Language Use

Social and personality psychologists have recently begun examining patterns of natural language use in relation to psychological phenomena. One domain of interest has been the relationships between individual differences in personality and the types of words that people use. The current study extends this research by examining the association between personality traits and language use in the production of self-narratives. Ninety-four undergraduate students were led through an automated writing program that facilitated the telling of the past and the planning of the future. Word usage was categorized using James Pennebaker's Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) text-analysis software. Individual differences in the frequency of word use within these categories were correlated with measures of the Big Five personality traits. Every one of the Big Five was strongly and significantly associated with word use patterns theoretically appropriate to the trait, indicating strong connections between language use and personality.

Previous research has devoted a great deal of attention to describing the long-term patterns and relationships among trait-level or situation-specific variables. The present discussion extracts kernels of wisdom, based on the literatures on language anxiety and language learning motivation, that are used to frame the argument that choosing to initiate communication at a particular moment in time can be conceptualized as a volitional (freely chosen) process. The result is a degree of willingness to communicate (WTC) with the potential to rise and fall rapidly as the situation changes. Previous research based on both qualitative and quantitative methodologies is described that demonstrates the complexity of the processes involved in creating WTC. It is argued that methodologies must be adapted to focus upon the dynamic process of choosing to initiate or avoid second language communication when the opportunity arises.

Many studies of contrastive rhetoric have confirmed that Japanese writers prefer an inductive style which is negatively transferred to ESL writing, whereas one study found similarities in rhetorical patterns used by good Japanese and English Ll writers. This study investigated whether individual Japanese students use the same discourse pattern in Ll and ESL writing and how each individual's use of similar/dissimilar patterns affects the quality of ESL essays. University students in Japan wrote one essay in Japanese and another in English. A total of 22 students wrote on an expository topic, and 24 students wrote on a persuasive topic. Each participant was interviewed later about their writing and views on rhetorical styles. Both Japanese and ESL essays were evaluated in terms of organization and ESL essays were also rated in terms of language use. The location of the main idea and the macro-level rhetorical pattern were coded for each essay. Results showed

Bahasa Alay" refers to a juvenile creativity regarding to language. It used combination of letters and numbers; or exposition between both rather than usual literacy of Indonesian. They also use emotional icon in expressing emotion. The using of this language has been widespreaded, including in social media; mainly Facebook. This study attempted as case study regarding this phenomena. Purposive sampling is used while the respondants were account user in my account. Observation was done in three days to analyze frequency of status updating by them. The result showed that "Bahasa Alay" is used mainly by women teenager. It was used as an existency and also way to be different in gaining public attention.

In 4 experiments, the authors addressed the mechanisms by which grammatical gender (in Italian and German) may come to affect meaning. In Experiments 1 (similarity judgments) and 2 (semantic substitution errors), the authors found Italian gender effects for animals but not for artifacts; Experiment 3 revealed no comparable effects in German. These results suggest that gender effects arise as a generalization from an established association between gender of nouns and sex of human referents, extending to nouns referring to sexuated entities. Across languages, such effects are found when the language allows for easy mapping between gender of nouns and sex of human referents (Italian) but not when the mapping is less transparent (German). A final experiment provided further constraints: These effects during processing arise at a lexical-semantic level rather than at a conceptual level.

This study investigated the classroom interaction and in-home, bilingual interviews of 17 adult learners of English with no previous formal English language instruction in order to find the frequency of use and some functions of forms of language which are not explicitly taught: the discourse markers well, you know, and like. Previous findings in this area are based most often on data from more advanced language learners and do not present a clear picture of which learners use these markers more often or why. Results of the current study show that this set of learners uses few discourse markers. A review of the focal students’ background information (including language use patterns outside the classroom) suggests that the students who use more discourse markers may be the students who are more acculturated to the US. This suggests that the students who comprise the population at the data collection site, in general, remain, to some degree, isolated from English language culture in the US.

