Logging

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are amongst the most common work-related problem in Europe. In forestry yards we find all the conditions which expose workers to MSD risks: hard environmental conditions (low temperatures, slippery and uneven ground), heavy works (manual handling of loads, back flexed and twisted) and dangerous tools and machineries such as chainsaws. The high manual work load can therefore cause MSDs amongst the loggers. This pathology risk increases with the component 'vibration' induced by chainsaws, tractors, skidders and other machineries. In this study we have considered two different logger groups working in public forestry yards and we have analyzed their MSD risk exposure, controlling both the posture of each worker and measuring the induced vibration on the handarm system and on the back. The OWAS (Ovako Working-posture Analysis System) technique has been used to evaluate the load MSD risk and the 2002/44/EC Vibration Directive has been used to detect the exposure to vibration. In the first loggers group, mechanical trees felling (using chainsaw) and manual deforestation were the performed tasks; in the second, the operations were mechanical trees felling and log stacking (using also a tractor). The work of eight loggers was analyzed, evaluating all risk types. The result was that both the OWAS index and the vibration indicators were quite high. But others risk parameters came out that are not included in the OWAS or in the 2002/44 EC directive methodology: for example, the work related neck and upper limb disorders, which may be detected using the OCRA procedure in the case of driving powerful forestry machines.

The ecosystem model FORECAST was used to simulate the yield potential in Saskatchewan mixedwoods of the two-pass harvesting system. The simulated two-pass stand consisted of an overstory population of pure trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) with a white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) understory. The aspen was removed at year 60, and yields of the understory spruce and resprouting aspen were simulated for 80 years thereafter. The two-pass simulations were compared with two simulated conventional harvesting systems. The first system consisted of a single final harvest at year 140. In the second system, a clearcut was conducted at year 60. White spruce was then planted in the subsequent year at 400, 600, or 800 stems/ha, and aspen also permitted to resprout. Growth was then simulated for a further 80 years. FORECAST projections indicated that the two-pass system might be effective for releasing the white spruce understory, achieving at least a twofold gain in spruce volu...

Amazonian forests are experiencing rapid, structure, composition and microclimate, and are highly vulnerable to droughts and fires -alterations unprecedented changes that are having major impacts on wildlife, regional hydrology and the global climate.

University of British Columbia The arrival of Anne Marie Tietjen and myself in Uiaku village in Oro Province, Papua New Guinea, in November 1981 triggered a great deal of speculation. I had made contact with the local priest and village leaders through the good offices of the Anglican Church and some of the people who met us were clearly familiar with the odd pursuits of researchers. Some fifteen years later, I learned that some of the older people had speculated that we were returning ancestors who would hopefully rejuvenate the fortunes of the Maisin people. Others, perhaps more in tune with the national times, hoped that we would draw upon our vast business connections in “America” to bring development to the Maisin. These reactions were the kind we expected in light of what we had read and heard about New Guinea. What we did not expect was that the majority of villagers had already decided that we were missionaries. Villagers were very concerned over what kind of missionaries we...

The requirement for a collaborative effort to achieve a common set of security standards for use by entities that process, store or transport voter data. -More than 350,000 voting machines are used in the Unites States today in over 42 States (VerifiedVoting 2017). The rise in the use of electronic mediums has posed great concern for those voting and those running for office. In 2016, the State of Florida reported the targeted attempts by Russian hackers to infiltrate and manipulate electronic voting in as much as 67 elections offices. As well reporting from additional sources that as many as voter database compromises across 21 states and forensics discovery at attempts by hackers to infiltrate the networks of voting equipment vendors, local election boards, political parties and email and social media accounts for candidates.  The industry and cyber security community has not discovered a process to protect the most democratic process in the world to date – Voting remains a target held at risk. 2018 Elections are critical to moving the U.S. forward to recovery - Feel free to reach out if you need support or have any additional questions.

