a conception of music-as-dealt-with rather than a static conception of music as structure or artefact. As such, it considers music as a sounding and temporal art which appeals to lower-level mechanisms of reactivity as well as to acquired mechanism of sense-making which are the outcome of a learning history. It is argued, further, that there is a continuum between lower level sensory processing and higher-order cognitive elaboration. The musical code, accordingly, holds a hybrid position between innate and wired-in dispositions and higher-level cognitive processing mechanisms. The very concept of code, further, is given some theoretical grounding as well as empirical evidence from the domains of psychophysics, psychobiology and neurobiology.

This contribution is about sense-making in music. In an attempt to bring together such diverging fields as semiotics and neurobiology, it argues for a processual approach to music, which conceives of 'music users' as organisms that 'cope' with their environment. It is a position which calls forth ecological and epistemological assumptions and which stresses the importance of a conception of music as dealt with rather than a static conception of music as structure or artefact. As such, it considers music as a sounding and temporal art which appeals to lower-level mechanisms of reactivity, as well as to the acquired mechanisms of sense-making which are the outcome of a learning history. It is argued, further, that there is a continuum between lower level sensory processing and higher-order cognitive elaboration. The musical code, accordingly, holds a hybrid position between innate and wired-in dispositions and higher-level cognitive processing mechanisms. The very concept of code, further, is given some theoretical grounding as well as empirical evidence from the domains of psychophysics, psychobiology, and neurobiology.

The recognition that most of today’s invalid psychiatric diagnoses could be attributed to a false psychiatric paradigm led the author to write The Four Domains of Mental Illness: An Alternative to the DSM–5 (FDMI). The FDMI is a third-force effort aimed at steering attention away from the medical model of mental illness and toward the all-but-forgotten psychobiology of Adolf Meyer. Meyer saw psychic pathology as originating in a misuse of freedom that leads to maladaptive choices made in the face of difficult life situations, entailing alterations in both mind and brain. Meyer’s ideas, once dominant in American psychiatry, lost sway for a variety of reasons, not the least of which was his failure to systematically spell out his implicit understanding of what it means to be a human being—an endeavor undertaken by philosophers and psychologists, under the rubric of philosophical anthropology. It gradually became evident that a good deal of what was lacking in Meyer’s psychobiology had already been cultivated by thinkers and clinicians from the existential tradition, including Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Ronald Laing. The synergy that comes with consolidating these two seemingly disparate approaches to understanding psychic pathology provided the philosophical anthropology and the analytic power that made possible the diagnostic scheme set out in the FDMI. A further elaboration of the nature and significance of this synergy is the raison d’être for the article that follows. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

© 2021 American Psychological Asso

In everyday life we take it for granted that we have conscious control of some of our actions and that the part of us that exercises control is the conscious mind.  Psychosomatic medicine also assumes that the conscious mind can affect body states, and this is supported by evidence that the use of imagery, hypnosis, biofeedback and other ‘mental interventions’ can be therapeutic in a variety of medical conditions.  However, there is no accepted theory of mind/body interaction and this has had a detrimental effect on the acceptance of mental causation in science, philosophy and in many areas of clinical practice. Biomedical accounts typically translate the effects of mind into the effects of brain functioning, for example, explaining mind/body interactions in terms of the interconnections and reciprocal control of cortical, neuroendocrine, autonomic and immune systems.  While such accounts are instructive, they are implicitly reductionist, and beg the question of how conscious experiences could have bodily effects.  On the other hand, non-reductionist accounts have to cope with three problems: 1) The physical world appears causally closed, which would seem to leave no room for conscious intervention. 2) One is not conscious of one’s own brain/body processing, so how could there be conscious control of such processing? 3) Conscious experiences appear to come too late to causally affect the processes to which they most obviously relate.  This paper suggests a way of understanding mental causation that resolves these problems. It also suggests that “conscious mental control” needs to be partly understood in terms of the voluntary operations of the preconscious mind, and that this allows an account of biological determinism that is compatible with experienced free will.

