Meaning in Life

Counseling psychologists often work with clients to increase their well-being as well as to decrease their distress. One important aspect of well-being, highlighted particularly in humanistic theories of the counseling process, is perceived meaning in life. However, poor measurement has hampered research on meaning in life. In 3 studies, evidence is provided for the internal consistency, temporal stability, factor structure, and validity of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), a new 10-item measure of the presence of, and the search for, meaning in life. A multitrait-multimethod matrix demonstrates the convergent and discriminant validity of the MLQ subscales across time and informants, in comparison with 2 other meaning scales. The MLQ offers several improvements over current meaning in life measures, including no item overlap with distress measures, a stable factor structure, better discriminant validity, a briefer format, and the ability to measure the search for meaning.

Empirical studies of purpose in life are flourishing. However, in light of a rapidly changing social milieu, there are pressing but understudied issues to address if purpose research is to realize its potential in impacting people's lives. We first distill what has been learned from prior research on age variation in purpose in life and briefly review accumulating evidence linking higher levels of purpose to better physical health. Possible biobehavioral mechanisms underlying the purpose-health connection are noted. We then build upon this evidence to examine an array of factors that might undermine or nurture purposeful life engagement. Growing societal inequality may be critical in limiting people's capacities to pursue meaningful lives, but more research is needed. Alternatively, growing research now links the arts and humanities to health. We focus on possible influences these realms might have in cultivating purpose. The role of education in nurturing exposure to the arts is examined, along with problems of elitism in higher education (thereby re-invoking themes of inequality). Our final section calls for research that more explicitly links purpose in life to human virtues and values. Theoretical approaches and tractable empirical topics are delineated. Our overall objective is to offer innovative future paths to deepen understanding of how health and well-being at individual and societal levels are tied to purpose in life. Keyword Purpose in Life · Meaning in Life · Inequality · Arts · Virtue

Research has established nature connectedness as a reliable correlate of well-being. In the current research, we examined whether meaning in life mediated the association between nature connectedness and well-being. In Study 1, 311 undergraduates completed multiple measures of nature connectedness, multiple measures of meaning in life, and multiple measures of well-being. Mediational analyses revealed that meaning in life fully mediated the association between nature connectedness and well-being. In Study 2, we examined whether mediation of the association between nature connectedness and well-being by meaning in life could be demonstrated alongside a previously documented mediation of the association between religiousness and well-being by meaning in life. Undergraduates (N = 227) completed measures of nature connectedness, religiousness, meaning in life, and well-being. Mediational analyses revealed that meaning in life fully mediated both the association between nature connectedness and well-being and the association between religiousness and well-being.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9403-x

Albert Camus (1913–1960) stands as one of the famous pioneers in the French history of existentialism. He was a novelist, political activist, essayist and editor, as well as a journalist and playwright. Although he was described as philosopher, he often denied this ascription. Through his professional and creative expressions, Camus focused on questions of existentialism, the aspect of the human fate, and meaning in life, death and suicide. These existential questions have experienced a strong revival during the Covid-19 occurrence. This psychobiographical approach aims at understanding Albert Camus' life and work in the context of the terror management theory of Becker and Wong's 4 pillars of PP2.0 theory, namely virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being. Both theories have gained importance during the pandemic. Based on the findings of the research study, implications for future research in the context of the pandemic are given. Finally, this article provides recommendations and best practices on how to approach the Covid-19 pandemic from a terror management theory and PP2.0 perspective in the light of Albert Camus' philosophy. The contribution of this psychobiography is two-fold: first, it expands psychobiographical research on Albert Camus from absurdist and existentialist theories and thereby expands the theoretical framework of psychobiographies. Second, it aims at strengthening the importance of theoretical psychobiographical investigations and their application in real-world scenarios to address complex contemporary challenges on the basis of existentialist positive psychology theories.

Positive psychology and third wave cognitive behavioral therapy approaches have seldom been applied to older adults. This study therefore examined whether two concepts drawn from these areas, hope for the future and avoidance in the present, were associated with well-being in a sample of 259 older adults (65 to 94 years). Hope was measured as a stable trait. Experiential avoidance was measured as avoidance of present internal and external events. Respondents also completed two well-being measures: hedonic (positive and negative affect) and eudeimonic (meaning in life). Path analyses showed that high hope was significantly associated with high positive affect, and high meaning in life; and high experiential avoidance was associated with high negative affect and low meaning in life. This was also true when both (hope and avoidance) were taken into account, along with sociodemographic variables and perceived health. Many of the pathways between hope and well-being, and between experiential avoidance and well-being appear to be bidirectional. However the path from hope to positive affect was stronger than that from positive affect to hope. Further research is needed to clarify each of these points. Both hope for the future and lack of avoidance in the present are important for well-being in older adulthood and interventions targeting these processes may enhance positive aging and contribute to a sense of having a meaningful life.