Modeling the competence grammar of heritage speakers who exhibit low proficiency in their L1 represents a significant challenge for generative and experimental approaches to bilingual linguistic research. In this paper we revisit the core tenets of the incomplete acquisition hypothesis as developed in recent scholarship (in particular by Montrul (2002 et seq.) and Polinsky (1997Polinsky ( , 2006).

This paper presents the results of a comparative investigation into the learning styles and strategies of effective and ineffective language learners. Subjects for the study were one hundred and ten undergraduate university students in Hong Kong. They were categorized as ‘more effective’ or ‘less effective’ learners, on the basis of their scores on a standardized public English examination administered at

In the present research we examined the association between Modern Sexist beliefs and identifying and engaging in subtle sexist behavior. In Study 1, we found that those who endorsed Modern Sexist beliefs were less likely to detect the occurrence of normative sexist behavior (i.e., the use of sexist language), and this oversight was a function of their failure to define such behavior as sexist. In Study 2, we found that those who endorsed Modern Sexist beliefs were more likely to use sexist language and less likely to use nonsexist language. Use of nonsexist language was a function of personal definitions of sexist language. Results are discussed in terms of motivations to self-correct discriminatory behavior and conceptualizations of current forms of sexism.

This paper focuses on the linguistic landscape of two streets in two multilingual cities in Friesland (Netherlands) and the Basque Country (Spain) where a minority language is spoken, Basque or Frisian. The paper analyses the use of the minority language (Basque or Frisian), the state language (Spanish or Dutch) and English as an international language on language signs. It compares the use of these languages as related to the differences in language policy regarding the minority language in these two settings and to the spread of English in Europe. The data include over 975 pictures of language signs that were analysed so as to determine the number of languages used, the languages on the signs and the characteristics of bilingual and multilingual signs. The findings indicate that the linguistic landscape is related to the official language policy regarding minority languages and that there are important differences between the two settings.

The connotations of a language expression are pragmatic effects that arise from encyclopaedic knowledge about its denotation (or reference) and also from experiences, beliefs, and prejudices about the contexts in which the expression is typically used. The connotation of a language expression is clearly distinct from its sense, denotation and reference. For example, Mike and Michael can have the same reference but different connotations. John is an unsuitable name for your new-born daughter; so is Springtime in Paris an inappropriate name for a 1200cc Harley-Davidson motorbike or an auto-repair shop. Identifying the connotations of a term is to identify the community attitude towards it. For instance the connotations of English octopus and the Japanese translation equivalent tako are very different: an octopus is a sinister, alien creature; tako is edible and endearing. Connotation is intimately involved with notions of appropriateness in language use; i.e. with pragmatic effect. For instance, racist dysphemisms occur when a speaker refers to or implicates the hearer or some third person's race, ethnicity, or nationality in such terms as to cause a face affront. Many such 'racist' terms can be disarmed by being used, without irony, as in-group solidarity markers by the targeted group; e.g. the use of nigger/nigga among African Americans. The negative connotations of some existing word often lead to its replacement. Although Jesus Christ! is blasphemous; Gee whiz and By jingo are not. From a purely rational viewpoint, if one of these is blasphemous, then all of them are. But the pragmatic effects, i.e. connotations are different. Connotation is a thoroughly pragmatic category of meaning. #

