Groundwater Management

In developing countries, the rapid urbanization in the second half of the twentieth century provoked radical changes in the cities with serious water related problems, such as freshwater scarcity, sewage and drainage problems. This growth produced several impacts on groundwater resources such as land impermeabilization and change in groundwater recharge, excessive exploitation and groundwater pollution. These facts have demanded better planning and management, especially in areas with high dense population. In Brazil, water legislation has been approved by parliament, a water agency has been created and technical knowledge of water resources has improved. Management strategies incorporated several issues: planning, legislation, zoning, licensing, concession and controlling. Monitoring, hydrochemical analyses and groundwater modeling have been performed to obtain more information for better management towards sustainability.

In southwestern Australia, karst features occur in geological formations other than the coastal calcarenites of the Tamala Limestone. The Noondine Chert was formed by the silicification of carbonate rocks and contains relict carbonate textures and palaeokarst features such as intense brecciation and the presence of subsurface voids. This geological formation is an important aquifer to the east of the Perth Basin where groundwater resources are otherwise limited, and the aquifer is highly vulnerable to contamination from agricultural land use. The Noondine Chert may also contain a rich stygofauna. This has not been taken into account in groundwater protection policies, and needs to be assessed as a matter of urgency. Karst in southwestern Australia is usually thought to be exclusively associated with variably lithified Quaternary calcarenites of the Tamala Limestone that are distributed near the coast between near Shark Bay and the south coast of Western Australia. Although the Tamal...

Groundwater chemistry and isotopic data from 40 production wells in the Atemajac and Toluquilla valleys, located in and around the Guadalajara metropolitan area, were determined to develop a conceptual model of groundwater flow processes and mixing. Stable water isotopes (δ 2 H, δ 18 O) were used to trace hydrological processes and tritium (3 H) to evaluate the relative contribution of modern water in samples. Multivariate analysis including cluster analysis and principal component analysis were used to elucidate distribution patterns of constituents and factors controlling groundwater chemistry. Based on this analysis, groundwater was classified into four groups: cold groundwater, hydrothermal groundwater, polluted groundwater and mixed groundwater. Cold groundwater is characterized by low temperature, salinity, and Cl and Na concentrations and is predominantly of Na-HCO 3-type. It originates as recharge at "La Primavera" caldera and is found predominantly in wells in the upper Atemajac Valley. Hydrothermal groundwater is characterized by high salinity, temperature, Cl, Na and HCO 3 , and the presence of minor elements such as Li, Mn and F. It is a mixed-HCO 3 type found in wells from Toluquilla Valley and represents regional flow circulation through basaltic and andesitic rocks. Polluted groundwater is characterized by elevated nitrate and sulfate concentrations and is usually derived from urban water cycling and subordinately from agricultural return flow. Mixed groundwaters between cold and hydrothermal components are predominantly found in the lower Atemajac Valley. Twenty-seven groundwater samples contain at least a small fraction of modern water. The application of a multivariate mixing model allowed the mixing proportions of hydrothermal fluids, polluted waters and cold groundwater in sampled water to be evaluated. This study will help local water authorities to identify and dimension groundwater contamination, and act accordingly. It may be broadly applicable to other active volcanic systems on Earth.

National Capital Territory of Delhi occupies an area of 1483 sq.km. with the population density of 9344 persons/sq.km. The projected population for year 2009 works out to be 176 lakhs and total water requirement for drinking and domestic purposes, 927 million gallons per day ( ...

While modern Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software is robust in handling maps and data in plan view, the software generally falls short when representing features in section view. Further complicating the issue is the fact that geologic cross sections are often drawn by connecting a series of wells together that do not fall along a single straight line. In this case, the x-axis of the cross section represents the distance along the set of individual lines connecting the series of wells, effectively ''flattening out'' the cross section along this path to create a view of the subsurface with which geologists often work in printed folios. Even 3D-enabled GIS cannot handle this type of cross section. A GIS data model and tools for creating and working with two-dimensional cross sections are presented. The data model and tools create a framework that can be applied using ESRI's ArcGIS software, enabling users to create, edit, manage, and print two-dimensional cross sections from within one of the most wellknown GIS software packages. The data model is a component of the arc hydro groundwater data model, which means all two-dimensional cross sections are inherently linked to other features in the hydrogeologic domain, including those represented by xyz coordinates in real world space. Thus, the creation of two-dimensional cross sections can be guided by or completely driven from standard GIS data, and geologic interpretations established on two-dimensional cross sections can be translated back to real world coordinates to create three-dimensional features such as fence diagrams, giving GIS users the capacity to characterize the subsurface environment in a variety of integrated views that was not possible before. A case study for the Sacramento Regional Model in California demonstrates the application of the methodology in support of a regional groundwater management plan.