The positive psychology and experimental existential psychology movements have greatly advanced our understanding of the variables that augment and detract from the personal experience of meaning in life. In this chapter, we describe differences in these two perspectives. In our view, experimental existential psychologists have primarily examined variables that contribute to a sense of meaninglessness, whereas positive psychologists often place more emphasis on variables that augment one’s belief that his or her life is meaningful. For each of these perspectives, we further describe variables that relate to the experience of meaninglessness and meaningfulness, respectively. Namely, we argue that a lack of personal freedom, social isolation, and self-alienation are three fundamental threats to meaning that, if experienced, evoke a sense of meaninglessness, whereas personal goals and a grand sense of purpose help augment the feeling that life is meaningful. While we do not suggest that these are the only variables that influence perceptions of meaning, based on current findings in the experimental existential and positive psychology literature, we argue that each of these variables represent fundamental contributors to perceptions of meaning (lessness) in life. Overall, we believe psychologists from both existential and positive psychology perspectives have made great contributions to help us understand the causes and consequences of the experience of meaning in life. This brief chapter represents an initial step to help differentiate these two complimentary perspectives in hopes of generating research ideas for scholars across disciplines.

We investigated whether regret predicted the motivation to act heroically. In a series of studies, we examined the relationship between regret, search for meaning in life, and heroism motivation. First, Study 1 (a and b) investigated the association between regret and search for meaning in life, considering regret as a whole, action regret, and inaction regret. As expected, regret correlated positively with search for meaning in life. In two additional studies (Study 2 and 3), we examined whether regret predicted heroism motivation and whether this effect was mediated through search for meaning in life. Study 2 confirmed this hypothesis for individual differences in regret, using a correlational design. Study 3 confirmed the hypothesis for temporary experiences of regret, using an experimental design. In addition, in Study 3 we found that heroism motivation was stronger for people with high self-enhancement needs than for those with lower self-enhancement needs. We discuss the relationship between regret and heroism in light of these results and explore their implications.

Investigations into the construct of meaning in life is an important focus area of psychological research. Research has consistently shown a sense of meaning in life to be a significant correlate of mental health and well-being. Most of this research on meaning in life is conducted worldwide with instruments developed in North America. However, inter-cultural measurement of psychological constructs is a concern, as psychometric instruments in one culture are not necessarily transferable to different cultures. In this case study, we examine whether the Life Regard Index (LRI), developed in the USA and a popular scale for measuring meaning in life, is transferable to a sample from South Africa. The results confirm the construct validity of the LRI, but indicate that the LRI's factor structure has changed and two of the original 28 items were not part of the covariance structure. From these results, we conclude that the LRI is transferable to the South African sample, but not irrespectively and without adjustments. It should be used as a one-dimensional instrument with only 26 items before applying it to the South African sample. The study provides evidence that LRI, which was developed in the USA and became a popular instrument for measuring meaning in life, cannot be transferred indiscriminately to a South African sample. This insight contributes to the quality of future research studies in South Africa, not only on the important aspect of life meaning, but also when applying other psychometric instruments developed elsewhere.

I present and try to defend the vital force theory of the meaning of life with particular focus on the transcendentalist dimension of the theory, on which an immanentist interpretation ultimately depends. I argue that the appeal to God as the ultimate guarantor of meaning follows from the recognition of the pessimism and nihilism a wholly naturalistic account of meaning engenders. Since the individual is not an absolute value and must ultimately surrender the life she so cherishes against the background of epistemic ignorance of the purpose of her existence, strong commitment to a naturalistic account of meaning must lead to the conclusion that human life is ultimately meaningless. Adopting an analytical and expository method, I explore ways that the vital force theory of meaning combats the idea that since the individual is the measure of meaningfulness and since she is not an absolute value, her life is ultimately meaningless, in the context of her location in a seemingly purposeless universe. I conclude that the pessimism that accompanies the naturalistic framework also compromises the transcendentalist framework of vitalism.

Key words: Vital force, African philosophy, meaning in life, meaning of life, absolute value

One of the important areas of study of religious psychology is to examine the reflection of worship in the spiritual life of individuals in the context of worship psychology. In this field survey, the relations between the level of meaning in life and hopelessness of individuals who performed the ʿUmra worship are examined. The study is conducted with 214 Turkish participants who performed ʿumra in Saudi Arabia. The collected data is analyzed by questionnaire technique. "Personal Information Form", " Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ)" and "Beck Hopelessness Scale" are used as data collection tools. The obtained data is analyzed in the SPSS 23.0 statistical program. One Sample t-Test, Pearson Moments Multiplication Correlation Analysis, Independent Sampling t-Test, One Way ANOVA and Tukey HSD tests are used to analyse the data. It is found that the research group's level of meaning in life above average; the level of hopelessness is below average significantly. There is a significant negative correlation between meaning in life and hopelessness, feelings about the future, loss of motivation, expectation about the future. There is a significant positive correlation between searched meaning and hopelessness and loss of motivation.