It is widely recognized that Leibniz’s basic understanding of the mind (as a combination of consciousness and unconsciousness) gave birth to a tradition destined to affect the entire evolution of German psychology until Freud. The proposal of the possible existence of unconscious mental processes was in complete contradiction with the dominant perspective. However, following Kant’s suggestions about the articulated and complex architecture of the soul contained in his Lectures on Psychology, it can be argued that, paradoxically, it is precisely the ‘Eponymous hero’ of the ‘Enlightened Era’ that gives us a first major revision of a ‘treasure’ made by very complex mechanisms, not detected by the spontaneous consciousness, through which our soul develops its knowledge. In fact, for Kant, far from Descartes but closer to Spinoza, the soul ─ which is not only a ‘thinking substance’, as it is continuously in commercium with the body ─ is an integrated and highly complex structure with functions and sub-functions, comparable today to a computer.

The recovery of the emotions and the body in psychotherapy: the contribution of some theories developed in the field of neuroscience and psychobiology.
Recent knowledge, in neuroscience, concerning the functioning of the mind and brain, have highlighted the role that emotions and their physical expressions play in the psychic life of man and in social behaviors. They are therefore at the center of scientific research that show interconnection and convergence between neuroscience, affective neuroscience, attachment theory, psychology, infant research, the multiple code theory, etc. Even in psychotherapy, generally centered on cognition - interpretation, there is renewed interest in the role that the work on emotions and their physical expression has for the effectiveness of psychotherapy. Today, compared to the 60s that marked a paradigm shift in psychotherapy, this renewed interest can rely on evidence acquired, in fact, within the scientific research. This short study focuses mainly on some theories of emotions, developed through multidisciplinary lenses, particularly significant for the practice of psychotherapy. They particularly emphasize the role of the therapeutic relationship and of affective regulation mechanisms (which also regulate physiological states) in determining the therapeutic progress and the patient's recovery process.

Keywords; Polyvagal theory, affective regulation, " basic emotional systems", psychobiology unconscious communication, attachment.

The article reviews the current knowledge regarding altered states of consciousness (ASC) (a) occurring spontaneously, (b) evoked by physical and physiological stimulation, (c) induced by psychological means, and (d) caused by diseases. The emphasis is laid on psychological and neurobiological approaches. The phenomenological analysis of the multiple ASC resulted in 4 dimensions by which they can be characterized: activation, awareness span, self-awareness, and sensory dynamics. The neurophysiological approach revealed that the different states of consciousness are mainly brought about by a compromised brain structure, transient changes in brain dynamics (disconnectivity), and neurochemical and metabolic processes. Besides these severe alterations, environmental stimuli, mental practices, and techniques of self-control can also temporarily alter brain functioning and conscious experience.

Na década de 1940, Hans Asperger promulgou que o autismo era uma espécie de "exacerbada" masculinização do cérebro. Na década de 1980 embasado na psicobiologia, Baron-Cohen lança a ideia de que o autismo seria um estado de alto déficit de teoria da mente. A posteriori ele refinou os conceitos criando a ideia de hiper sistematização e mais recentemente tal arcabouço teórico deu revitalidade à teoria de Asperger, com a consolidação teórica do autismo como um estado de hiper masculinização do cérebro (extreme male brain). Nesse artigo, revisamos as evidências da neurobiologia, da genética e da psicologia evolucionista a respeito das evidências de uma possível hiper masculinização do cérebro. Para tanto em um primeiro momento apresentamos as principais singularidades neurofuncionais nos cérebros autistas e revisamos os principais genes candidatos ao autismo. Em outro momento, apresentamos a teoria de Baron-Cohen, junto com as definições sobre dimorfismo sexual e os conceitos de mentes empáticas (femininas), mentes sistemáticas (masculinas) e mentes hiper sistemáticas ("exacerbadamente" masculinas). Mesmo que algumas das evidências apontadas ainda estejam em estágio incipiente, a maior parte delas corrobora a aderência da tese de Baron-Cohen e os primeiros preceitos de Asperger.