Purpose -Awareness and testing of ethnic cuisine have increased in the past decades as a consequence of the growing international trade, migration, tourism and globalisation. This article aims to focus on the attitude and behaviour of Belgians towards Latin-American ethnic foods, and of Hispanics living in Belgium towards mainstream Belgian food. Design/methodology/approach -The role of socio-demographic characteristics, food neophobia, and degree of acculturation or openness on food preference and choice among these two population groups is analysed. A survey with 119 Belgian and 127 Hispanic participants was performed. Data analysis deals with descriptive analyses and statistical validation of the perceived associations by means of chi-square, t-test, ANOVA, correlations, and stepwise multiple regression. Findings -The overall opinion and degree of satisfaction of the Belgian sample towards ethnic food were favourable. Latin-American food consumption and attitude of Belgians are negatively correlated with food neophobia, which is significantly higher among urban and 55 þ aged consumers, and positively correlated with openness to new cultures. Taste and appearance were key attributes that determined Belgians' preference for ethnic foods. Hispanics' general perception towards Belgian mainstream food was favourable as well, although they considered their own food as being better in taste. Barriers to maintain Latin-American food habits are availability and time constraints. Hispanics' adoption of traditional Belgian cuisine is positively correlated with time of residence in Belgium and negatively correlated with maintenance of native social interaction and language use. Food neophobia does not emerge as a determinant of Hispanics' dietary acculturation to mainstream Belgian food. Research limitations/implications -Data are collected from a relatively small convenience sample, which limits generalisation of the findings beyond the sample characteristics, which renders the findings exploratory rather than conclusive. Originality/value -This paper covers important, not well-explored and previously neglected research subjects, namely attitude, perceptions and behaviour towards ethnic food and food consumption among ethnic minorities in the increasingly globalised food market. The main contribution pertains to simultaneously investigating the role of socio-demographic, acculturation and food neophobia on food consumption decisions.

Due to the myriad of problems associated with autism, parents often consider alternative treatments. The investigation was undertaken to determine the effects of the Tomatis Method on language skills in children with autism utilizing a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design. The results indicated that although the majority of the children demonstrated general improvement in language over the course of the study, it did not appear to be related to the treatment condition. The percent change for Group 1 (Placebo/Treatment) for treatment was 17.41%, and placebo was 24.84%. Group 2 (Treatment/ Placebo) showed -3.98% change for treatment and 14.15% change for placebo. The results reflect a lack of improvement in language using the Tomatis Method for children with autism.

Language choice and use, which refers to the selection of language(s) for diverse purposes in diverse contexts with different individuals or groups, are common but rather vital sociolinguistic phenomena in a multilingual setting. This study integrates Fishman’s (1972) domain analysis to determine the dominant language choice of Tamil Christian youths in Malaysia based on their patterns of language choice and use in the domains of family, friendship, and religion; and to examine the underlying factors that govern their language choice patterns in the selected domains. The data were collected through a questionnaire administered to 60 Tamil Christian youths at a church in Kuala Lumpur; together with 4 face-to-face interviews. SPSS was used to get percentage values and frequencies through descriptive statistics of data from the questionnaire. The findings of the study indicate that the respondents chose and used English, Tamil, and Bahasa Malaysia in the selected domains. The English language was found to be used predominantly in all three domains as a result of the influence of these particular domains; the speakers’ verbal repertoires and those of their addressees; their attitude towards a language and its speakers; motivation; and also their sense of solidarity and social identity.

"As the sociologist Norbert Elias pointed out, there is a need of new
procedural models to get to grasp the complex functioning of human-beings-in-society. An ecological complexity approach could be useful to advance our knowledge. How can we think of a sociolinguistic “ecosystem”? What elements do we need to put in such an ecosystem and what analogies could be applied? The
(bio)ecological inspiration is a metaphorical exercise to proceed toward a more holistic approach in dynamic sociolinguistics. However, a language is not a species and, therefore, we need to make our complex ecology socio-cognitive and multidimensional. We need to create theories and represent to ourselves how
language behaviour is woven together with its contexts in order to maintain language diversity and, at the same time, foster general human intercommunication on a planetary scale."