Summary: Many religions have some types of worship involving visiting places considered as sacred and performing some rituals there. In Islam it is called ʿUmra, which is visiting the Kaʿba without being dependent on a certain time frame except for the pilgrimage month. There are certain rites to perform ʿumra, such as entering a state of iḥrām (ritual purity in which certain actions are not permissible), completing circumambulation, and saʿy (striving to do a certain act; walking) between the hills of al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa. ʿUmra worship is a comprehensive and versatile worship, which contains psychological, sociological, physical and financial characteristics.

Studying the relationship between religious beliefs and practices, the religious rituals and their psychological effects and functions of ceremonies are the some essential research topics of Psychology of Religion. Existing research in this area usually reveals the existence of a positive relationship between the religious beliefs and practices and between meaning in life and hope. Individuals who believe in a religion can find a meaning and purpose in life through prayer and worship, and at the same time have more positive future expectation to endure the difficulties of life. Meaning and hope are intertwined, which complete each other. Hopelessness is closely related to depression and suicidal desire. There is a need to find meaning and purpose in life in order to hold on to life, and for looking to the future with confidence, and overcoming difficulties.

It is known that people tend to be more religious and concentrating worship during periods of loss of meaning for various reasons. ʿUmra, which includes almost all type of worship, is a special worship, which has the potential to contribute to the individual's intense emotional life for gaining new awareness and developing different behaviours to cope with such difficulties. It is because the individual would have many experiences to see the cause of existence, the meaning of his/her life, and his/her future expectation during the ʿumra worship. Thus, he/she can overcome his/her hopelessness and loss of meaning and look to the situation from different perspectives.

Therefore, in this study, the following questions are explored: Does ʿumra make a positive contribution to the psychological experience of the individuals, as expected? Does ʿumra has any effect on the level of loss of meaning and hopelessness that accompanies the psychological troubles? How does the demographic variables make difference in the level of meaning in life and hopelessness of individuals who perform ʿumra? In order to find answers to these questions, the relationship between the meaning of life - the hopelessness and the ʿumra was investigated. For this purpose, the meaning and hopelessness levels of the individuals who are performing ʿumra worship were measured by psychometric methods and the relations between them were analyzed. In addition, it has been tested whether there is a difference in the meaning in life and hopelessness according to demographic variables such as gender, marital status and educational status. 214 people aged between 18-82 years participated in the research. The survey data was collected from Turkish participants who perform ʿumra in the cities of Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia in May 2015. "Personal Information Form", " Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ)" and "Beck Hopelessness Scale" were used as data collection tools. The obtained data were analyzed in the SPSS 23.0 statistical program. One Sample t-Test, Pearson Moments Multiplication Correlation Analysis, Independent Sampling t-Test, One Way ANOVA and Tukey HSD tests were used for the purpose of analysis of the data.

The most important finding of the survey is meaning in life scores of individuals who are performing the ʿumra are above average (t = 20,50; p ˂ 0,01); and scores of hopelessness are below average significantly (t = -29,80; p ˂0,01). There is a significant negative correlation between presence of meaning subscale and hopelessness (r = -,288; p ˂ 0,01); and positive correlation between search for meaning subscale and hopelessness (r =,169; p ˂ 0,05) and loss of motivation (r = ,285; p ˂ 0,01). The findings show that ʿumra can affect the meaning in life positively and the hopelessness negatively. There was no significant difference between the meaning in life scores and education level and gender variable (p ˃ 0,05). As the level of education increases, hopelessness scores decrease significantly (F = 2, 627; p ˂ 0,05). Hopelessness scores show a significant difference according to gender (t = -2,708; p ˂ 0,01). Men's hopelessness levels are significantly higher than women’s. Moreover, the meaning in life of married individuals is significantly higher than single individuals (F = 3,859; p ˂ 0,05). As the age and developmental stages progressed, meaning in life (F = 7,274; p ˂ 0,01) and hopelessness scores (F = 8,119; p ˂ 0,01) significantly increased.

ʿUmra may have a rapid and intensive effect on the psychology of the individual and his/her sense of world. Relevant studies in the literature also imply such results. Since ʿumra is both a journey and a collective worship, it involves many types of worship, such as praying, reading scripture, repentance and so on. The findings of this study were discussed with reference to the findings about pilgrimage and the findings of study of meaning in life and hopelessness in different samples. On the other hand, the conditions in which the data collected, the study group chosen, the instruments and techniques used for this research constitute the limitations of the present study. However, the time period in which the worship was practiced and reaching the participants in these places of worship, and the measurement of the level meaning in life and hopelessness associated with their worship of ʿumra indicates the importance and originality of this research. The results can be used in other research projects. Studies on the different psychological effects of ʿumra worship can be enriched by longitudinal investigations.

