Pitch Perception

In schizophrenia, auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) are likely to be perceived as gender-specific. Given that functional neuro-imaging correlates of AVHs involve multiple brain regions principally including auditory cortex, it is likely that those brain regions responsible for attribution of gender to speech are invoked during AVHs. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a paradigm utilising Fgender-apparent_ (unaltered) and Fgender-ambiguous_ (pitch-scaled) male and female voice stimuli to test the hypothesis that male and female voices activate distinct brain areas during gender attribution. The perception of female voices, when compared with male voices, affected greater activation of the right anterior superior temporal gyrus, near the superior temporal sulcus. Similarly, male voice perception activated the mesio-parietal precuneus area. These different gender associations could not be explained by either simple pitch perception or behavioural response because the activations that we observed were conjointly activated by both Fgender-apparent_ and Fgender-ambiguous_ voices. The results of this study demonstrate that, in the male brain, the perception of male and female voices activates distinct brain regions. D

Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded in cross-modal word fragment priming (CMWP) to address the function of pitch for the identification of spoken words. In CMWP fragments of spoken words (e.g., re taken from Regal [Engl. shelves]) are immediately followed by visual targets. Together with reduced reaction times (RTs), an ERP deflection named P350 has been found to be reduced for targets, which match the primes (e.g., in the prime -target pair re -REGAL) as compared to unrelated targets (e.g., re -WIRBEL [Engl. burble]). The P350 has been related to facilitated lexical identification [Friedrich, Kotz, Friederici and Gunter (in press), ERPs reflect lexical identification in word fragment priming, JOCN]. In the present study, we presented syllable primes with different pitch contours. One version of each prime bore a stressed pitch contour (e.g., re_1), the other an unstressed pitch contour (e.g., re_2). Primes were combined with targets being either stressed on the first syllable (e.g., REgel [Engl. rule]) or on the second syllable (e.g., reGAL [Engl. shelves]). We found a reduced amplitude of the P350 and slightly faster reactions for targets with a stress pattern that matched the pitch of the primes (e.g., re_1 -REgel) as compared to targets with a stress pattern that did not match the pitch of the primes (e.g., re_1 -reGAL). The present study replicates the P350 effect with different material, and indicates that pitch is used for lexical identification in spoken word recognition. D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In tonal music, continuous acoustic waveforms are mapped onto discrete, hierarchically arranged, internal representations of pitch. To examine the neural dynamics underlying this transformation, we presented male and female human listeners with tones embedded within a Western tonal context while recording their cortical activity using magnetoencephalography. Machine learning classifiers were then trained to decode different tones from their underlying neural activation patterns at each peristimulus time sample, providing a dynamic measure of their dissimilarity in cortex. Comparing the time-varying dissimilarity between tones with the predictions of acoustic and perceptual models, we observed a temporal evolution in the brain's representational structure. Whereas initial dissimilar-ities mirrored their fundamental-frequency separation, dissimilarities beyond 200 ms reflected the perceptual status of each tone within the tonal hierarchy of Western music. These effects occurred regardless of stimulus regularities within the context or whether listeners were engaged in a task requiring explicit pitch analysis. Lastly, patterns of cortical activity that discriminated between tones became increasingly stable in time as the information coded by those patterns transitioned from low-to-high level properties. Current results reveal the dynamics with which the complex perceptual structure of Western tonal music emerges in cortex at the timescale of an individual tone.

Changes in voice pitch auditory feedback to vocalizing subjects elicit compensatory changes in voice fundamental frequency ͑F0͒. The neural mechanisms responsible for this behavior involve the auditory and vocal-motor systems, collectively known as the audio-vocal system. Previous work ͓Burnett et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 103, 3153-3161 ͑1998͒; Hain et al., Exp. Brain Res. 130, 133-141 ͑2000͒; Larson et al., J.

Like non-verbal communication, paralinguistic communication is rooted in anatomical and physiological factors. Paralinguistic form-meaning relations arise from the way these affect speech production, with some fine-tuning by the cultural and linguistic context. The effects have been classified as "biological codes," following the terminological lead of John Ohala's Frequency Code. Intonational morphemes, though arguably non-arbitrary in principle, are in fact heavily biased toward these paralinguistic meanings. Paralinguistic and linguistic meanings for four biological codes are illustrated. In addition to the Frequency Code, the Effort Code, and the Respiratory Code, the Sirenic Code is introduced here, which is based on the use of whispery phonation, widely seen as being responsible for the signaling and perception of feminine attractiveness and sometimes used to express interrogativity in language. In the context of the evolution of language, the relations between physiological conditions and the resulting paralinguistic and linguistic meanings will need to be clarified.