The connotations of a language expression are pragmatic effects that arise from encyclopaedic knowledge about its denotation (or reference) and also from experiences, beliefs, and prejudices about the contexts in which the expression is typically used. The connotation of a language expression is clearly distinct from its sense, denotation and reference. For example, Mike and Michael can have the same reference but different connotations. John is an unsuitable name for your new-born daughter; so is Springtime in Paris an inappropriate name for a 1200cc Harley-Davidson motorbike or an auto-repair shop. Identifying the connotations of a term is to identify the community attitude towards it. For instance the connotations of English octopus and the Japanese translation equivalent tako are very different: an octopus is a sinister, alien creature; tako is edible and endearing. Connotation is intimately involved with notions of appropriateness in language use; i.e. with pragmatic effect. For instance, racist dysphemisms occur when a speaker refers to or implicates the hearer or some third person's race, ethnicity, or nationality in such terms as to cause a face affront. Many such 'racist' terms can be disarmed by being used, without irony, as in-group solidarity markers by the targeted group; e.g. the use of nigger/nigga among African Americans. The negative connotations of some existing word often lead to its replacement. Although Jesus Christ! is blasphemous; Gee whiz and By jingo are not. From a purely rational viewpoint, if one of these is blasphemous, then all of them are. But the pragmatic effects, i.e. connotations are different. Connotation is a thoroughly pragmatic category of meaning. #

Can the language used and the patterns of communication differentiate a multidisciplinary team from an interprofessional team? This research question arose from an unexpected outcome of a study that investigated clinical reasoning of health professional team members in the elder care wards of two different hospitals. The issue at stake was the apparent disparity in the way in which the two teams communicated. To further explore this, the original transcribed interview data was analysed from a symbolic interactionist perspective in order that the language and communication patterns between the two teams could be identified and compared. Differences appeared to parallel the distinctions between multidisciplinary and interprofessional teams as reported in the literature. Our observations were that an interprofessional team was characterized by its use of inclusive language, continual sharing of information between team members and a collaborative working approach. In the multidisciplinary team, the members worked in parallel, drawing information from one another but did not have a common understanding of issues that could influence intervention. The implications of these communication differences for team members, team leaders and future research are then discussed.

Gender, class, and race are constitutive elements essential to writers' agency and identity. However, these categories are not typically paid substantial attention in second language writing as well as in the larger field of second language acquisition and bilingual development, although issues of gender have been explored to a greater extent than the other two categories. This article summarizes constructivist and poststructuralist approaches to gender discussed recently in the larger field of second language learning and applies key concepts to issues of gender, class, and race in second language writing as well as interrelations among them. Recent discussions on gender and language have problematized fixed understandings of the gender binary in relation to language use. They have explored how gendered use of language is socially and discursively constructed and how gender, language, power, and discourse are related to each other in dynamic and transformative ways. It is suggested that new approaches to gender, class, and race be dialectic in that they should both explore differences between social categories in a non-essentialist way and expose discourse and power relations that are embodied in these differences. Future research agendas on gender, class, and race in second language writing that incorporate these approaches are suggested. #

In the present research we examined the association between Modern Sexist beliefs and identifying and engaging in subtle sexist behavior. In Study 1, we found that those who endorsed Modern Sexist beliefs were less likely to detect the occurrence of normative sexist behavior (i.e., the use of sexist language), and this oversight was a function of their failure to define such behavior as sexist. In Study 2, we found that those who endorsed Modern Sexist beliefs were more likely to use sexist language and less likely to use nonsexist language. Use of nonsexist language was a function of personal definitions of sexist language. Results are discussed in terms of motivations to self-correct discriminatory behavior and conceptualizations of current forms of sexism.

Sixty British primary school children aged 9-10 and their teachers took part in an experimental teaching programme, designed to improve the quality of children's reasoning and collaborative activity by developing their awareness of language use and promoting certain 'ground rules' for talking together. Children's subsequent use of language when carrying out collaborative activities in the classroom was observed and analysed, and effects on their performance on Raven's Progressive Matrices test of non-verbal reasoning were also investigated. Comparative data were gathered from children in matched control classes. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of discourse showed a marked shift in target children's use of language in accord with the aims of the teaching programme, and demonstrated that adherence to the ground rules helped groups solve the reasoning test problems. Children's individual scores on the Raven's test also improved. These findings support a sociocultural view of intellectual development and confirm the value of explicitly teaching children how to use language to reason.