Objectives. To explore the experiences and predictors of psychological distress in pregnant women living with HIV.

Design. A mixed-methods research design.

Methods. A representative randomly sampled 840 (age range 22-46 years) HIV-positive pregnant women in Akwa Ibom, Benue, and Rivers States of Nigeria enrolled for the study. Data were collected using standardized questionnaires and in-depth interviews for 4 months and 3 weeks in 6 HIV treatment centres. Collected data were analysed using IBM SPSS statistics (v. 22.0) and thematic analysis.

Results. The mean score on psychological distress was 17.07 AE 5.86. Multiple regression analysis found a significant joint prediction of meaning in life, self-compassion, and acceptance of illness on psychological distress, R = .64, R 2 = .41; F (3,828) = 186.18; p = .000, with 41% variance explained. Further, there was a significant independent prediction of each predictor at meaning in life (b = À.19, t = À5.08; p = .000), self-compassion (b = À.23, t = À5.59; p = .000), and acceptance of illness (b = À.30, t = À7.23; p = .000), with acceptance of illness exerting the greatest independent predictive impact. Socio-demographic variables (age, length of living with HIV, high-risk state, highest education attained, marital status, and religious affiliation) had no significant contribution to psychological distress. Qualitative analysis found 'anxious concerns', 'depressive reports, loneliness, and regrets', 'self-blame and guilt feelings', as the experiences of psychological distress, and these experiences were determined by respondents' socio-cultural contexts.

Conclusion. These findings emphasize the importance of psychosocial care for HIV-positive pregnant women.

In response to Bernard Williams’ view that we would inevitably become bored with immortal life, John Martin Fischer has argued that we could continue to enjoy repeatable pleasures such as fine wine, beautiful music, and spiritual experiences. In more recent work on near-death experiences, Fischer has also explored the non-religious meaning of spiritual experiences in more depth. While joining this deeper exploration of spiritual experience, I also join Williams’ critics who question his view that character and desire are needed to explain the desirability of life, and expand on the growing suspicion that Williams’ way of valuing life is itself actually a cause of boredom with life. With an eye to spiritual experience, I indicate how we can distance ourselves even further from this kind of view, also exploring how a common attitude that life is good but death is not bad emerges from spiritual experience, as expressed in numerous religious and secular spiritual traditions. This lends support to the conclusion that radically extended life is desirable even if not actively desired.

Objective: In the United States, 28.6 million people used illicit drugs or misused prescription drugs in the last 30 days. Thus, identifying factors linked with lower likelihood of future drug misuse is an important target for research and practice. Sense of purpose in life has been linked with better behavioral and physical health outcomes. Furthermore, a higher sense of purpose may reduce the likelihood of drug misuse because it has been linked with several protective factors including enhanced ability to handle stress, higher pain tolerance, and lower impulsivity. However, the association between sense of purpose and drug misuse has been understudied. Thus, we tested whether people with a higher sense of purpose at baseline had a lower likelihood of future drug misuse 9 to 10 years later. Methods: This study included 3535 middle-aged adults from the Midlife in the United States Study who were not misusing drugs at base-line. Using multiple logistic regression models, we assessed whether baseline purpose in life was associated with risk of misusing drugs 9 to 10 years later. Results: Among respondents not misusing drugs at baseline, people in the highest quartile of purpose (versus lowest quartile) had a substantially lower likelihood of future drug misuse in a model adjusting for demographic variables (odds ratio = 0.50, 95% confidence interval = 0.31-0.83). Associations remained evident after additionally adjusting for psychological distress, baseline health, and health behaviors. Conclusions: A growing knowledge base suggests that a sense of purpose can be increased. Additional research is needed to evaluate sense of purpose as a novel target in the prevention and reduction of drug misuse.

This study aimed to investigate the extent to which two widely used psychometric instruments (i.e., MLQ-Presence and SoMe-Meaningfulness subscales) measure the same meaning in life latent trait. Participants were 3020 subjects (63.9% women), ranging in age from 18 to 91 years old (M = 33.92; SD = 15.01), sampled from 22 Brazilian states. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) supported the unidimensionality of MLQ-Presence scale, but suggested that two distinct latent variables explained the items of SoMe-Meaningfulness scale. This result was further supported by a bi-factor exploratory structural equation modeling, which showed that items 4 and 5 of the SoMe-Meaningfulness scale were primarily influenced by a second latent trait rather than by MIL. Further analyses showed that this second latent trait was more closely related with self-transcendence issues (generativity and spirituality, specifically) instead of MIL.