Groundwater over-exploitation has been on the rise in Jordan. Competing demands have grown in the face of perennial water shortages, a situation which has been exacerbated by drought conditions in the past decade. This paper reports findings of a project in which management options to address over-exploitation were developed for one of Jordan's principal aquifer systems, the Amman-Zarqa Basin. Options for addressing the situation were developed through a participatory approach that involved government officials and various public and private sector interest groups. Particular efforts were made to involve well irrigators, who are likely to be heavily impacted by the changes required to reduce groundwater pumping to a sustainable level. With information obtained from a rapid appraisal survey as well as from interviews with farmers, community groups, government officials, and technical experts, an extensive set

Perkembangan di sektor industri dan sektor pemukiman yang berada di wilayah CAT Yogyakarta-Sleman berkembang dengan pesat dalam beberapa tahun terakhir ini. Beriringan dengan hal tersebut, maka kebutuhan air bersih terutama yang berasal dari air tanah juga mengalami peningkatan, sedangkan muka air tanah tiap tahunnya mengalami penurunan. Dalam upaya konservasi air tanah perlu dilakukan pemantauan terhadap perubahan muka dan mutu air tanah melalui sumur pantau. Jaringan sumur pantau dalam satu cekungan air tanah perlu ditentukan dalam rangka mengetahui perubahan kondisi dan lingkungan air tanah pada cekungan airtanah tersebut.
Maksud dari penelitian ini adalah menentukan parameter-parameter yang digunakan untuk penilaian risiko lingkungan air tanah terhadap perubahan muka air tanah akibat pemompaan. Sedangkan tujuannya adalah (a) menganalisis nilai parameter-parameter yang digunakan, serta (b) menentukan Jaringan Lokasi Sumur Pantau Berdasarkan Penilaian Risiko Lingkungan Air Tanah Terhadap Pemompaan.
Metode yang digunakan untuk penentuan lokasi jaringan sumur pantau ini adalah dengan memperhatikan aspek teknis pengelolaan air tanah yang dapat didekati dengan aplikasi kerentanan air tanah terhadap pengambilan air tanah. Dengan teknik penampalan, peta kerentanan air tanah tersebut dengan peta tata guna lahan dan peta pola ruang (RT/RW) akan menghasilkan peta risiko lingkungan air tanah. Berdasarkan peta risiko tersebut, ditentukan jaringan sumur pantau untuk pemompaan air tanah. Pada daerah penelitian, zona risiko tinggi terhadap pemompaan airtanah hampir di seluruh daerah, kecuali daerah Ngemplak, Kalasan, Berbah, dan Sewon memiliki zona risiko sedang. Penentuan lokasi sumur pantau primer ditujukan untuk pemantauan kondisi alamiah air tanah di dalam cekungan, yaitu ditempatkan pada zona imbuhan air tanah, zona transisi dan zona lepasan air tanah. Sedangkan penentuan lokasi sumur pantau sekunder ditentukan pada daerah resiko tinggi dengan berbagai ekosistem atau tataguna lahan yang berbeda.

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a participatory planning and implementation process which provides the opportunity to meet society's long-term needs for water while maintaining essential ecological services and economic benefits. It is the process of balancing the demand for water with the constraints of the resource by promoting sustainable development, protecting the environment and fostering economic growth. Groundwater is an integral part of the IWRM.

One approach for utilizing geoscience models for management or policy analysis is via a simulationbased optimization framework-where an underlying model is linked with an optimization search algorithm. In this regard, MATLAB and Python are high-level programming languages that implement numerous optimization routines, including gradient-based, heuristic, and direct-search optimizers. The ever-expanding number of available algorithms makes it challenging for practitioners to identify optimizers that deliver good performance when applied to problems of interest. Thus, the primary contribution of this paper is to present a series of numerical experiments that investigated the performance of various MATLAB and Python optimizers. The experiments considered two simulationbased optimization case studies involving groundwater flow and contaminant transport. One case study examined the design of a pump-and-treat system for groundwater remediation, while the other considered least-squares calibration of a model of strontium (Sr) transport. Using these case studies, the performance of 12 different MATLAB and Python optimizers was compared. Overall, the Hooke-Jeeves direct search algorithm yielded the best performance in terms of identifying least-cost and best-fit solutions to the design and calibration problems, respectively. The IFFCO (implicit filtering for constrained optimization) direct search algorithm and the dynamically dimensioned search (DDS) heuristic algorithm also consistently yielded good performance and were up to 80% more efficient than Hooke-Jeeves when applied to the pump-and-treat problem. These results provide empirical evidence that, relative to gradient-and population-based alternatives, direct search algorithms and heuristic variants, such as DDS, are good choices for application to simulation-based optimization problems involving groundwater management.

The aim of this study is to elaborate a synthetic document for the assessment of groundwater vulnerability to pollution in the Hajeb-Jelma aquifer. The specific object is to incorporate the Geographical Information System (GIS) to generate groundwater vulnerability and risk maps with DRASTIC model. Indeed, GIS could help to make the results of a complicated model more clear through visual representation, providing an applicable tool for decision makers. The vulnerability map of Hajeb-Jelma watershed shows three classes: moderate, high and very high depending on the intrinsic properties. The risk map shows a very high risk dependant on hydrogeological characteristics, land use and human impacts in major part of the Hajeb-Jelma region. These maps could serve as a scientific basis for sustainable land use planning and groundwater management in the Hajeb-Jelma region.

The coastal regions, particularly deltaic regions, are the most developed and most densely populated regions all over the world. These regions are facing many hydrological problems both due to natural conditions and man's activities. The problems due to natural conditions range from flooding due to cyclones and wave surge to drinking fresh water scarcity due to problem of sea water intrusion. Man's activities compound these problems further. Sea water intrusion is one of the severe problems faced by coastal regions. Natural conditions and man's activities both contribute to this problem. There exists an urgent need to study systematically the causes and remedial measures for sea water intrusion problem in coastal areas. This article presents the hydrological aspects, control measures and modelling of sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers.