This study investigated the effects of a peer network strategy on the duration of social interaction and social-communicative skills for 3 students with autism. Typical peers, 5 students per site, were selected based on peer status (popularity with classmates) and teacher nomination. Each network of peers received eight 30-minute training sessions during which social skills-including initiating and responding, conversing, sharing, giving instructions, and saying nice things-were modeled by the experimenter with roleplay practice by the students and feedback. The target students with autism received training in the use of an augmentative communication system along with two training sessions in social skills with their peer network. Feedback and reinforcement for appropriate behaviors and interaction continued throughout the intervention phases. A multiple baseline design across settings was employed to document the effects. Dependent variables included durations of social interaction time, use of the augmentative communication system by the target students and peers (trained and untrained), language use during 10-minute samples, and disruptive behavior. Results showed increased social interaction time and use of the augmentative communication system for all 3 students, with increased expressive language for 2 students. Increases were also noted in peer nominations of the target student following the intervention.

A more natural interaction between humans and mobile robots can be achieved by bridging the gap between the format of spatial knowledge used by robots and the format of languages used by humans. This enables both sides to communicate by using shared knowledge. Spatial knowledge can be (re)presented in various ways to increase the interaction between humans and mobile robots. One effective way is to describe the route verbally to the robot. This method can permit computer language-naive users to instruct mobile robots, which understand spatial descriptions, to naturally perform complex tasks using succinct and intuitive commands. We present a spatial language to describe route-based navigation tasks for a mobile robot. The instructions of this spatial language are implemented to provide an intuitive interface with which novice users can easily and naturally describe a navigation task to a mobile robot in a miniature city or in any other indoor environment. In our system, the instructions of the processed route are analyzed to generate a symbolic representation via the instruction interpreter. The resulting symbolic representation is supplied to the robot motion planning stage as an initial path estimation of route description and it is also used to generate a topological map of the route’s environment.

The article outlines the patterns of language use amongst the Russian speakers in each Baltic states, and their correlation to identity related attitudes. It was found that the use of Russian and the state language is very tightly connected to collective identity and the associated set of values and beliefs: the greater the use of the state language, the more positive the respondent’s sense of identity and the lesser the feeling of deprivation and interethnic discord. The interrelatedness of collective identity, attitudes, language knowledge and use creates a vicious circle of mutual reinforcement in which low language knowledge limits career opportunities which in turn influences life satisfaction which increases interethnic discordance which lowers motivation to learn the state language.

Japanese women's language is a concept encountered daily in Japanese society and, perhaps most interestingly, in Japanese language studies. Students are informed that there are such concepts as women's language and men's language , however, further insight into these concepts are rare. What, then, is Japanese women's language? And, even more importantly, do real Japanese women speak this language? This thesis finds that the development of women's language has not occurred naturally through actual speech, but rather, it has evolved as a product of prescribed language use through instructions in disciplinary books as well as media, and has been used as a tool to distinguish women from men. Even in contemporary Japan we still find women's language through role language in media and fiction, as well as in Japanese language studies. By conducting a detailed analysis of the history and development of Japanese women's language we find that it has rarely, if ever, been used in real speech as it has been ideologically prescribed. After conducting a study looking at the use of gendered sentence-final particles by three female university students, I find that their speech is not feminine as is prescribed by language ideology, but neutral to moderately masculine, which aligns with previous research. Women, as any other social subgroup, use their language according to many more factors than what is assumed appropriate for their gender. Furthermore, the second part of my study consists of questionnaires which the three subjects responded to and deals with issues such as their own perceptions of their language use and of their femininity. Here, I attempted to draw lines between their language use and their identity and I found that factors such as age, desires to be perceived as certain traits, and relationship to addressee can affect language use. Conclusively, speakers play with and manipulate language – they subvert, convert, and adapt to preexisting norms and social expectations, and the outcome of their language use is an expression of their identity, which is an intricate notion constituted by countless factors including social status, age, gender, what traits they wish to convey, and so on. Lastly, it is essential to keep in mind that it is impossible to make certain connections between language use and identity and gender, however, this thesis explores some theories which could be interesting for further research.