Illegal logging has become a global issue because of its effects on biodiversity and climate change. In order to reduce illegal logging, many countries around the world have introduced regulations of international trade of forest products. This paper examines the effects of efforts aimed at reducing illegal logging on the comparative advantage of seven types of forest products by using the HOV model. The results show that measures against illegal logging have affected the comparative advantage of international trade in different directions. The number of regulations a country enforced to combat illegal logging has negative effects on its net export of charcoal and wood residues, but has positive effects on the net export of other forest products. The effects are statistically significant for all types of forest products except paper and wood pulp.

The introduction of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus Zimm.) at the end of the 19th century, and their subsequent proliferation on Anticosti Island (Quebec) has had a strong impact on forest vegetation. Only 50% of the original balsam fir ( Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) cover remains on the island, and fir has been progressively replaced by white spruce ( Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) because of browsing. This phenomenon may have an impact on rare species, such as the fairy slipper orchid ( Calypso bulbosa (L.) Oakes; Orchidaceae), associated with old fir stands. In this study, we mapped fairy slipper populations on Anticosti Island and collected data on its habitat. We developed a statistical model to identify key environmental characteristics predicting the presence or the absence of the species. We hypothesized that on Anticosti Island, the fairy slipper is restricted to old-growth fir stands located on calcareous soils; consequently, this orchid is endangered because its hab...

The Aboriginal people of Australia knew how to tame bushfires, but since European colonisation bushfires have become feral. This paper is an investigation into the causes that took them out of human control; the effect this is having on the environment, society and the economy; the potential strategies for taming them; the suggested policies; and the instruments to put those policies into action.

Forest management practices in the eastern United States directly impact large parcels of land that serve as habitat for timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus). We assessed the behavioral response of timber rattlesnakes to commercial logging activities and the impact of such activities on a timber rattlesnake population in northcentral Pennsylvania. We radiotelemetrically monitored 67 individual snakes over periods of up to 4 years, marked and recaptured 306 snakes, and conducted search and survey efforts before, during, and after commercial logging operations on 3 timber sale parcels (totaling 154.2 ha). Location and timing of timber sales created the maximum opportunity for interaction of snakes with logging operations and with altered habitat. Observed logging-related mortality of snakes was low (<2% of the population/yr), but potential mortality could have reached 7%. Logging activity and resulting habitat changes did not alter behavior or movement patterns of telemetrically monitored snakes. Snakes with established activity ranges in timber sale areas continued to use these areas both during and after logging operations. Similarly, snakes with activity patterns that did not include timber sale areas did not alter their movement patterns to include such sites in the short-term. Timbering increased structural diversity of the habitat and, concurrently, diversity of habitat used by timber rattlesnakes increased. Our results suggest that the opportunity exists to develop forest management practices that provide timber products while limiting impacts on behavior and habitat use of timber rattlesnakes. To further reduce impacts to timber rattlesnake populations we recommend that management agencies require commercial logging contractors, sub-contractors, and field employees to adhere strictly to a policy that prohibits the intentional killing of rattlesnakes encountered during logging activities. ß 2011 The Wildlife Society.

Factors associated with management and logging practices are of particular interest in the perspective of biodiversity management. In this study we focused on overwintering birds of two close and contrasting forest habitats: a 60-120 years old oak forest and a secondary 10-20 years old wood that has lost most of its original vegetation because of continuous logging and is now dominated by an introduced species, black locust Robinia pseudoacacia. We examined bird use of the forests over two levels: species-habitat relationships and foraging niches. The former were assessed by means of point counts centred in 50 m radius plots, whereas the latter by observations of foraging behaviour and plant species exploitation. Mean species richness, diversity and abundance of bark foragers was significantly greater in the old-growth stand, where trees were higher and larger but stem density was lower. Almost no wintering bird species occurred at higher density in the second-growth than in old-growth forest, and no foraging birds positively selected the black locust as substrate. Despite the observed differences in biodiversity metrics and plant species exploitation, most birds of the two stands showed few shifts in their foraging behaviour (in terms of foraging technique, substrate, relative horizontal and vertical position) and niche metrics (breadth and overlap). By considering results obtained with the two approaches, we suggest that biodiversity of altered secondary woods can be increased if current silvicultural practices are modified towards (1) maintaining oaks or trees prone to snag formation such as old poplars and (2) preventing black locust establishment in post-clearcut communities. #