ABSTRAK Wilayah pesisir Kabupaten Jepara mengalami perkembangan yang cukup pesat dan telah menunjukkan adanya tanda-tanda dampak negatif dari pemanfaatan air tanah, yaitu berupa masuknya air asin ke akuifer di daratan. Maksud dari penelitian ini adalah menentukan parameter-parameter penentu intrusi air laut di wilayah pesisir Jepara. Sedangkan tujuannya adalah menganalisis nilai parameter-parameter untuk menentukan genesa air tanah payau/asin, serta menentukan tingkat intrusi air laut. Berdasarkan pertimbangan kajian lapangan berupa data geologi, geomorfologi, hidrogeologi, pola aliran air tanah, nilai daya hantar listrik, jumlah garam terlarut, dan derajat keasaman, maka ditentukan 30 titik lokasi sampel air tanah. Analisis laboratorium terhadap sampel air tanah untuk mengidentifikasi beberapa faktor, yaitu Klasifikasi Sifat Air Berdasarkan Nilai Daya Hantar Listrik, Perbandingan Ca/Mg dan Ca/(HCO3 + SO4), Nilai BEX, Diagram Trilinear Piper, Konsentrasi Cl vs. Nilai DHL, dan Perbandingan Cl/Br vs Konsentrasi Cl. Berdasarkan setiap parameter yang di analisis, dapat dikategorikan, bahwa terdapat tiga kategori sifat air tanah, yaitu sampel yang diduga kuat terintrusi air laut, sampel yang merupakan air tanah tawar atau tidak ada pengaruh intrusi air laut, dan sampel yang merupakan percampuran antara keduanya. Kata kunci : Intrusi Air Laut, Geokimia Air Tanah, Pesisir Jepara 1. Pendahuluan Wilayah Jepara yang termasuk berada di pesisir pantai menjadi salah satu kekhawatiran adanya potensi intrusi air laut, ditambah dengan perkembangan pesat wilayah tersebut sebagai daerah pemukiman dan telah berkembang sebagai daerah industri nasional bahkan internasional. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, maka kebutuhan air tanah akan semakin tidak terkendali sehingga menimbulkan dampak negatif terhadap sumberdaya air tanah dan lingkungannya, khususnya masuknya air asin ke akuifer di daratan. Dalam upaya konservasi air tanah, perlu dilakukan analisa intrusi air laut dalam rangka mengetahui kondisi dan lingkungan air tanah pada daerah tersebut. 2. Tujuan Maksud dari penelitian ini adalah menentukan parameter-parameter intrusi air laut di wilayah pesisir Jepara. Sedangkan tujuannya adalah menganalisis nilai parameter-parameter yang digunakan, serta menentukan tingkat intrusi air laut berdasarkan parameter tersebut.

The available literature was used in this work to review the methodologies for groundwater vulnerability
mapping. The objective of the literature review was to define the vulnerability concept and to discuss the
best way to establish aquifer vulnerability maps and the utilities of these maps for groundwater protection.
In this study, we explore the hydrodynamic properties of the Grombalia aquifer system in north
Tunisia to evaluate the vulnerability of groundwater. The established vulnerability maps are used for
groundwater managing and protection. In Grombalia basin, the groundwater resource is used for agriculture
and drinking purposes. The intrinsic vulnerability of the phreatic aquifer of Grombalia is mapped
using the standard DRASTIC, a modified DRASTIC and a DRIST model. The adopted methodology for
the intrinsic vulnerability mapping is based on the hydrogeological system properties. The vulnerability
index calculation was used to establish a map with areas of vulnerability degree. This method is based on
the combination of various topographical, lithological and hydrogeological data using Geobased
Information System software. These methods consider the attribution of a numeric index to each considered
parameter. In the established map, 26% of the aquifer extension is vulnerable according to standard
DRASTIC model. The modified DRASTIC method, which considers the vadose zone heterogeneity and the
aquifer geometry, showed that 17% of the studied area is occupied by a high vulnerability. The application
of the DRIST model showed a high vulnerability in area covering 66% of the extension of the shallow aquifer
of Grombalia. This important vulnerability is due mainly to vertical parameters implicated in the infiltration
of the pollutant. The established vulnerability maps provide recommendations for groundwater
resource protection in the aquifer system of Grombalia. We conclude that the three used models for vulnerability
assessment and mapping reveal the susceptibility of the aquifer system to the special effects of
pollutants.

Di Indonesia kebutuhan air bersih bagi masyarakat setiap tahun selalu meningkat sesuai dengan dinamika pembangunan baik peruntukannya sebagai air minum dan rumah tangga, industri, pertanian maupun menunjang usaha komersial lainnya. Sumbersumber alternatif untuk memenuhi kebutuhan air bersih adalah air hujan, air sungai, dan airtanah. Airtanah biasanya menjadi pilihan utama untuk memenuhi kebutuhan air bersih, hal ini disebabkan karena airtanah mempunyai kualitas yang lebih baik, mudah dieksploitasi, tidak perlu pengolahan dan dapat digunakan langsung di daerah yang memerlukan. Dengan berbagai keuntungan dan anggapan airtanah sebagai common property, airtanah dipergunakan tanpa pengelolaan dan perlindungan yang memadai, sebagai akibatnya terjadi degradasi kualitas dan kuantitas air tanah di berbagai tempat.