Social and personality psychologists have recently begun examining patterns of natural language use in relation to psychological phenomena. One domain of interest has been the relationships between individual differences in personality and the types of words that people use. The current study extends this research by examining the association between personality traits and language use in the production of self-narratives. Ninety-four undergraduate students were led through an automated writing program that facilitated the telling of the past and the planning of the future. Word usage was categorized using James Pennebaker's Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) text-analysis software. Individual differences in the frequency of word use within these categories were correlated with measures of the Big Five personality traits. Every one of the Big Five was strongly and significantly associated with word use patterns theoretically appropriate to the trait, indicating strong connections between language use and personality.

The research reported in this paper investigates what types of inter-cultural contact Hungarian schoolchildren have, what kind of language-related attitudes they can give account of and how they see the role of contact situations in affecting their attitudinal and motivational dispositions towards the L2, the L2 speaking communities and the process of L2 learning. This study is based on data gathered in an interview project that involved 40 13-, 14-year-old learners of English and German from all over Hungary. The results reveal that tourism does not create many contact opportunities for the majority of students in this country and that in this particular foreign language setting, indirect contact through various cultural products is the most frequent means of gaining information about target language speakers and their culture. The participants were found to display a wide variety of attitudes towards a considerable number of aspects of the target language culture. Students reported that cross-cultural contact helps the development of their communicative competence and contributes to the increase of their motivation and the decrease of language use anxiety.

This paper focuses on how culture can be treated as an explanatory variable in cross-cultural pragmatic studies. It starts with a review of pragmatic maxims Leech, 1983;, discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the concept. It then presents the findings from a British-Chinese replication of cross-cultural study of conversational constraints, and argues that the notion of maxims should be reconceptualised as sociopragmatic interactional principles (SIPs). The notion of SIPs is defined and explained, referring to the sociopragmatic-pragmalinguistic distinction (Leech, 1983; and other cross-cultural pragmatic approaches . SIPs are also discussed in relation to perspectives on the impact of culture on language use. The paper ends with a call for more research to establish on an empirical basis the types of interactional principles that exist, and their interrelationships.

English uses the same prepositions to describe both spatial and temporal relationships (e.g., at the corner, at 1:30), and other languages worldwide exhibit similar patterns. These space-time parallelisms have been explained by the Metaphoric Mapping Theory, which maintains that humans have a cognitive predisposition to structure temporal concepts in terms of spatial schemas through the application of a TIME IS SPACE metaphor. Evidence comes from (among other sources) historical investigations showing that languages consistently develop in such a way that expressions that originally have only spatial meanings are gradually extended to take on analogous temporal meanings. It is not clear, however, if the metaphor actively influences the way that modern adults process prepositional meanings during language use. To explore this question, a series of experiments was conducted with four brain-damaged subjects with left perisylvian lesions. Two subjects exhibited the following dissociation: they failed a test that assesses knowledge of the spatial meanings of prepositions, but passed a test that assesses knowledge of the corresponding temporal meanings of the same prepositions. This result suggests that understanding the temporal meanings of prepositions does not necessarily require establishing structural alignments with their spatial correlates. Two other subjects exhibited the opposite dissociation: they performed better on the spatial test than on the temporal test. Overall, these findings support the view that although the spatial and temporal meanings of prepositions are historically linked by virtue of the TIME IS SPACE metaphor, they can be (and may normally be) represented and processed independently of each other in the brains of modern adults.

Learning politeness in English language as a Foreign Language (EFL) is important as it concerns on how language is used in social contexts. In englishforums.com discussions, there are several politeness problems which attract researchers to analyse them. This research aims to investigate the politeness strategies used in englishforums.com discussion. There are two research problems formulated: (1) What types of politeness strategies are used in the englishforums.com discussions? (2) What factors affecting the politeness strategies in the englishforums.com discussions? To interpret the first result, the researchers used the politeness theories according to Brown and Levinson (1987) to analyse the types of politeness strategies used in englishforums.com discussion. To interpret the second result, the researchers used the theory from Spolsky (1998) about the factors affecting the politeness strategies in the englishforums.com discussion. The data of this research are taken from the discussion dialogue in englishforums.com. The first finding shows that the politeness strategies found in the discussion are positive politeness, negative politeness, off-record, and bald-on-record. The second finding shows that the factor affecting politeness strategies was language and style.