This paper presents data on the impact of biotic pressure in terms of grazing by livestock and wood cutting by humans on the plant community in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve of India. Grass, and herbaceous plant biomass, number of cattle dung piles, number of woody stems available and damaged by human activities and weed biomass were assessed at different proximity along transects radiating from village-forest boundary to forest interior to measure the ecological impact of livestock grazing and fire wood collection. The grass biomass was positively correlated to overgrazing indicating the adverse effect on natural vegetation by cattle. Woodcutting was intense along the forest boundary and significantly declined as distance increased. Similarly, weed biomass and number of thorny species declined positively with proximity from village-forest boundary and the weed biomass was significantly higher in the pastoral sites compared to residential sites. The results suggest that human impact adversely affects natural vegetation and promotes weed proliferation in forest areas adjoining human settlements in the ecologically important Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Continued anthropogenic pressure could cause reduction in fodder availability to large herbivores like elephants, which in turn leads to an increase in human-elephant conflict.

October Field is one of the most prolific offshore oil fields in the Gulf of Suez of Egypt. It consists of a number of marine platforms and produces oil from different reservoirs of different geological ages from the Lower Cretaceous to the Miocene. The aim of this study was to enhance a seismic-log evaluational procedure to evaluate the Miocene-aged Asl and Hawara Formations which encounter the main hydrocarbon and source rock potentials in the area North of October Oil Field. The well logging data, the borehole seismic data, and the velocity surveys are all used in this study. A number of synthetic seismograms are constructed and interpreted together with the deduced seismic impedance and reflection coefficient data for many wells in the study area. In addition, a comprehensive velocity analysis is performed using the seismic times and the computed average and interval velocities. These seismic-derived parameters are primarily used in recognizing and locating precisely the marl and sand sections of Asl Formation which show low to middle amplitudes. Furthermore, a quantitative well logging analysis is carried out over Asl and Hawara Formations to shed light over their hydrocarbon potentiality. Good oil saturation is exhibited by the Asl sand section which reaches to more than 90% in the southern parts of the study area. The petrophysical characters of this sand are very good in terms of good effective porosity (9% to13%), low shale volume (V sh S h > 85%). The sections of the Asl marl and the Hawara shale on the other hand are considered completely wet. An integrated model making use of the seismic- and log-derived properties is applied over the two studied