Our results suggest that musical training alters the functional anatomy of rapid spectrotemporal processing, resulting in improved behavioral performance along with a more efficient functional network primarily involving traditional language regions. This finding may have important implications for improving language/reading skills, especially in children struggling with dyslexia.

There is an increasing interest in multimodal technology-based warnings, namely those conveying speech-warning statements. This type of warning may be tailored to the situation as well as to the target user's characteristics. However, more information is needed on how to design these warnings in a way that ensures intelligibility, promotes compliance and reduces the potential for annoyance. In this context, this paper reports an exploratory study whose main purpose was to assist the selection of a synthesized voice for a subsequent compliance study with personalized (i.e., using the person's name) technologybased warnings using Virtual Reality. Participants were requested to listen to speech signals, gathered from a speech synthesizer and post-processed in order to change the pitch perception, and then these were evaluated by fulfilling the MOS-X questionnaire. After that, the participants ranked the voices according to their preference. The effects of the speaker's gender and voice pitch, on both ratings and ranking were assessed. The preference of the male and female listeners for a talker's voice gender was also investigated. The results show that participants mostly prefer as first choice the high-pitched female voice, which also gathered the highest overall score in the MOS-X questionnaire. No significant influence of the participants' gender was found on the assessed measures.

The ear canal sound pressure and the malleus umbo velocity with bone conduction (BC) stimulation were measured in nine ears from five cadaver heads in the frequency range 0.1 to 10 kHz. The measurements were conducted with both open and occluded ear canals, before and after resection of the lower jaw, in a canal with the cartilage and soft tissues

Singing in one's mind or forming expectations about upcoming notes both require that mental images of one or more pitches will be generated. As with other musical abilities, the acuity with which such images are formed might be expected to vary across individuals and may depend on musical training. Results from several behavioral tasks involving intonation judgments indicate that multiple memory systems contribute to the formation of accurate mental images for pitch, and that the functionality of each is affected by musical training. Electrophysiological measures indicate that the ability to form accurate mental images is associated with greater engagement of auditory areas and associated error-detection circuitry when listeners imagine ascending scales and make intonation judgments about target notes. A view of auditory mental images is espoused in which unified mental image representations are distributed across multiple brain areas. Each brain area helps shape the acuity of the unified representation based on current behavioral demands and past experience.

A novel algorithm for frequency lowering in music was developed and experimentally tested in hearing-impaired listeners. Harmonic frequency lowering (HFL) combines frequency transposition and frequency compression to preserve the harmonic content of music stimuli. Listeners were asked to make judgments regarding detail and sound quality in music stimuli. Stimuli were presented under different signal processing conditions: original, low-pass filtered, HFL, and nonlinear frequency compressed. Results showed that participants reported perceiving the most detail in the HFL condition. In addition, there was no difference in sound quality across conditions.

Performing music requires fast auditory and motor processing. Regarding professional musicians, recent brain imaging studies have demonstrated that auditory stimulation produces a co-activation of motor areas, whereas silent tapping of musical phrases evokes a co-activation in auditory regions. Whether this is obtained via a specific cerebral relay station is unclear. Furthermore, the time course of plasticity has not yet been addressed. Changes in cortical activation patterns (DC-EEG potentials) induced by short (20 minute) and long term (5 week) piano learning were investigated during auditory and motoric tasks. Two beginner groups were trained. The 'map' group was allowed to learn the standard piano key-to-pitch map. For the 'no-map' group, random assignment of keys to tones prevented such a map. Auditory-sensorimotor EEG co-activity occurred within only 20 minutes. The effect was enhanced after 5-week training, contributing elements of both perception and action ...

what is likely to follow, and to enable the listener to apprehend the more global organization of the composition. Our research focuses on the question of how the listener's knowledge of musical structure is represented and engaged during music perception. Music theorists describe the underlying regularities in traditional Western music in terms of tonality or key. Two aspects of this structural description will be important for the present empirical investigation. The first is key membership, which specifies the tones and chords that are typically employed in a musical passage written in a particular key. These elements conform to a fixed pattern of interval relations centered around a single tone, called the tonic of the key. Previous empirical investigations, to be described briefly later, indicate that listeners familiar with tonal music have internalized this aspect of musical structure. The second property identified by music theorists is key distance, which specifies the varying strength of association between different musical