Numerical modeling of flow and solute transport has received increased attention during the last three decades. Groundwater models can offer the most accurate representation, characterization, and prediction of hydrogeologic processes. This chapter discusses (i) principles and concepts used, (ii) groundwater model classification (general view), (iii) solute transport model applications, (iv) hydrogeochemical processes, (v) governing equation, (vi) the guide for the development of coupled flow and solute transport numerical models, (vii) the applicability of various kinds of models to simulate fate and transport, (viii) inverse modeling, and (ix) approaches for modeling groundwater contamination (specific view). In summary, the major findings in this study are that groundwater models should consider a series of hypothesizes, assumptions, constraints, and simplifications based on the model objective, modeling techniques, model reliability, solution complexity, data availability, and characteristics of the modeled area. However, among groundwater models, numerical models provide a more comprehensive vision of the groundwater systems under complicated conditions. The magnitude of the movement, storage, and change in the solute concentration are mainly controlled by the groundwater flow velocity. Hence, an accurate definition of the flow system is of great significance. Another problem is that the advection-dispersion equation suffers from several conceptual limitations,

Airtanah yang ada di wilayah-wilayah Kab. Sleman, Kota Yogyakarta dan Kab. Bantul dikontrol oleh sistem hidrologi, geologi dan hidrogeologi yang berhulu pada lereng selatan bagian atas G. Merapi. Keberadaan hutan dan daerah-daerah tangkapan air hujan di kawasan ini merupakan suatu sistem penyedia airtanah (Groundwater Recharge Area) bagi daerah-daerah yang berada di bawahnya (Groundwater Discharge Area), yang secara hidrogeologis daerah tersebut termasuk di dalam sistem Cekungan Airtanah Yogyakarta-Sleman. Kawasan lereng selatan G. Merapi yang meliputi wilayah Kab. Sleman, Kota Yogyakarta dan Kab. Bantul tersebut saat ini telah berkembang menjadi daerah permukiman dan berbagai kegiatan ekonomi yang padat. Degradasi sumberdaya airtanah telah terjadi baik kuantitas maupun kualitasnya, dan hal tersebut akan bertambah besar dampaknya apabila penggunaannya tidak dikendalikan dan tidak dikelola dengan baik, yang pelaksanaannya perlu melibatkan barbagai pemangku kepentingan. Untuk mengurangi dan meminimalisir dapak negatif dari pemanfaatan airtanah yang tidak terkendali tersebut perlu dilaksanakan Pengelolaan Airtanah secara bijaksana dan nyata, yaitu dengan mengkaji parameter-parameter utama penentu terciptanya sumberdaya air tanah yang berkelanjutan, sehingga akhirnya dapat dipakai sebagai acuan dan dasar pelaksanaan program-program maupun kebijakan pengelolaan airtanah di CAT Yogyakarta – Sleman. Kata Kunci : CAT Yogyakarta-Sleman, Pengelolaan Air Tanah, Potensi dan Pemanfaatan Air tanah

A groundwater model is any computational method that represents an approximation of an underground water system. While groundwater models are, by definition, a simplification of a more complex reality, they have proven to be useful tools over several decades for addressing a range of groundwater problems and supporting the decision-making process. There are many different ground-water modelling codes available, each with their own capabilities, operational characteristics, and limitations. If modelling is considered for a project, it is important to determine if a particular code is appropriate for that project, or if a code exists that can perform the simulations required in the project. This article presents an overview of most commonly used groundwater modelling codes.

Groundwater refers to any water below the surface of the earth's crust, it is an integral part of the water cycle and it interacts directly with the water present on the earth's surface. It is very essential to animal and plant life but at the same time it presents a great threat when concerned with the stability of civil construction buildings. When near surface level groundwater is present on a building site there is the potential for construction activity to affect it or for the groundwater to pose a hazard to any new buildings. To reduce the risk to buildings from groundwater, subsoil drainage of a site may be necessary to protect against penetration of groundwater through a building and damage to the building. The drainage of groundwater is also necessary in other to increase the stability of the ground and avoid surface flooding. This study was carried out randomly and the method of data analysis as well as the results of the obtained data analysed has been study has been shown in a comprehensive manner using statistical packages of tables, figures and percentile for easy understanding and the concluding chapters were based on the proposed objectives of this study. All buildings analysed had in one way or the other experienced the impact of groundwater: water saturated walls, deep cracks in walls and discoloration on walls. Groundwater has also caused wall plastering and paint film to flake off. This project found the enactment of some construction alternatives to control groundwater effect by the use of damp proof membrane, introduction of drain pipes and filling the ground with aggregates.