formations for better understanding the reservoir of interest. Many relations are constructed between velocity, seismic impedance, and the rock pore spaces on one hand and between the velocity, lithology, and fluid content on the other hand. This study revealed that the sand section attains very good oil-bearing potentiality in the study area and proved that the application of an integrated model of the log- and seismic-derived properties led to an enhanced evaluation of the Asl and Hawara Formations, good discrimination between their lithological components besides precise differentiation from the overlying Middle to Late Miocene sections. يعد حقل أكتوبر للزيت أحد أهم حقول البترول البحرية Off-shore المنتجة للزيت في خليج السويس بمصر، فهو يتكون من مجموعه من الأرصفة البحريةPlatforms و ينتج من عده خزانات ذات عصور جيولوجية مختلفة تتراوح من الطباشيري السفلي إلي الميوسين. تهدف هذه الدراسة إلي تطبيق نموذج تقييمي يعتمد علي خواص مشتقه من البيانات السيزمية و تسجيلات الآبار و ذلك لتقييم تكويني "عسل" و "هواره" ذا العصر الميوسيني، حيث يحوي هذان التكوينان علي الجهود الهيدروكربونيةHydrocarbon Potentiality و المصدرية الرئيسية للزيت في منطقه شمال حقل أكتوبر. استخدم في هذه الدراسة العديد من تسجيلات الآبار بالإضافة إلي البيانات السيزمية البئرية و بيانات تسجيلات السرعة. كما تم إنشاء و تفسير مجموعه من السيزموجرامات التخليقية Synthetic seismograms مع كل من الممانعة الصوتية و معامل الانعكاس للعديد من الآبار في منطقه الدراسة. بالاضافه إلي هذا تم عمل تحليل كمي للسرعة باستخدام الزمن السيزمي و السرعات المتوسطة و الفترية المقاسة. هذا وقد استخدمت المعاملات المشتقة من البيانات السيزمية بصفه أساسيه و بدقه في تعيين و تحديد نطاقات المارل و الحجر الرملي لتكوين "عسل" ذات السعه القليلة إلي متوسطة Low to middle amplitude . بالاضافه إلي ذلك تم عمل تحليل كميQuantitative analysis متكامل لتكويني "عسل" و "هواره" باستخدام تسجيلات الآبار و ذلك لإلقاء الضوء علي الجهد الهيدروكربونية لكل منهما. وقد أظهر التحليل الكمي احتواء تكوين "عسل علي تشبعات جيده من الهيدروكربونات تصل إلي أكثر من 90%. كما أوضح أن الخواص البتروفيزيقية لهذا الخزان جيده جده و خاصة في الأجزاء الجنوبية من منطقه الدراسة حيث تتراوح المسامية الفعالةEffective porosity ما بين 9% و 13% و التشبع بالزيت إلي أكثر من 85%، في حين يتضاءل حجم الطفلةShale volume إلي اقل من 5%. و من ناحية أخري اعتبرت صخور الطفل و المارل الخاصة بتكوين "هواره" و الجزء العلوي من تكوين "عسل" نطاقات مشبعه كاملا بالماء Wet zones. تم تطبيق نموذج متكاملIntegrated model يجمع ما بين الخواص السيزمية و البتروفيزيقية و ذلك لفهم طبيعة و خواص التكوينين قيد الدراسة بصوره أفضل. و في هذا الصدد تم إنشاء العديد من العلاقات بين السرعة و الممانعة السيزمية و المسامية الصخرية من ناحية، و بين السرعة والمكونات الصخرية و المحتوي من السوائل من جهة أخري. بصفه عامة أكدت هذه الدراسة علي الخواص الهيدروكربونية المميزه لنطاق الحجر الرملي الخاص بتكوين "عسل" و خاصة في الأجزاء الجنوبية من منطقه الدراسة، كما أثبتت أن تطبيق النموذج المتكامل الذي يجمع ما بين الخواص السيزمية والاخري البتروفيزيقية المشتقة من تسجيلات الآبار قد أدي إلي تحسين تقييم التكوينات المدروسة بدرجه كبيره، فضلا عن تحديد مكوناتهما الصخرية بصوره أوضح، بالاضافه إلي فصلهم الدقيق عن رواسب الميوسين التي تعلوهم.