Listeners judged whether two five-tone nonmetric rhythms were the same or different. Each rhythm was presented one, two, or four times to study the process of perceptual differentiation. The results indicated that the listeners perceived these rhythms in terms of the grouping of the tones, and not in terms of the timing between the groups, Two rhythms that had the same perceptual grouping were judged as being identical, even if the timing between the groups was different. The perception of the groupings of tones developed gradually. If each rhythm was pre· sented only once, then the listeners had only a global percept, focused on groups (runs) of three elements, and often judged two different rhythms as being identical. If the rhythms were presented two or four times, then the grouping of the tones became more differentiated and the listeners were less likely to judge different patterns as being identical. Thus, perception of auditory rhythmic structure appears to follow the same developmental process as the perception of visual spatial structure.

Abbreviations: CI, cochlear implant; RIB, research interface box; 2I-2AFC, twointerval two-alternative forced choice; pps, pulses per second; PSE, point of subjective equality; PTA, pure-tone average; SE, standard error of the mean * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ43 512 507 52710; fax: þ43 512 507 2922.

Objective: Auditory processing disorder (APD) is characterised by listening difficulties despite a normal audiogram. APD is becoming ever more widely diagnosed in children, though there is a controversy over definition, diagnosis and aetiology. This study sought to describe presenting features and investigate aeitological factors for children diagnosed with APD compared to those for whom APD was excluded. Methods: Medical notes for children referred to a specialist hospital-based APD clinic were reviewed in relation to presenting features and potential aetiological factors. Results: 32 children diagnosed with APD and 57 non-APD children were compared. They reported similar symptoms and similarly had high rates of co-morbid learning problems. No aetiological factor (including history of otitis media, adverse obstetric history or familial history of listening problems) predicted APD group membership. Conclusions: Children identified with APD on the basis of commonly used APD tests cannot be distinguished on the basis of presenting features or the aetiological factors examined here. One explanation is that learning problems exist independently of auditory processing difficulties and the aetiological factors do not have a strong causal role in APD. However, no gold standard for APD testing exists and an alternative explanation is that the commonly used APD tests used as selection criteria in this study may be unreliable. #

Introduction.-Le modèle cognitif du traitement de la musique propose un fonctionnement modulaire qui met en évidence deux voies principales de traitement du message musical, une voie mélodique et une voie temporelle, permettant l'accès à la reconnaissance de la musique. Il révèle, en outre, un traitement spécifique de l'encodage tonal de la hauteur qui n'est commun avec aucun autre système cognitif, pas même celui du langage. À notre connaissance, la prise en charge rééducative d'un trouble amusique n'a pas encore été rapportée. Objectif.-Nous présentons une prise en charge thérapeutique inspirée des travaux réalisés de la thérapie de la surdité verbale pour vérifier si une rééducation spécifique à l'aide de la discrimination de mélodies peut permettre la régression de l'amusie. Méthode.-Nous rapportons l'étude d'un patient présentant une amusie réceptive acquise depuis quatre ans. L'analyse de son déficit amusique à l'aide d'une batterie spécifique (la MBEA) a montré une atteinte de la voie mélodique sans atteinte de la voie temporelle en se référant au modèle cognitif de Peretz. Une rééducation informatisée a été réalisée. Elle était basée sur des entraînements de discrimination de mélodies, en utilisant une procédure d'apprentissage sans erreur avec indiçage visuel estompé progressivement. Résultats.-Après la thérapie, une amélioration des différents composants et du score global de la MBEA a été notée et n'était pas expliquée par une récupération spontanée puisque nous étions à plusieurs années de l'accident neurologique. L'effet se maintenait sept mois après la rééducation. Le transfert en vie quotidienne n'avait pas été testé systématiquement, mais le patient a pu reprendre l'écoute de la musique qu'il aimait. Conclusion.-Cette étude montre la possibilité de rééducation des déficits amusiques.