Having a higher purpose in life has been linked to favorable health outcomes. However, little research has examined whether the purpose−health association persists across different levels of SES. This study assesses whether the association between higher purpose in life and lower mortality is similar across the levels of SES.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between meaning in life and subjective well-being. The sample of the study consisted of 232 university students (171 female / 61male) from Sakarya University. The Satisfaction with Life Scale, The Positive-Negative Affect Scale and The Meaning in Life Questionnaire were used to collect data. In data analysis, Pearson correlation coefficients and multiple regression analysis were used. The findings showed that presence of meaning in life and search for meaning in life significantly predict subjective wellbeing. According to regression analysis, meaning in life accounts for 34% of the variance within subjective wellbeing. The findings were discussed and in the light of these findings suggestions for future studies were proposed.

The absence of meaningfulness in life is meaninglessness. But what is the polar opposite of meaningfulness? In recent and ongoing work together with Stephen Campbell and Marcello di Paola respectively, I have explored what we dub 'anti-meaning': the negative counterpart of positive meaning in life. Here, I relate this idea of 'anti-meaningful' actions, activities, and projects to the topic of death, and in particular the deaths or suffering of those who will live after our own deaths. Connecting this idea of anti

The purpose of the present study is to determine the relationship of meaning in life and subjective well-being among Filipino college students in both private and public institutions. It was hypothesized in this study that meaning in life and life satisfaction has a positive relationship. Three measures, namely, the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) were administered to 969 college students in different schools in the Philippines. This study employed a descriptive-predictive design to measure the degree of correlation between variables. The Pearson Correlation was used to assess the relationship of meaning in life and subjective well-being. Results of the study show that meaning in life and subjective well-being has a positive relationship. A better understanding of the relationship between meaning in life and subjective well-being has implications relative to developing and/or achieving a greater sense of happiness and satisfaction in living. This could be developed by tapping emotional resources to diminish negative affective conditions and optimizing meaningful life situations.

What is it for a life to be meaningful? In this paper, I defend what I call Consequentialism about Meaning in Life (or CML for short), the view that (1) one’s life is meaningful at time t just in case one’s surviving at t would be good in some way, and (2) one’s life was meaningful considered as a whole just in case the world was (or will be) made better in some way for one’s having existed.

Abstract : This paper draws on an in-depth phenomenological analysis of some interviews taken from volunteers, inviting them to reflect on their lived experiences of meaningfulness in the context of volunteering and citizenship. It is found that while some testimonies reinforce the standard conceptions ofmeaningfulness, other testimonies vary from it. The main challenge of this contribution consists in phenomenologically describing this alternative picture of meaningfulness, depicted as the event of wit(h)nessing. In a final part, the authors consider how volunteering is at times especially prone to further experiences of wit(h)nessing.

According to Susan Wolf's hybrid view about meaning in life, a life is meaningful in virtue of subjective attraction to objectively valuable pursuits. Recently, several philosophers have presented counterexamples to the subjective element in Wolf's view. We argue that these examples are not clearly successful and present a modified version which is even stronger in the face of them. Finally, we offer some positive reasons for accepting a subjective condition on a meaningful life.

The relation between the meaning in life and depression, hopelessness, and suicide risk in a sample of Spanish Borderline Personality Disorder patients is analyzed. The hypothesis suggested that meaning in life is a significant nega- tive predictor of these variables. Participants were 80 Borderline Personality Disorder patients (75 women, 5 men) ranged 16-60 years old, M = 32.21, SD = 8.85, from a public mental health service. Spanish adaptations of the Pur- pose-In-LifeTest,theBeckDepressionInventory-II,theBeckHopelessness Scale, and the Plutchick’s Suicide Risk Scale were used. Analysis included descriptive, correlations, and simple linear regression. Results showed that meaning in life was negatively related to depression, hopelessness, and suicide risk. It is necessary to introduce the evaluation of the meaning in life in the assessment of patients with Borderline Personality Disorder and to include in the psychotherapeutic intervention elements to enhance their perception and experience of meaning in life.

What could Wittgenstein's work contribute to the rapidly growing literature on life's meaning? This book not only examines Wittgenstein's scattered remarks about value and 'sense of life' but also argues that his philosophy and 'way of seeing' has far reaching implications for the ways theorists approach an ancient question: 'How shall one live?'.