Airtanah adalah air yang terdapat di bawah permukaan tanah pada lapisan batuan yang jenuh air, yang disebut sebagai akuifer. Airtanah dapat muncul ke permukaan tanah dengan berbagai cara yang umumnya dikontrol oleh kondisi geologi setempat, dan pemunculan airtanah ini disebut sebagai mata air. Sejak jaman dahulu, mata air telah dimanfaatkan oleh manusia sebagai sumber air untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya. Mata air dapat muncul di berbagai bentang alam, baik di dataran, perbukitan maupun pegunungan. Airtanah maupun mata air dapat ditemukan di berbagai macam batuan, seperti endapan sungai yang berupa pasir-kerikil-kerakal, endapan batuan karbonat yang berupa batugamping, ataupun pada endapan gunungapi yang berupa endapan lahar, breksi dan lava terkekarkan.

The project aimed at studying 5 main aspects related to agro-well farming.  They were: (a) testing and validation of the groundwater estimation model; (b) resource utilization pattern in agro-well farming; (c) improvement of water management practices; (d) identification of suitable cropping patterns; and (e) salinity status of water under different farming situations including agro-well water.  The project was implemented in 1994 and various surveys, field trials, monitoring programmes etc. were carried out during a period of 4 years.
Groundwater level observation indicated that water table fluctuation is high in locations closer to the tank and responds more to rainfall.  The fluctuation decreases as the distance from tank increases, therefore, more stable water source can be expected in further downstream areas.  The groundwater availability prediction (GAP) model could estimate the water level with an average absolute deviation of 0.6 m during a period of 5 years.  The mean error percentage of the model was + 11.6 percent.
In chilli cultivation under agro-wells, farmers spend 30 Rs. to produce one kg of chilli in any season.  Cost of chilli cultivation is 56,000 Rs/ha and 104,000 Rs/ha in maha and yala season respectively when family labour is not considered.  Farmers can obtain 50 - 65 Rs. for producing one kg of chilli.  The return to labour is about 180 Rs/day and return to capital is 2.25 - 3.25 Rs/Rs in chilli cultivation.
In B'onion cultivation the investment for producing one kg is about 7 Rs, therefore, farmers get net profit of 10 Rs/kg if family labour is excluded from the cost.  Return to labour from B'onion cultivation is as same as in chilli cultivation (180 Rs/day) and return to capital is about 2.50 Rs/Rs.  However, the net-return from chilli cultivation is higher (40,000 Rs/ha) than that from B'onion cultivation (27,000 Rs/ha).
Mulching  studies showed that the gliricidia and rice straw mulch when applied at the rate of 8 t/ha (dry weight) could lead to increase the yield of chilli by 50 percent and water use efficiency by 68 percent.  Studies carried out with B'onion suggest that mulching the field would not bring much benefits to B'onion cultivators.
Studies carried out with irrigation intervals showed that extending the irrigation interval from 3 to 10 days does not affect the chilli yield.  When raised beds and flat beds were compared in chilli cultivation, it was found that yield was 16 percent higher and water use efficiency has increased by 21 percent in raised beds compared to flat beds.
The main problems faced by farmers in upgrading their cropping systems under agro-wells are inadequacy of water, capital constraints, marketing constraints and problems related to soil and water.  Profits can be increased by making necessary adjustments in the planting periods according to price fluctuation.  However, market demand for vegetable is not very large, therefore, coordinating pola markets with large marketing centres such as Dambulla is essential.
Three cropping patterns were tested in the study.  The pattern I was designed for resource rich farmers including high income vegetables and cash crops such as Beet, Capsicum, Bittergourd, B'onion, Chilli, Brinjal etc.  A farmer can get an annual net-return of 214,000 Rs/ha from this cropping pattern.  The pattern 2 was designed for medium level farmers including locally adopted crops such as Bittergourd, Okra, Thibbatu, Maize, Chilli, Brinjal, Banana etc.  The annual net-return of this pattern is about 127,000 Rs/ha.  Pattern 3 was planned for paddy fields including vegetables and cash crops for yala season.  This generates a net-return of about 80,000 Rs/ha annually.  These patterns 1, 2 and 3 provide 275, 125, 40 percent higher net-returns respectively compared to average net-return of other agro-well farmers.
Agro-well water in rainfed and tank village areas in the dry zone is high in salinity in most cases but such water in major irrigation areas is medium in salinity and almost comparable with tank and river water.  Therefore, agro-well water in major irrigation areas can be used for crop irrigation purpose.  However, in the case of rainfed and tank village areas, water salinity aspects should be taken into consideration as agro-wells contain high salinity water in most cases further, spatial variation in groundwater salinity is high in rainfed and tank village areas possibly be due to presence of salt accumulations and salt deposits in soil.  It shows that construction of agro-wells in avoiding areas having such salt accumulations and salt deposits helps to mitigate water salinity problems.  In addition, sodium dominates in agro-well water in rainfed and tank village areas.  This aspect should also be taken into consideration while using such sodium rich water for crop irrigation purpose.
Further, development of cropping system in order to maximum utilization of local rainfall and minimum use of groundwater would be helpful to avoid accumulation of salts in farming soils.  In addition, inclusion of salt tolerant crops into cropping systems in salt affected areas would be useful to maintain crop productivity at satisfactory levels.  If sodium dominates in agro-well water, sodium hazards may appear in soil.  In such cases, crop irrigation to meet leaching requirements in yala and fully utilization of local rain water for crop cultivation in maha are some possible strategies to avoid development of such problems.  If the soil is adversely contaminated with sodium, excess sodium should be replaced with calcium by applying a suitable calcium source into soil.