Tropical forests do far more than sustain biodiversity; they are homes to indigenous peoples, pharmacopeias of natural products, and provide vital ecosystem services, such as¯ood amelioration and soil conservation. At regional and global scales, tropical forests also have a major in¯uence on carbon storage and climate. I highlight these bene®ts, then assess the pattern and pace of tropical forest destruction in the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Asia emerges as the most immediate concern, because it has less surviving forest than the other two regions and higher relative rates of deforestation and logging. At regional and national levels, however, there is enormous variation in rates of forest loss. I discuss some factors that tend to promote forest conversion in developing countries, and propose that four Ð human population pressure, weak government institutions and poor policies, increasing trade liberalization, and industrial logging Ð are emerging as key drivers of forest destruction. # 0006-3207/99/$ -see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. P I I : S 0 0 0 6 -3 2 0 7 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 8 8 -9

This thesis presents the results and interpretations of preliminary investigations at two archaeological sites in northwestern Belize: Qualm Hill camp, which was the seasonal headquarters of British Honduras Company in the mid-1800s; and Kaxil Uinic village, a San Pedro Maya settlement established by Caste War refugees sometime after 1868. Although these sites may be considered two entirely separate entities with distinct histories, inhabitants, and archaeological assemblages, an exploration of the larger historical context surrounding both sites highlights their intricate relationship within a broader historical framework of the British colonization of Belize. Conflicts between the San Pedro Maya and British timber firms arose as a result of the two groups‘ differing uses of the Belizean landscape, as the former saw the land‘s agricultural potential, while the latter valued the region‘s mahogany reserves. Yet both the Maya and the largely Creole labor force employed by logging companies were prohibited from owning land by colonial legislation, becoming dependent upon British corporations for access to resources and jobs. As virtually all knowledge of this time period reflects a politically and socially biased colonial perspective of events and circumstances, this thesis, presented from an archaeological standpoint, challenges the notion that these groups were "incorporated" into the colonial super structure. By better interpreting the nature of the varied social, political, and economic interactions that occurred between these disenfranchised groups based on more contextualized archaeological and archival interpretations, it becomes evident that the loggers and the Maya, though marginalized by the colonial system, actively negotiated their identities to navigate the cultural landscape of British Honduras, sometimes in manners inconsistent with the defacto protocol dictated by the larger social groups of the "colonizers" and the "colonized."

Toby Creek is a tributary of the Clarion River in Clarion County, Pennsylvania. For nineteen years until 1882, the firm of Corbett and Wilson logged a 913 acre tract along Toby Creek using a series of three splash dams to transport logs by water to the Clarion River for processing and final transport. Historic images place one of the splash dams at the mouth of Toby Creek. This dam stood until the construction of Piney Reservoir in the 1920s. Field surveys conducted in 2010 located the remains of a second splash dam just above the mouth of Tarkiln Run. Remains include two rock walls spanning the distance from the stream to adjacent valley slopes and well-preserved, submerged wooden structures including mudsills, rock-filled log pens and a large panel constructed of plank. I discuss the history of “splashing” Toby Creek and the significance of the splash dam site in documenting regional logging history.

This thesis investigates the driving force behind the change in focus from pine to hardwood species in logging operations of the upper Great Lakes of the early 20th century. Information from historical records and modern research is used to create a lumber extraction model based on principles of optimization theory and human behavioral ecology. This model is used to generate a hypothesis to be compared against historic lumber production data and tested against the archaeological record of the Ottawa National Forest. As a result, this thesis identifies depleting pine resources as the driving force behind the change from pine to hardwood harvests seen in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula in the early 20th century.

Congolese logging camps are places where mud, rain, fuel smugglers, and village roadblocks slow down multinational timber firms; where workers wage wars against trees while evading company surveillance deep in the forest; where labor compounds trigger disturbing colonial memories; and where blunt racism, logger machismo, and homoerotic desires reproduce violence. In Rainforest Capitalism Thomas Hendriks examines the rowdy world of industrial timber production in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to theorize racialized and gendered power dynamics in capitalist extraction. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork among Congolese workers and European company managers as well as traders, farmers, smugglers, and barkeepers, Hendriks shows how logging is deeply tied to feelings of existential vulnerability in the face of larger forces, structures, and histories. These feelings, Hendriks contends, reveal a precarious side of power in an environment where companies, workers, and local residents frequently find themselves out of control. An ethnography of complicity, ecstasis, and paranoia, Rainforest Capitalism queers assumptions of corporate strength and opens up new ways to understand the complexities and contradictions of capitalist extraction.

Cette étude expérimentale est portée sur la comparaison de deux techniques de mesure de diamètre, le compas forestier et le ruban circonférentiel. Deux opérateurs ont été utilisés pour faire des mesures de diamètre sur 30 arbres choisis au hasard  sur le site de l’Université de Kinshasa.
Il ressort des analyses du dispositif factoriel 2x2 les effets de technique de mesure et de l’opérateur sur la mesure de diamètre et la précision de mesure de diamètre effectuée. ainsi, le compas forestier est plus précis que le ruban circonférentiel. L’écart entre opérateurs utilisant les deux techniques est de 0,25 % pendant que celui des techniques est de 1,07%, indiquant que la technique de mesure à un effet considérable sur la mesure de diamètre que l’opérateur.