The purpose of this research is to examine which factors of personal meaning profile explain mental well-being in different age stage. Although personal meaning has many different definitions, this research approaches it in seven factors; achievement, relationship, religion, self-transcendence, self-acceptance, intimacy, and fair treatment. The participants in this study were 410 (226 female, 184 male) representing three separate groups (Adolescents, emerging adults, and adults). Whether Personal meaning and mental well-being varied based on age was analyzed via ANOVA. Personal Meaning's predictability of mental well-being was analyzed via multiple regression analysis. First, the mental well-being productivity of personal meaning in the whole group was examined. According to the examination, it was found that all factors except for religion explain mental wellbeing. These factors account for 54% of the variance. Secondly, multiple regression analysis was done for the personal meaning factors for each group. According to results: Achievement, relationship, and self-transcendence in adolescents; achievement, self-transcendence, self-acceptance, intimacy, and fair treatment in emerging adults; and intimacy, self-transcendence, self-acceptance and fair treatment in adults were significant predictors mental well-being. These factors account for 43% of total variance in adolescent, 65% in emerging adults, and 42% in adults.

Many believe that because we’re so small, we must be utterly insignificant on the cosmic scale. But whether this is so depends on what it takes to be important. On one view, what matters for importance is the difference to value that something makes. On this view, what determines our cosmic importance isn’t our size, but what else of value is out there. But a rival view also seems plausible: that importance requires sufficient causal impact on the relevant scale; since we have no such impact on the grand scale, that would entail our cosmic insignificance. I argue that despite appearances, causal impact is neither necessary nor sufficient for importance. All that matters is impact on value. Since parts can have non-causal impact on the value of the wholes that contain them, this means that we might have great impact on the grandest scale without ever leaving our little planet.

According to the pure part-life view the meaning in our lives is always borne by particular parts of our lives. The aim of this paper is to show that Thaddeus Metz’s rejection of this view is too quick. Given that meaning is a value that often depends on relational rather than intrinsic properties a pure part-life view can accommodate many of the intuitions that move Metz towards a mixed view. According to this mixed view some meaning is borne by parts of our lives and some by our lives as a whole. The arguments in this paper suggest, however, that even if a pure part-life view is to be rejected, a mixed view that incorporates a whole-life aspect is not going to be any more plausible.

I expound and assess two theories of meaning in life informed by the indigenous sub-Saharan African philosophical tradition. According to one view, a life is more meaningful, the more it promotes community with other human persons. According to the other view, a life is more meaningful, the more it promotes vitality in oneself and others. I argue that, at least upon some refinement, both of these African conceptions of meaning merit global consideration from philosophers, but that the vitality approach is more promising than the community one for capturing a wider array of intuitions about what confers meaning on a life. I further argue, however, that there are objections that apply with comparable force to both theories; neither one does a good job of entailing that and explaining why certain types of reason and progress can make a life more meaningful. Although these objections are characteristic of a “modern” Western outlook, I maintain that they are difficult for contemporary African philosophers to ignore, and consider some ways they might respond to the objections.

The meaningful life is not only an issue in current philosophy but also in psychiatry and psy-chotherapy. For a long time, however, it has played a central role in the Existential Analysis and Logotherapy developed by psychiatrist Viktor E. Frankl. Frankl's independent theory of meaning in life is largely ignored in the current philosophical debate, however. The aim of this article is to end this state and to discuss Frankl within today's philosophical debate.

On the one hand, the goal is to understand and evaluate Frankl's theory of meaning in the light of current philosophical debate: What kind of theory does he represent? How should it be classified? What about its inner coherence, the plausibility of its assumptions and the quality of justifications? On the other hand, the aim is to examine to what extent Frankl's approach can advance the philosophical discussion: Are there theoretical elements that are given too little attention in philosophy? Can he give important impulses to philosophical theory of mean-ing?

The investigation follows essential elements of Frankl's theory of meaning from the funda-mental formal and meta-ethical aspects to the specification of meaning and the individual ap-proach to it. First, the central importance of meaning for human life is discussed, followed by questions of the meta-ethical classification, namely the subjectivist or objectivist orientation and the role of supernaturalism. The focus of consideration then turns to essential elements of the nature of meaning, namely self-transcendence and the value relation, as well as the three value categories. The results are summarised in the final chapter.

It turns out that the theoretical exchange can be fruitful in both directions, but Frankl's thinking also has some obstacles in store. His approach, with its objectivist character and the central role of self-transcendence and relation to values, is compatible with today's discussion of meaning, while the lack of justifications is a serious methodological weakness in which orien-tation to modern philosophical standards would be desirable. Repeatedly, the impression aris-es that his theory of meaning is decisively influenced by his practical, therapeutic interest. Some of his theoretical elements have the potential to enrich the philosophical theory of meaning; that is, his focus on the situativity and individuality of meaning as well as the ideas of givenness of meaning and of responsibility for its realisation.