Reading acquisition involves two fundamental processes: learning to decode the print (i.e., visually recognize the words), and comprehending the meanings of the print (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Gough, 1990). Comprehension skill is acquired in the course of learning to speak, and reading comprehension processes are very similar to listening comprehension processes. Decoding skill, however, requires special experiences that do not occur in the normal course of conversations. The characteristics of the writing systems may constitute constraints on the

Two experiments investigated the effects on auditory selection of varying distractor values in memory. Participants performed a set of control (single distractor) and distractor-variation (multiple distractors) tasks, classifying targets by pitch (Experiments 1A and 2) or loudness (Experiment 1B) while ignoring previously presented (and spatially separate) distractors. When both targets and distractors varied in pitch, the degree of variation among the distractors increasingly disrupted classification accuracy and reaction time to the targets. Physiologically, the degree of distractor variation boosted the N1 response to distractors, the P2 response to both targets and distractors, and the slow-wave response to targets (400-600 ms after stimulus onset). The results suggest that target representations are diminished in distinctiveness as distractors activate a wider range of the task-relevant continuum in working memory.

BACKGROUND. The generation and maintenance of tinnitus are assumed to be based on maladaptive functional cortical reorganization. Listening to modified music, which contains no energy in the range of the individual tinnitus frequency, can inhibit the corresponding neuronal activity in the auditory cortex. Music making has been shown to be a powerful stimulator for brain plasticity, inducing changes in multiple sensory systems. Using magnetoencephalographic (MEG) and behavioral measurements we evaluated the cortical plasticity effects of two months of (a) active listening to (unisensory) versus (b) learning to play (multisensory) tailor-made notched music in nonmusician tinnitus patients. Taking into account the fact that uni- and multisensory trainings induce different patterns of cortical plasticity we hypothesized that these two protocols will have different affects. RESULTS. Only the active listening (unisensory) group showed significant reduction of tinnitus related activity of ...

The aim of this project was to investigate the nature and possible significance of first-person kinaesthetic vocal sensations observed in association with musical listening. Hearing and voice are known to be closely linked but the mechanisms that underlie their close relationship are not yet understood. The presence of kinaesthetic vocal sensations challenges accounts of auditory processing that are divorced from peripheral vocal input and, instead, suggests the hypothesis that auditory and vocal processing mechanisms rely on shared peripheral substrates in addition to their increasingly recognized shared (brain-based) central substrates. To investigate this hypothesis, I used MRI and developed a measurement protocol (informed by established methods in cephalometry) that would allow me to relate vocal structures to their direct and indirect bony attachments to the craniofacial skeleton, cervical spine and sternum. After establishing the method’s validity in subjects at rest, I acquired midsagittal MR images (under conditions where articulatory and postural input was negligible) while subjects (1) hummed and (2) listened (in a focused way) to low and high notes at each end of their range. Geometric and shape analysis of craniocaudal, craniocervical and anteroposterior variables revealed significant differences between low- and high-note conditions and widespread correlations between variables for both humming and listening investigations. An unexpected association between pitch change and changes of cervical alignment was also found. These results were complemented and extended by using the same MR images to build an active shape model (ASM). In addition to showing how vocal structures move together, ASM showed goal-related vocal activity to consist of one or more independent modes of variation. Together, the observations, experimental results, and evidence from diverse historical and contemporary sources, support the hypothesis that mechanisms underlying auditory and vocal processing rely on shared central and peripheral substrates. Wide-ranging implications arising from this hypothesis are also discussed.

Music and speech are very cognitively demanding auditory phenomena generally attributed to cortical rather than subcortical circuitry. We examined brainstem encoding of linguistic pitch and found that musicians show more robust and faithful encoding compared with nonmusicians. These results not only implicate a common subcortical manifestation for two presumed cortical functions, but also a possible reciprocity of corticofugal speech and music tuning, providing neurophysiological explanations for musicians' higher language-learning ability.

La seguente tesi di ricerca si occupa di illustrare sufficientemente quali possono essere o non essere i limiti topici attraverso cui il compositore di musica elettronica opererebbe all’occorrenza specialmente nel campo dell’armonia, della melodia e del ritmo.

One approach to comparing the neural bases of language and music is through the use of song, which is a unique and ecological combination of these two cognitive domains. In song, language and music are merged into one acoustic signal with two salient dimensions. By manipulating either the linguistic or musical dimensions (or both) of song and studying their relationships, it is possible to gain important information about the neural networks underlying language and music cognition. We will present a brief review followed by recent behavioral, electrophysiological, and neuroimaging studies concerned with the functional and structural relationships of music and language. These results, together with the previous studies in the field, help understanding whether the different levels of music and language processing are independent or interactive.