Kitil Farm is a licensed open quarantine which operates in Kenya. We grow and sell high quality bamboo seedlings to individuals, investment groups, NGOs, CBOs, Government ministries and departments, and County governments. We use biotechnology, among other laboratory techniques. We also establish bamboo nurseries, rehabilitate degraded land, to fully functional ecosystem using bamboo. Most importantly, we also conduct training to individual investors and/or groups on all aspects of bamboo care, bamboo management, harvesting and associated technologies.

Beberapa tahun lalu, sektor kehutanan menjadi salah satu sumber penghasil devisa besar Negara dan bahkan sector kehutanan menjadi sector peneriaan devisa terbesar kedua setelah migas. Namun, kini sumbangannya makin mengecil, menyusul makin beratnya kerusakan hutan di Indonesia. Bahkan, setelah era reformasi dan otonomi daerah, pengusahaan hutan berlangsung tak terkendali. Perusahaan-perusahaan bidang kehutanan tumbuh pesat termasuk pemilik Hak Pengusahaan Hutan (HPH). Dengan alasan memacu pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional hutan dibabat tanpa henti. Sedangkan upaya rehabilitasi berlangsung sangat lambat. Dalam upaya untuk menghasilkan produksi kayu, maka hal yang perlu juga mendapatkan perhatian serius adalah kegiatan eksploitasi kayu. Salah satu kegiatan dalam eksploitasi kayu yang perlu diperhatikan adalah kegiatan pengangkutan. Kegiatan pengangkutan merupakan kegiatan memindahkan kayu ke tempat penampungan kayu atau ke industry pengolahan kayu. Kegiatan pengangkutan sangat penting untuk kita perhatikan karena pengangkutan turut mempengaruhi kayu yang telah dipanen sebelumnya. Kualitas kayu bisa saja berubah karena terkendala pada aspek pengangkutannya. Kayu yang terlalu lama di lokasi pemenenan akan menurunkan kualitas kayunya. Dalam kegiatan pemanenan terdapat beberapa jenis pengangkutan kayu yang akan dibahas lebih lanjut dalam makalah ini. Hutan merupakan salah satu sumberdaya alam yang cukup memberikan peranan penting bagi pertumbuhan ekonomi bangsa Indonesia. Sebagai salah satu sumber devisa, hasil huan yang berupa kayu olahan menduduki peringkat kedua setelah migas. Pemanenan hasil hutan adalah serangkgaian kegiatan kehutanan yang mengubah pohon atau biomassa lainnya, sehingga bermanfaat bagi keghidupan ekonomis dan kebudayaan masyarakat. Salah satu kegiatan yang termasuk dalam kegiatan pemanenan hasil hutan adalah pengangkutan kayu ke tempat penimbunan kayu atau ke empat pengolahan selanjutnya. Pengangkutan di dalam kegiatan kehiyanan adalah pengangkutan balak (log) dari tempat penebangan sampai ke tempat tujuan akhir seperti tempat penimbunan kayu (TPK) atau langsung ke konsumen. Tujuan pengangkutan kayu adalah agar kayu dapat samapai di tujuan pada waktu yang tepat secara kontinu dengan biaya yang minimal. Kayu akan turun kualitasnya apabila terlalu lama diabiarkan di dalam hutan.

Stand structure was studied on thirty 1-ha plots in mature managed and old-growth forest stands dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) in southern Finland. The forests were classi®ed into three categories (10 plots in each category) according to the age of the dominant spruces and signs of previous cutting: (1) mature managed (95±118 years), (2) overmature managed (124±145 years) and (3) old-growth (129±198 years).