German abstract:
Das sinnvolle Leben ist nicht nur in der gegenwärtigen Philosophie wieder verstärkt ein Thema, sondern auch in Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie. Bereits seit langer Zeit jedoch spielt es eine zentrale Rolle in der Existenzanalyse und Logotherapie, die der Psychiater Viktor E. Frankl entwickelt hat. Frankls eigenständige Sinntheorie wird in der gegenwärtigen philosophischen Sinndebatte allerdings weitestgehend ignoriert. Das Ziel dieses Artikels ist es, diesen Zustand zu beenden und die heutige philosophische Sinndebatte mit Frankl ins Gespräch zu bringen. Einerseits geht es darum, Frankls Sinntheorie im Lichte der philosophischen Sinndebatte zu verstehen und zu bewerten: Was für eine Art von Sinntheorie vertritt er? Wie ist sie einzuordnen? Wie steht es um ihre innere Kohärenz, die Plausibilität seiner sinntheoretischen Überzeugungen und die Qualität ihrer Begründung? Andererseits soll geprüft werden, inwiefern Frankls Ansatz die gegenwärtige philosophische Sinndiskussion voranbringen kann: Gibt es bei ihm theoretische Elemente, die in der Philosophie zu wenig Beachtung finden? Kann er der philosophischen Sinntheorie wichtige Impulse geben?
Die Analyse folgt in ihrer Struktur wesentlichen Elemente der Frankl’schen Sinntheorie, von den grundlegenden formalen und metaethischen Aspekten hin zu inhaltlichen Bestimmungen des Sinns und dem individuellen Umgang mit ihm: Zunächst wird die zentrale Bedeutung des Sinns für das menschliche Leben thematisiert, dann Fragen nach der metaethischen Einordnung, nämlich nach der subjektivistischen oder objektivistischen Ausrichtung sowie der Rolle des Supernaturalismus. Dann stehen mit der Selbsttranszendenz und dem Wertebezug sowie den drei Wertkategorien wesentliche Elemente der Sinnkonstituierung im Fokus der Betrachtung. Die Ergebnisse werden im Schlusskapitel zusammengefasst.
Es zeigt sich, dass der theoretische Austausch in beide Richtungen fruchtbar sein kann, Frankls Denken allerdings auch einige Hindernisse bereithält. Sein Ansatz entpuppt sich mit ihrem objektivistischen Charakter und der zentralen Rolle von Selbsttranszendenz und Wertbezug als an die heutige Sinndiskussion gut anschlussfähig, seine oftmals fehlenden Begründungen hingegen als gravierender methodischer Makel, bei dem eine Orientierung an modernen philosophischen Standards wünschenswert wäre. Wiederholt entsteht der Eindruck, dass seine Sinntheorie maßgeblich durch sein praktisches, therapeutisches Interesse geprägt ist. Einigen seiner Theoreme wird das Potential zugesprochen, die philosophische Sinntheorie bereichern zu können: Das sind die Situativität und Individualität des Sinns sowie die Gegebenheit der Sinnmöglichkeiten und die Verantwortung für ihre Verwirklichung.

The present text deals with the question of the meaning of life in the existentialist theory of the Norwegian philosopher Peter Wessel Zapffe . In his book On the Tragic (1941), Zapffe sketched a theory of the human condition where the meaning of life plays a decisive role together with the human need for justice. This paper aims to reconstruct the central elements of Zapffe's analysis and to discuss them critically by focusing on his claim that human beings need a fundamental meaning of life as a whole that transcends meaning in life. I pay particular attention to Zapffe's claim that life is meaningless, since the meaning of life is fundamentally lacking. I conclude that Zapffe's analysis is problematic for reasons both internal and external to his theory.

The aim of the author's own research was: (a) defining the level of meaning in life and the level of religious experience (God's presence and God's absence) in groups of students with high and low levels of conscience sensitivity and (b) showing the connection between meaning in life and the level of religious experience (God's presence and God's absence) in groups of students with high and low levels of conscience sensitivity. The study was conducted in 2009-2010 among university students in Kraków. The subject group consisted of students of several non-Catholic public and state universities. All participants were Polish born, culturally homogeneous, and stemmed from families of average affluence. The age of the respondents ranged from 21 to 25. Two-hundred and forty sets of correctly completed questionnaires were used for the results analysis.

The scientific worldview is often claimed to reveal a universe chillingly indifferent to human suffering. But it’s unclear what it means to describe the universe as indifferent, or what a non-indifferent universe would be like. I suggest that the relevant contrast isn’t simply that between God and His absence, nor is the complaint about indifference focused on the lack of a kind of cosmic concern. At its heart is the idea of a mismatch between world and value. Although the causal forces governing our world are ‘blind’, they nevertheless do partly align with value. Still, our world is so arranged that senseless suffering is depressingly common, and the rosy non-indifferent counterfactual won’t contain such evil. I argue, however, that it is a mistake to long for such an alternative: it must either involve an upside-down moral order, or would be a world from which we, and those who senselessly suffer, will be absent.