I. Konsumsi Air Konsumsi makhluk hidup dalam hal apapun tidak bisa dilepaskan kaitannya dengan penggunaan air, semua aktivitas yang dilakukan oleh makhluk hidup akan membutuhkan eksistensi dari sumber daya air, baik secara langsung ataupun tidak langsung. Mulai dari aktivitas pertanian, industri, rumah tangga, lingkungan, ekologi, dan sebagainya sangat membutuhkan keberadaan air. Selama ini, ketersediaan air yang melimpah dan minimnya fenomena kekurangan air di permukaan bumi membuat setiap manusia memiliki anggapan atau pola pikir bahwa air adalah sumber daya yang akan selalu ada, dan sampai kapanpun kebutuhan terhadap air akan selalu terpenuhi. Anggapan ini pada awalnya memang benar, hanya saja seiring berjalannya waktu, dimana pertumbuhan populasi yang begitu cepat sehingga berakibat pada kebutuhan akan air yang semakin meningkat, lalu aktivitas pencemaran terhadap sumber daya air pun semakin tinggi, menyebabkan berkurangnya persediaan air bersih yang ada di bumi. Fakta ini seharusnya jelas akan mengubah anggapan makhluk hidup khususnya manusia mengenai persediaan air yang tidak terbatas. Namun nyatanya sulit sekali mengubah anggapan tersebut, dan manusia masih tetap saja menggunakan air secara tidak bijak. Kesalahpahaman manusia ini bisa terselesaikan dan mendapatkan solusi yang tepat jika saja manusia mengetahui seberapa besar jumlah air yang mereka konsumsi sehari-hari. Konsumsi manusia terhadap air sendiri terbagi menjadi dua bagian yaitu konsumsi terhadap air yang terlihat dan konsumsi terhadap air yang tidak terlihat. Berikut ini adalah masing-masing penjelasannya.

Providing efficient and effective methodologies and technologies for sustainable groundwater resources development and management are the vision of Ground Water Hydrology division of National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India. Some of the emerging areas in the field of groundwater hydrology needing inputs to modern science include groundwater storage and resource estimation; groundwater modelling and management; coastal aquifer dynamics; surface water and groundwater interaction; hard-rock and karst hydrology; groundwater sustainability on supply and demand, groundwater protection against contaminants, and impact of environmental changes on groundwater resources. Keeping in view of these thrust areas, the Ground Water Hydrology division is pursuing the basic and applied research pertaining to various aspects of groundwater hydrology such as, aquifer parameter estimation; aquifer responses due to untoward stresses; groundwater assessment, modelling and management; coastal groundwater dynamics; contaminant transport modelling; managed aquifer recharge; bank filtration; and impact of climate change on groundwater resources. This document provides details of groundwater studies and projects completed by Ground Water Hydrology division of National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee (India) since 2007.

The present report deals with the issue of Sustainable Groundwater Resources Management in ACSAD member countries.
Since the renewable water resources in many ACSAD member countries are very scarce, the sustainable management of these resources with regard to quantity and quality is a task of prime importance.
The agricultural development in most of these countries started in the early 1970s and nowadays an increasingly large share of the renewable water resources is being used for irrigation. Water demand has risen sharply, not only for agricultural but also for industrial and domestic uses. In many countries where surface water resources are scarce by nature, increasing amounts of groundwater are mobilized to suffice these needs, often accepting an overdraft of the renewable groundwater resources. This has resulted in strong declines of the water levels over vast areas. These effects, however, are mostly observed only several years after abstraction started, provided that sufficient monitoring is carried out. Often this may be the result of an overestimation of the long-term available renewable groundwater resources. The possible negative effects of such overexploitation encompass: the depletion of the resource and the deterioration of water quality, for instance as a result of saltwater or brackish water intrusion, of the influx of chemical substances or of hydrochemical processes in the aquifer due to the changed environmental conditions (redox, pH, etc.). Declining water levels may result in increased abstraction costs because wells have to be deepened or relocated frequently.
Additional, non-conventional water resources may be made available for certain uses and the available water resources may be used more efficiently by applying certain techniques, such as rainwater harvesting, artificial groundwater recharge, reduction of leakage losses in the supply and the sewerage network, increasing irrigation efficiency, reuse of treated wastewater, use of desalinated water, etc. Also the demand may be reduced by applying water saving techniques in the domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors.
The increased agricultural land use brought about a deterioration of groundwater qualities in many areas through the application of fertilizers and pesticides. This is noticed chiefly by the increasing salinities caused by irrigation return flows, but also by continuous increases in the nitrate and total dissolved solids (TDS) contents in groundwaters downstream of extensively cultivated areas.
Groundwater quality is also largely affected by other land uses, such as industrial sites, oil storage/filling facilities, sewage effluents (treated and untreated sewage), waste disposal sites (legal/illegal), etc. This is noticed especially in urban and heavily industrialized areas.
Groundwater pumping can result in reduced river flows, lower lake levels, and reduced discharges to wetlands and springs, causing concerns about drinking water supplies, riparian areas, and critical aquatic habitats.
In order to manage the water resources effectively concerning quantity and quality, National Water Policies need to be established and implemented.  A National Policy on Water Resources Management has to look at issues of water demand management (irrigation, industrial and domestic), water treatment, water reuse, water pricing, and of an integrated resource management (integrated use of surface and groundwater) whereas a National Policy on Water Quality Conservation would cover aspects of water resources conservation, protection and reclamation. An integration of all aspects pertaining to water quality and quantity into land use planning needs to be attained, in order to ensure acceptance of certain decisions (e.g. water tariffs, licensing of abstraction rights, water protection zones, etc.) and to create awareness among others about the existing hydrological and hydrogeological conditions and problems.
As surface-water resources become fully developed, groundwater commonly offers the only available source for new development. Therefore Policies for Groundwater Resources Management are very important. 
The aim of this report is to help the adoption of such National Policies and to facilitate the discussion about the long-term strategies and the required measures to avoid the depletion and pollution of the groundwater resources.
To provide an effective protection of the groundwater resources, it is important to convince the land use planning authorities to take the issue of groundwater protection into consideration when deciding about locations and conditions for the establishment of facilities and activities which are possibly hazardous to groundwater, such as waste disposal sites, sewage treatment plants and sewer mains, industrial and commercial estates, storage facilities for oil products and toxic hazardous substances, etc. By locating such sites in areas where contamination cannot occur, deterioration of groundwater resources can be actively avoided.