I studied carabid-beetle assemblages in boreal spruce-forest stands representing early secondary succession, produced by three different logging methods, in central Finland in 1995±1998. The logging methods studied in eight separate study areas were: unlogged control stands, traditionally clear-cut stands, stands within which three 1600 m 2 openings were felled and stands of modi®ed clear-cutting, within which three small tree groups (20±30 live standing mature trees) were retained. Pretreatment samples were collected in 1995 and the stands were logged the following winter. A three-summer follow-up study indicated the following. (1) Carabid assemblages changed with varying speed and intensity after logging. (2) Stands with small openings maintained the original assemblage structure best. Generalists were more abundant in clear-cut stands than in the stands with openings, indicating stronger assemblage-level changes in the large clear-cuts. (3) Carabid species showed varying responses to a moisture gradient, to the amount of trees removed and to the abundance of red wood ants. Some forest species with poor dispersal ability were associated with for closed and moist or mesic sites. These ®ndings are discussed in the light of the ecological characteristics of the species and in relation to forest management. #

Unsur yang terdiri dari atom yang tidak stabil akan berubah secara spontan menjadi produk atom yang lebih stabil dengan memancarkan radiasi. Unsur yang mengandung inti yang tidak stabil disebut bersifat radioaktif. Proses perubahan unsur dari inti atom tidak stabil menjadi inti atom stabil biasanya disertai dengan emisi atau pancaran radiasi dalam bentuk partikel bermuatan dan sinar gamma. Proses ini disebut dengan peluruhan radioaktif (radioactive decay).

The dielectric constant of a material affects the way in which electromagnetic wave passes through it. Since the dielectric constants of oil and water are different, the behaviour of electromagnetic waves in reservoir rocks is of interest. Based on dielectric measurements, two classes of tools currently exist viz.: very high, and low frequency tool. They all use small antenna arrays to send electromagnetic waves through the
formation. Traditionally, the measurement of the conductivity or resistivity of a formation has been one of the main surveys performed in a borehole, primarily to determine water saturation. However, a second electrical characteristic of the formation can be determined – the dielectric permittivity. Dielectric devices can be used to determine formation saturation from data dependent on the dielectric permittivity. The basic measurements are of propagation time and attenuation of an electromagnetic wave as it passes through a specific interval of formation. As the propagation time in water is higher than in hydrocarbons or minerals, the measurement is primarily affected by the water-filled pore space of rocks. This is in contrast to the nuclear-porosity tools affected
by the total porosity. In addition, for a wide range of salinities, the propagation time in water is practically constant and so saturation estimations can be made without prior
knowledge of the resistivity of the formation water. When other open-hole log data are available, it is possible to distinguish between oil, gas, and water with unknown changing
water salinity. There are errors associated with conventional porosity tools. The dielectric dispersion logging tool is a relatively new tool that overcomes major problems of preexisting logs. The tool uses electromagnetic wave to detect water-filled porosity.

Managing the forested landscape in Malaysia and Indonesia for timber extraction while also conserving the endangered orangutan that inhabit some of the remaining forests in this region is a challenge. Heavy logging is a common feature of the Indonesian and Malaysian timber industries. It is profitable but detrimental to the survival of this primate species. A type of logging which appears to be compatible with maintaining orangutans in the forested landscape is light logging. It involves extracting fewer logs and ensures that the logged area is minimally damaged. However, switching to a light logging regime involves a financial opportunity cost, a cost which is an obstacle to the widespread adoption of this type of logging by businesses and the state. This paper reviews the case study of a unique light logging experiment conducted in the Deramakot Forest Reserve, in one of the orangutan’s strongholds, the Malaysian state of Sabah. The Deramakot experiment claims to generate revenue from low-impact logging while also sustaining its population of orangutans. Here, we survey the importance of the timber industry to Sabah, the profitability of the Deramakot scheme, the orangutan conservation aspect of this scheme, and the influence of the politico-bureaucratic factor or public economics on sustaining the domestic light-logging agenda. Then, this paper attempts to answer the question of whether economic returns could be balanced with orangutan conservation given the light and heavy logging regimes, bearing in mind the opportunity costs associated with these. More specifically, using the data that has been made available from the Deramakot case study, this paper employs a mathematical model to analyse whether the foregone profits of pursuing light logging is higher than setting aside strict protected areas while more intense logging the remaining forests, subject to the goal of maintaining a desired orangutan population size. The results reveal that, under certain conditions, the option of conserving the orangutan under mainly light logging is economically more attractive for a scenario involving Sabahan forests than the option of strictly protecting orangutan habitats and heavily logging the forests without significant orangutan populations. This finding contributes to the question asked by conservationists of how forests should be partitioned to satisfy both economic and conservation needs.