A short overview of results of nearly two decades of extensive research on intonation in Hindustani music. Together with my colleagues Bernard Bel and James Arnold (†) this project started out to 'prove' ancient Indian shruti theory to be right. In passing the work of Jairazbhoy, Stone and Levy had been thoroughly dismissed. However, I later fidcovered Jairazbhoy had a point, even if he exaggerated.

Piano bass tones raise questions related to the perception of multicomponent, inharmonic tones. In this study, the influence of the relative phases among partials on pitch and timbre was investigated for synthesized bass tones with piano-like inharmonicity. Three sets of bass tones ͑A0ϭ27.5 Hz, 100 partials, flat spectral envelope͒ were generated; harmonic, low inharmonic, and high inharmonic. For each set, five starting phase relations among partials were applied; sine phases, alternate ͑sine/cosine͒ phases, random phases, Schroeder phases, and negative Schroeder phases. The pitch and timbre of the tones were influenced markedly by the starting phases. Listening tests showed that listeners are able to discriminate between tones having different starting phase relations, and also that the pitch could be changed by manipulating the relative phases ͑octave, fifth, major third͒. A piano-like inharmonicity gives a characteristic randomizing effect of the phase relations over time in tones starting with nonrandom phase relations. A measure of the regularity of the phase differences between adjacent partials is suggested for quantifying this randomization process. The observed phase effects might be of importance in synthesizing, recording, and reproducing piano music.

Early comparative musicology habitually ignored, even extinguished, timbre in its single-minded focus on pitch. This chapter traces the broader social, cultural, and political consequences of this framework. It surveys how, at the turn of the twentieth century, John Comfort Fillmore and Benjamin Ives Gilman followed the lead of Alice Fletcher and Alexander Ellis in deploying a broad range of technologies—phonograph, Helmholtz resonator, keyboard, and musical notation—to develop frameworks for analyzing essential similarities and differences between Native American and Western musics. It argues that such scholarship, while ostensibly aimed at salvaging Native American music, also served American efforts to reform and silence indigenous voices. The postscript examines the resonances between their theories and modern frameworks of parametric analysis that construe pitch and timbre as autonomous, and proposes that there may be unrecognized perils in overly articulating the boundaries between pitch and timbre to focus analytical attention exclusively on the measurable quantities of musical sound.

We aim to assess the correlation between audiometric data, and psychotic and acoustic measures associated with subjective tinnitus (ST) and to clarify the importance of the psychological process in determining the degree of subjective annoyance and disability due to tinnitus. Fifty-four patients experiencing unilateral ST were allocated for the study. Acoustic assessment of patients including LDL (loudness discomfort levels), MML (minimum masking level) and RI (residual inhibition) was performed. Tinnitus Handicap Inventory (THI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Visual Analog Scale (VAS) tests were performed for the psychological aspects of subjective annoyance. RI was positive in 23 patients with 13 frequency-matched stimuli at 8,000 Hz. Masking treatment response was successful in 16 RI-positive patients. Mean and standard deviation (SD) of THI scores were 38.77 ± 23.63. Ten patients (%18.51) with tinnitus had ≥17 points score, which was significant for BDI. Mean and SD were 5.01 ± 2.31 for VAS-1 scores (severity of tinnitus), 7.98 ± 2.79 for VAS-2 (frequency and duration of tinnitus), 5.77 ± 2.72 for VAS-3 (discomfort level), 3.56 ± 3.30 for VAS-4 (attention deficit) and 3.31 ± 3.31 for VAS-5 (sleep disorders). A significant correlation was found between the tinnitus duration time, age, gender and THI scores (P P > 0.05). RI might be largely frequency dependent and was found as an indicator for the masking treatment response. We did not notice statistically significant correlations between audiometric data and THI and BDI. There were correlations between with VAS and LDL and with MML and RI. VAS was simpler and easier for the assessment of ST. We should consider the psychological aspects of ST and assess it as a symptom separately with acoustic and psychotic tests.

We explore the capacity for music in terms of five questions: (1) What cognitive structures are invoked by music? (2) What are the principles that create these structures? (3) How do listeners acquire these principles? (4) What pre-existing resources make such acquisition possible? (5) Which aspects of these resources are specific to music, and which are more general?