A wide body of psychological research corroborates the claim that whether one’s life is (or will be) meaningful appears relevant to whether it is rational to continue living. This article advances conceptions of life’s meaningfulness and of suicidal choice with an eye to ascertaining how the former might provide justificatory reasons relevant to the latter. Drawing upon the recent theory of meaningfulness defended by Cheshire Calhoun, the decision to engage in suicide can be understood as a choice related to life’s meaningfulness insofar as an individual can see no point in investing her agency in her anticipated future. These meaning-based reasons relevant to suicidal choice either cannot be reduced to the reasons of well-being that philosophers have typically used to analyse suicide decisions or at least forms a distinct class of reasons within those that contribute to well-being.

Based on the characteristics that define Machiavellianism - manipulativeness, insincerity, lack of interpersonal warmth and emotional attachment during social interactions – individuals who score high in Machiavellianism may be low in happiness. Recent findings have shown that Machiavellianism is negatively correlated to personality traits that are predictive of well-being (e.g., agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness), therefore there is reason to believe individuals who score high in Machiavellianism will be less happy. The present study aimed to study the relationship between Machiavellianism and well-being, as well as ill-being. We found that, among 381 undergraduate students, Machiavellianism was positively associated with authenticity, anxiety, and meaning in life. Regression analyses revealed that authenticity and meaning in life were significant predictors of Machiavellianism even when depression, anxiety, and stress were controlled for. Mediation analysis suggested that the relationship between Machiavellianism and meaning in life is mediated by authenticity. The results of this may contribute to the development of programs (i.e., increasing authenticity and meaning in life in individuals) that could help improve the well-being in people who experience high levels of Machiavellianism.

As in every part of life, concept of meaning in life has an important place during adolescence as a determinant of well-being. In this research concepts of meaning in life of high school students have been investigated with the perception of self-determination, which is a motivation theory. The aim of the study was to test structural equation model in which the relationship between self-determination and meaning in life is mediated by basic psychological need satisfaction. The sample of the study consisted of 348 High School Student in İstanbul. In order to gather data, Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale (BPNS), Self-Determination Scale (SDS) and the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) were used. The data were analysed by using SPSS 20 and LISREL 8.8. The results revealed that satisfaction of basic psychological needs fully
mediated the relationship self-determination between and meaning in life in high school students. However, results also showed significant negative relationship between selfdetermination and search of meaning in life. The results and limitations of the study were discussed and recommendations have been provided to the researchers.

The effective identification of suicidal ideation is one of the important parts of psychological crisis prevention and intervention. Suicidal ideation, which is implicit, must be shown more or less by their words or behaviors. Also, effective grasp of the external representation of suicidal idea, can greatly reduce the probability of suicides. This paper attempts to approach the heart of the suicide, interpret the deep psychological motives of the suicide, and grasp the danger signals which are revealed in cognition, behavior, emotion, sleep, diet and other physical aspects, and at last puts forward six kinds of psychological methods used to identify suicide ideas in the interview process.

Numerous scholars have explored the notion that our relationship with nature is essential to our well-being, and some have suggested that we have an evolved inclination to affiliate with nature. A substantial body of research supports these hypotheses, and demonstrates both the restorative and additive capacity of affiliating with nature. This paper posits that experiences with the natural environment play a fundamentally important role in addressing the six existential anxieties of identity, happiness, isolation, meaning in life, freedom, and death—a perspective that we call Eco-Existential Positive Psychology. Moreover, we propose that affiliating with nature affords us the opportunity to be fully flourishing human beings. This paper provides supporting evidence for Eco-Existential Positive Psychology via an interdisciplinary literature review.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2014.920335

(Poster presented at Second World Congress on Positive Psychology, Philadelphia, 2011)
Nature affiliation and meaning in life have each been shown to correlate with well-being. In Study 1, we tested the hypothesis that those who are highly nature affiliated may derive a sense of meaningful existence from their closeness with nature, and that this in turn would predict greater well-being. A
sample of 311 undergraduate students completed multiple self-report measures of nature affiliation, meaning in life, and well-being. Structural equation modeling supported the hypothesis: meaning in life mediated the relationship between nature affiliation and well-being. These findings parallel those found previously for the relationship between religiosity and well-being (Byron & Miller-Perrin, 2009; Steger & Frazier, 2005). Therefore, in Study 2, we simultaneously examined whether the nature —meaning in life — well-being pattern would parallel that shown previously for religiousness — purpose in life —well-being. In Study 2, 436 undergraduate students completed self-report measures of nature affiliation, religiosity, meaning in life, and well-being. Structural equation modeling showed that meaning in life mediated relationships between nature affiliation and well-being, and between
religiosity and well-being. Findings are discussed with respect to future research incorporating broader spirituality measures in order to examine interrelationships among nature, spirituality, religion, meaning, and well-being.