A quantitative ethnobotanical method based on structured interviews was used to evaluate local use-preferences and dynamics of practically all woody species in the Sahel of Burkina Faso. One hundred Fulani informants estimated the value of 56 woody species for food, firewood, construction, medicine, field trees, shade and fodder, as well as conservation priority, abundance and dynamics of each species. There was a large consistency in answers, but significant between-village differences existed. Gender and age of informants did not influence answers significantly. The present valuation method identified a large number of species important for local use and demonstrated a more varied plant use than seen from free-listing interviews. Furthermore, the Fulani informants described a decline of practically all woody species. The present valuation provided management-relevant information about plant use and vegetation change. The woody vegetation in the Sahel is currently without sufficient management to uphold a rational use of the vegetation, following the gradual disappearance of the traditional nomadic trekking routes that previously helped to ensure a rational use of the vegetation.

Effect of forest management on the herpetofauna of a temperate forest of western Oaxaca, Mexico. The development of silvicultural techniques has as main objective to maximize the production of timber, whereas at the same time minimize the impact generated during and after forest intervention in the local diversity. However, these activities change local climate, and this, in turn, alter the composition of natural communities. The effect of these changes may be greater in those taxonomic groups with high sensitivity to habitat disturbance, such as amphibians and reptiles, which are the unique terrestrial ectothermic vertebrates. The present study aims to know the differences in diversity of amphibians and reptiles in a temperate forest under two silvicultural treatments, one of low and the other of high intensity, as well as from one, five and ten years of regeneration since the last logging event, Sierra Sur of Oaxaca, Mexico. Records of 21 species of herpetofauna (six amphibians and 15 reptiles) were obtained. The total species richness was similar in both treatments; however, the composition varied between sites with different recovery times. Higher abundance of amphibian was presented on sites with the low-intensity treatment, while reptiles were more abundant at sites with intensive treatment. Compared to a mature forest without management, sites with intensive treatment have more rare species, although the values of true diversity of amphibians were similar between treatments with different intensities, while for reptiles sites under treatment showed less diversity that unmanaged site: 33 % for intensive treatment and 28 % at sites with low intensity with respect to one control site. Complementary Analysis showed a difference of 86 % between the compositions of species in sites with intensive treatment. The treatment intensity was associated with an increase in the number of species, but the way they respond to changes in habitat depends largely on the population characteristics of each species and its ability to adapt to new conditions. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (3): 931-943. Epub 2016 September 01.

Timber production is an important ecosystem service of European mountain forests. This paper aimed to assess the current practices in logging operations and to identify the efficiency gaps in timber production. The study was located in seven case study areas from representative European mountain ranges, where 632 logging operations were analysed. The focus was on road infrastructure, transport systems, harvesting methods and extraction technologies. Often inappropriate technology was used in steep terrain; there was no correlation between the average slope and the selection of harvesting systems. Skidding was the most common extraction method (75%), while cable yarding and forwarding had shares of 15% and 8%. The mean road density was 18.5 m ha-1. The mean extraction distance was 501 m. The mean harvesting and extraction productivity were 9.0 m³ h-1 and 10.2 m³ h-1; the mean costs were 11.1 € m-³ and 11.7 € m-³, respectively. Non-mechanized and obsolete harvesting systems reported the lowest efficiency and the highest environmental footprint, while fully mechanized systems reported the highest efficiency, the lowest number of accidents and the lowest stand damage. Cable yarders are the appropriate extraction technology in steep terrain, but they require a well-developed road network. Higher mechanization degree, improved quality of the road networks, knowledge transfer to practice and training of forest workers are some of the necessary measures to overcome the efficiency gaps in timber production in European mountain forests.