In case numerical solute transport modeling, the flow field may not be uniform, and especially under various stresses applied to an aquifer (such as extraction wells, injection wells, drain, etc.), the flow field may potentially become significantly non-uniform. In order to conduct the solute transport in this flow field, the flow field needs to be determined first. This field can only be determined through a numerical ground water flow model. Therefore, before conducting a solute transport modeling study on a given subsurface flow system, first a groundwater flow modeling study needs to be carried out. As a result, in this literature review, the foundations of both and groundwater and solute transport modeling will be presented based on the finite-difference method.

Groundwater quality mapping is very essential to identify regions where groundwater is suitable for various uses. A study of the vulnerability of groundwater for pollution in a region is required as it will provide information for taking precautionary measures. Groundwater is being extensively used for domestic purposes in the region south of Chennai, India. The present study was carried out with the objective of preparing a groundwater quality map and vulnerability map of the south Chennai coastal aquifer. ...

The Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer is one of the most extensive and spectacular karst aquifer systems on the planet. This transboundary aquifer system extends over an area of approximately 165,000 km 2 in México, Guatemala and Belize. The Triassic to Holocene Yucatán limestone platform is located in the vicinity of the North American/Caribbean plate boundary and has been reshaped by a series of tectonic events over its long geologic history. At the end of the Cretaceous period, the Yucatán Peninsula was hit by a large asteroid, which formed the Chicxulub impact crater. The Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer hosts large amounts of groundwater resources which maintain highly diverse groundwater-dependent ecosystems. Large parts of the aquifer are affected by seawater intrusion. Anthropogenic pollution of the aquifer has been increasing over the past few decades, owing to relentless economic development and population growth on the Peninsula. This review summarizes the state of knowledge on the Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer and outlines the main challenges for hydrologic research and practical groundwater-resources management on the Peninsula.

Water is one of the most essential natural resources for sustaining life. Its development and management play a vital role in agriculture production. Integrated water management is vital for poverty reduction, environmental sustenance, and sustainable economic development. In view of the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the demand for water for meeting various requirements is continuously increasing. Therefore, we are facing numerous challenges in the water sector, which include reducing per capita water availability, the decline in groundwater table in many areas, and saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers. The quality of surface water and groundwater is also deteriorating because of increasing pollutant loads from various sources. Climate change may also adversely affect the availability and distribution of water resources. This article presents an overview of relevant issues pertaining to development and management of water resources in India.

Management priority of groundwater conservation zone is an effort to prevent the degradation of the quantity and quality of groundwater based on Groundwater Basin (GWB) Management concept, which can be used as a reference in the implementation of groundwater management program in Kulon Progo. The purpose of this study were (a) determine the configuration and aquifer system of GWB, (b) determine the boundary conditions of GWB laterally and vertically, (c) determining the values of the parameters used in determination of conservation zones, and (d) determining the management priority of groundwater conservation zones. The method used to determine the management priority of groundwater conservation zones by determining the value of parameter management priorities, namely: (a) availability and potential groundwater, (b) the position of the groundwater level, (c) the quality of groundwater, (d) environment of groundwater, (e) the availability of sources of water other than groundwater, (f) the priority use of groundwater, and (g) the importance of society and development. Then the weighting technique and overlaying of each parameter can be specified management priority of groundwater conservation zones in the study area. The research area has two groundwater basins, namely Wates GWB and Unassigned GWB. Hydrogeological of study area is a coastal aquifer system consisting of alluvial-beach subsystems with sand-clay lithology and some sand lenses, and then sand dunes subsystem with loose sand sediment lithology. Basement aquifer composed of Tertiary rocks are relatively impermeable. The type of main aquifer is a free-boundary aquifer with thickness increasing from north to south. Direction of groundwater flow relatively from north to south. Management priority of groundwater conservation zones in the study area is divided into four zones, namely Zone Priority I, I, III and IV.