In the project reported on here, the researcher conducted focus group discussions with participants during a fifty-day data-collection trip round South Africa in early 2014, twenty years after the end of the apartheid regime. Participants, who represented most language and ethnic groups in the country and a wide range of ages and educational backgrounds, discoursed on their daily language use, language preferences, factors influencing language choices, code-switching habits and views on the benefits of multilingualism and multi-culturalism. They also presented their views of the current language-in-education policies and their predictions for the long-term future of the languages in the country in general and of their own first languages in particular.  Of special interest are the differing ways in which participants attempt to ensure that their heritage languages are passed on to the next generation.

A tool constructed to examine a task's potential to stimulate and support creative mathematical thinking was derived from a hierarchy of cognitive activities students employ as they solve unfamiliar problems. These cognitive activities informed the formulation of categories of task features that support creative mathematical thinking. Use of this tool is illustrated in a study of the mismatch between potential

Linguistics is currently being transformed. In relating this to the return of languaging, I link the concept's genealogy with all of its major applications. Crucially, human understanding becomes social and subjective and, thus, incompatible with linguistic theories that focus on individual knowledge of entities like languages, usage, or forms of language use. As in Elizabethan times, understanding is part of socially organized practice. In leaving behind linguistic "forms," languaging shapes an entangled meshwork that links living, observing, and social action. In welcoming the return of long-suppressed ideas, I focus on their implications for evolution, history, and human embodiment. In so doing, I hold that each person's practical experience links a living subject with what can be, has been, and should be said. Finally, I argue that one can use the concept of languaging to build awareness that favors collective modes of action that are directed within the living world, the bio-ecology. By tracing social organization to embodied expression, a new ecolinguistics can aim to think on behalf of the world.

Although the Survey of Language Situation in China (Zhongguo yuyan wenzi shiyong qingkuang diaocha), involving 475,000 respondents was conducted over a decade ago, it can still provide insights into the sociolinguistic situation of English in the world’s most populous country. The present paper analyses data from this survey concerning respondents’ (1) use of English, (2) English reading proficiency, (3) English spoken proficiency, and (4) attitudes towards foreign language-medium instruction at primary and secondary schools, with special reference to seven major cities; Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Chongqing and Dalian. Future research directions include collecting more comprehensive data concerning English and/or through approaches more objective than self-reporting. One policy implication is that government departments might consider formulating a
more coherent language policy for English-medium instruction at pre-tertiary level.

The present study aims at helping second-year English-majored students at Thang Long University improve their listening comprehension ability. Therefore, it is an attempt to investigate the effects of dictogloss, a new technique to teach listening, on students’ listening comprehension. The thesis reports the characteristics of dictogloss activity, how the participants’ comprehension is impacted through the implementation of the tasks and the students’ responses when facing dictogloss tasks. The study was conducted in Thang Long University, with 48 students in their semester 5, who were exposed to dictogloss tasks in 10 weeks. Data were collected through pre-, middle- and post-test, students’ reconstruction notes and questionnaire. The analysis of the data reveals that dictogloss tasks helps participants have better comprehension of the information heard, and students express positive attitudes towards listening learning with dictogloss activity.

This chapter, analyzes the evolution and spatial distribution of the Hungarian linguistic community, the language proficiency, linguistic attitudes, and patterns of language usage of Hungarians in Romania. Furthermore, it assesses the language rights codified in Romania and their implementation, also providing a brief comparative analysis of Romania’ linguistic policies compared to that of 16 other Central and Eastern European countries. The chapter argues that the institutionally sustained power asymmetries between the ethnic majority and minority have a crucial role in shaping everyday linguistic practices. Due to the powerful linguistic ideology—emphasizing the primacy of the Romanian language—proclaimed by the Romanian state and shared by an overwhelming majority of Romanians, settings characterized by a balanced and reciprocal language use have become scarce in Transylvania.