Following in a psychological and musicological tradition beginning with Leonard Meyer, and continuing through David Huron, we present a functional, cognitive account of the phenomenon of expectation in music, grounded in computational, probabilistic modeling. We summarize a range of evidence for this approach, from psychology, neuroscience, musicology, linguistics, and creativity studies, and argue that simulating expectation is an important part of understanding a broad range of human faculties, in music and beyond.

Music can be described as sequences of events that are structured in pitch and time. Studying music processing provides insight into how complex event sequences are learned, perceived, and represented by the brain. Given the temporal nature of sound, expectations, structural integration, and cognitive sequencing are central in music perception (i.e., which sounds are most likely to come next and at what moment should they occur?). This paper focuses on similarities in music and language cognition research, showing that music cognition research provides insight into the understanding of not only music processing but also language processing and the processing of other structured stimuli. The hypothesis of shared resources between music and language processing and of domain-general dynamic attention has motivated the development of research to test music as a means to stimulate sensory, cognitive, and motor processes.

Singing teachers sometimes characterize voice quality in terms of 'forward' and 'backward placement'. In view of traditional knowledge about voice production, it is hard to explain any possible acoustic or articulatory differences between the voices so 'placed'. We have synthesized a number of three-tone melodic excerpts performed by the singing voice. Vowel quality, formant frequencies, and the level of the singer's formant were varied across the stimuli. Results of a listening test show that the stimuli which were perceived as 'placed forward', correlated not only with higher frequencies of the first and second formants, but also with the higher frequency and level of the singer's formant.

Purpose: We review a series of experiments aimed at studying pitch processing in music and speech. These studies were conducted with musician and non musician adults and children. We found that musical expertise improved pitch processing not only in music but also in speech. Demonstrating transfer of training between music and language has interesting applications for second language learning. We also addressed the issue of whether the positive effects of musical expertise are linked with specific predispositions for music or with extensive musical practice. Results of longitudinal studies argue for the later. Finally, we also examined pitch processing in dyslexic children and found that they had difficulties discriminating strong pitch changes that are easily discriminate by normal readers. These results argue for a strong link between basic auditory perception abilities and reading abilities. Methods: We used conjointly the behavioral method (Reaction Times and error rates) and the electrophysiological method (recording of the changes in brain electrical activity time-locked to stimulus presentation, Event-Related brain Potentials or ERPs). Results: A set of common processes may be responsible for pitch processing in music and in speech and these processes are shaped by musical practice. Conclusion: These data add evidence in favor of brain plasticity and open interesting perspectives for the remediation of dyslexia using musical training.

Some scholars consider music to exemplify the classic criteria for a complex human adaptation, including universality, orderly development, and special-purpose cortical processes. The present account focuses on processing predispositions for music. The early appearance of receptive musical skills, well before they have obvious utility, is consistent with their proposed status as predispositions. Infants' processing of musical or music-like patterns is much like that of adults. In the early months of life, infants engage in relational processing of pitch and temporal patterns. They recognize a melody when its pitch level is shifted upward or downward, provided the relations between tones are preserved. They also recognize a tone sequence when the tempo is altered so long as the relative durations remain unchanged. Melodic contour seems to be the most salient feature of melodies for infant listeners. However, infants can detect interval changes when the component tones are related by small-integer frequency ratios. They also show enhanced processing for scales with unequal steps and for metric rhythms. Mothers sing regularly to infants, doing so in a distinctive manner marked by high pitch, slow tempo, and emotional expressiveness. The pitch and tempo of mothers' songs are unusually stable over extended periods. Infant listeners prefer the maternal singing style to the usual style of singing, and they are more attentive to maternal singing than to maternal speech. Maternal singing also has a moderating effect on infant arousal. The implications of these findings for the origins of music are discussed.

Baroque, classical, and modern flutes have successively more and larger tone holes. This paper reports measurements of the standing waves in the bores of instruments representing these three classes. It presents the frequency dependence of propagation of standing waves in lattices of open tone holes and compares these measurements with the cutoff frequency: the frequency at which, in an idealized system, the standing waves propagate without loss in such a lattice. It also reports the dependence of the sound field in the bore of the instrument as a function of both frequency and position along the bore for both simple and ''cross fingerings'' ͑configurations in which one or more tone holes are closed below an open hole͒. These measurements show how ''cross fingerings'' produce a longer standing wave, a technique used to produce the nondiatonic notes on instruments with a small number of tone holes closed only by the unaided fingers. They also show why the changes from baroque to classical to modern gave the instruments a louder, brighter sound and a greater range.