Penentuan prioritas pengelolaan zona konservasi air tanah merupakan salah satu upaya untuk mencegah degradasi kuantitas dan kualitas air tanah yang didasarkan pada konsep Pengelolaan Cekungan Air Tanah (CAT), sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai acuan dalam pelaksanaan program pengelolaan air tanah di Kabupaten Kulon Progo. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah (a) mengetahui konfigurasi dan sistem akuifer CAT, (b) menentukan kondisi batas CAT secara lateral dan vertikal, (c) menentukan nilai dari parameter yang digunakan dalam penentuan zona konservasi, dan (d) menentukan prioritas pengelolaan zona konservasi air tanah. Metode yang digunakan untuk penentuan prioritas pengelolaan zona konservasi air tanah dengan menentukan nilai parameter prioritas pengelolaan, yaitu: (a) keterdapatan dan potensi air tanah, (b) kedudukan muka air tanah, (c) kualitas air tanah, (d) lingkungan air tanah, (e) ketersediaan sumber air selain air tanah, (f) prioritas pemanfaatan air tanah, serta (g) kepentingan masyarakat dan pembangunan.

In mining operations carried out below the water table, mine area could potentially affect the surrounding. With further deepening of the mine and quarry, the drawdown can impact on water supply wells and base flow. The variation in radius of influence under confined and unconfined aquifer condition is assessed using a hypothetical case study with three operational quarry sites. Average pit-wise radius of influence (R0) for the pit mine, under unconfined and confined aquifer conditions is 963 m and 61 km, respectively, whereas effective radius (Re) for total (cumulative) excavated mine area is 1.7 and 146 km, respectively. It means that the maximum and minimum value of overall impact/influence for the unconfined aquifer lies in-between 963 m and 1.7 km. Similarly that the maximum and minimum value of overall impact/influence for the confined aquifer lies in-between 61 and 146 km. Meanwhile, Re or effective radius for total (cumulative) excavated area seems more appropriate from evaluation viewpoint due to the overlapping (superposition) concentric mining quarries. Thus, assessment of quarry-wise and total radius of influence is of importance to fulfil targeted production, economically with minimum interruptions as part of the mine planning. Moreover, it helps us to assess, monitor and regulate the impact of a mine-dewatering program in the area. Also, the pumping test is often used to estimate radius of influence; it can trigger the inflow or radius of influence. Estimate of the radius of influence using analytical equation mainly independent of discharge/abstraction from the aquifer stands as a preferred choice for the prediction of radius of influence at the quarry/mine pit. There is a strong rationale that policies should be informed by such analytical assessment because it helps us to prevent or minimize negative impacts as part of regulation and pit-mining management and are useful tools for practitioners to design economically efficient and cost-effective in situ groundwater remediation systems, to contain contaminant plumes, to evaluate the surface–subsurface water interaction and to verify numerical models.

Agar kegiatan konservasi berjalan optimal dibutuhkan Peraturan Menteri (Permen) yang berfungsi sebagai pedoman dan panduan dalam pengelolaan airtanah khususnya pada kegiatan konservasi airtanah. Kegiatan penyusunan Permen ini berupa pembuatan naskah akademik dan sosialisasi khususnya mengenai konservasi airtanah. Permen tersebut diharapkan dapat dipahami oleh semua stakeholder mulai dari pemerintah, instansl terkait, pihak industri dan masyarakat, dan digunakan sebagai pedoman dalam pelaksanaan pengelolaan airtanah khususnya yeng berbasis konservasi.

Fresh groundwater resources in Egypt contribute to some 20% of the total potential of water resources in Egypt. The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) increasingly recognizes its importance in the overall water resources management. The need for a more comprehensive groundwater management approach has led to the establishment of the Groundwater Sector (GWS) in December 1999. The GWS is now the sole responsible governmental agency for management of all groundwater resources and related water resources. The mandate of the GWS is: formulating and implementing the general policy for developing and managing groundwater and related water resources (flash floods, rainwater harvesting and desalinated water) on the national, regional and sub-regional level. Desalination of brackish groundwater in Egypt has a great potential with respect to the availability of the resource. All major aquifer systems in Egypt contain vast quantities of brackish groundwater. The exploitation of this resource is still limited. With the current low price of brackish water desalination there is a growing interest towards its exploitation. Brackish water desalination plants in Egypt confirm the potential of this solution. Other uses for brackish groundwater that are being considered are agriculture (salt tolerant crops) and fisheries (shrimp farms). The elements of the vision for desalination of brackish groundwater are: environmental sustainability through recycling of water and re-infiltration; public-private partnerships for exploitation, especially in the tourism sector; private sector financing through accepted modalities (BOT, DBO, etc.). With the input of experience from the Netherlands through the GWS project a new program for desalination was started. This program aims to provide the necessary concepts and data on desalination of brackish groundwater in Egypt to allow the GWS to formulate a clear policy in this regard.

The occurrence and movement of groundwater are controlled by various hydrogeological, hydrological and climatological factors. Reasonably accurate assessment of groundwater recharge and discharge components is not easy because no direct measurement techniques are presently available. Therefore, indirect methods are generally employed for assessment of groundwater resources. Groundwater is a dynamic and replenishable resource which is normally estimated based upon the annual groundwater recharge. It is subjected to withdrawal for various uses such as irrigation, domestic, industrial etc. This article presents the norms for various groundwater recharge components for estimation of groundwater resources in India.