Abstract: Recently, the result of previous studies on the issue of acquiring target language, using different strategies,
based on the different individuals inspired many scholars and linguists; and has mushroomed over the last decade
since some very valuable studies have been conducted. Additionally, achieving foreign or second language, unlike mother
tongue, is very difficult and needs different techniques to be taken in to consideration for a better result. In this regard, the
present article aspires at accenting the importance of language learning strategies and highlights the consequence of
different learners in achieving target language. It summarizes the concept by giving a brief definition from different point
of views; in which first it was believed that it belonged to behaviourist theories, but later it was combined to psychology of
different individuals. Later, in another section, various types of strategies were outlined that was proposed by several
researchers. Moreover, whether to teach less successful learners successful LLS or teach various types of strategies to every
kind of learners were also discussed by different writers` point of views on choosing an appropriate strategy for a particular
student. Finally, each of motivation, self-efficiency, proficiency level, meta-cognitive awareness, gender differences,
learning style, types of strategy training and anxiety have been discussed on teaching LLS. Furthermore, some types of
activities were given to make easier for individuals to practice their target/second language and acquire the assigned
language easily.

Language samples from matched groups of 80 autistic, mentally handicapped, and normally developing children were coded for the presence of neologisms and~or idiosyncratic language use. Cognitive, socia~ or linguistic factors that might account for these errors were identified and assessed. More autistic subjects used neologisms and idiosyncratic language than age-and language skill-matched control groups. No single factor or combination of factors was responsible for this difference. Across diagnostic groups, similar patterns of error were noted, except that the autistic subjects were more likely to use words inappropriately that had no phonological or semantic similarity to the intended English word. For the autistic groups, the frequency of idiosyncratic language increased with language complexity. In contrast, such errors decreased with language skill in the mentally handicapped group. Theoretical implications for determining the nature and source of the language disorder associated with autism are discussed

This paper draws on theories that describe interrelationships between identity, language and the media to investigate how the Kurds utilise two forms of electronic media—satellite television and the Internet—to construct their identities. The data for this study is generated from four sources: a Kurdish satellite television channel (Kurdistan TV), a variety of Kurdish Internet sites, literature reflecting on the place of the new media among the Kurds, and informal interviews and personal communications with Kurdish media producers and audiences. Strategies including participant observation and online ethnography have been used to select data. Data analysis is informed by a critical discourse analytic approach that calls for examination of data at three levels: discourse practices, text, and socio-cultural contexts (Fairclough in Media discourse. Arnold, London, 1995). Findings suggest that the Kurdish language is held as one of the most important and salient manifestations of Kurdish identity. Satellite television and the Internet have magnified the symbolic role of the Kurdish language in defining Kurdishness. In addition, these new media have enabled Kurds from different regions and all walks of life to share and discuss cultural, social and political ideas and issues publicly and dialogically, and to construct and reconstruct their identities discursively with relative freedom and ease. The study also underlines significant differences between these two forms of new media in relation to identity construction and language use. Whereas satellite television seems to foster mutual intelligibility among the speakers of different Kurdish varieties the Internet tends to further diversify the language across alphabet and regional lines.

Considering that social media is increasingly present in our daily communicative exchanges, digital presence is an essential component of language revitalization and maintenance. Online communication has modified our language use in various ways. In fact, language use online is often described as hybrid, and boundaries across languages tend to blur. These are also
characteristics of translanguaging approaches, which see language as fluid codes of communication. “Breathing spaces” are needed in order to achieve “sustainable translanguaging” practices for minority languages. The establishment of communities of performing minority language speakers in a digital environment raises the question whether these emerging virtual communities can take up the role of breathing spaces for minority languages.

... oder maa baba o lekha pora interested naa oder chele meye raa o pora lekha inter-ested naa. oraa baidhitamolok schoole jete hoe primary schoole sholo bochor porjonto jete hoe, ei jonne schoole jaai. <what will the public contribute? ...