Formal Social Control

There is no SDM in clinical practice in Brazil. The first steps have been taken towards research and tool development recently. Likewise, our society is starting to get involved with decision making in health care. This paper aims to offer an overview of the Brazilian health system history, its values, and its influence on SDM. The participative social control concept is introduced as a result of the movement against the dictatorship era. In addition, the influence of social changes on the Medical Ethical Code is delineated. SDM state of the art in Brazil is also discussed and the challenges to implement it on clinical practice are described. Regardless the challenges, it is possible to make a positive assessment of SDM in Brazil.

The use of botanicals and dietary supplements derived from natural substances as an adjunct to an improved quality of life or for their purported medical benefits has become increasingly common in the United States. This review addresses the safety assessment ...

Gomez's account of the Dutch ex-perience is largely accurate and his analysis is searching, cogent, and per-suasive. Indeed, there are five ways in which it could have been even more so. First, his analysis of jurisprudential developments could have been deeper. He could, ...

to study mortality risk in a cohort of cannabis consumers. longitudinal study on a cohort of 2,511 subjects reported to the Drug Addiction Control Force (DACF) for cannabis possession for personal use between 1990 and 2004 residents in the metropolitan area of Bologna. to identify people already treated for drug dependence, the cohort was linked with the clinical archive of the public treatment centers for drug addiction (PTC) in the metropolitan area of Bologna and the results were separated into PTC clients (subjects in treatment at a PTC, all heroin users) and non-PTC clients (subjects not in treatment at a PTC, no knowledge regarding other illicit drugs being used besides cannabis). an excess of mortality was observed for all causes in the cohort compared to the general population, both among PTC clients (SMR 14.61 CI 95% 9.21-23.19) and non-clients (SMR 2.43 CI 95% 1.67-3.55). Among PTC clients the highest and most statistically significant SMRs were for overdose, suicide, and ...

What motivates a person's desire to punish actors who commit intentional, counternormative harms? Two possible answers are a just deserts motive or a desire to incarcerate the actor so that he cannot be a further danger to society. Research participants in two experiments assigned punishments to actors whose offenses were varied with respect to the moral seriousness of the offense and the likelihood that the perpetrator would commit similar future offenses. Respondents increased the punishment as the seriousness of the offense increased, but their sentences were not affected by variations in the likelihood of committing future offenses, suggesting that just deserts was the primary sentencing motive. Only in a case in which a brain tumor was identified as the cause of an actor's violent action, a case that does not fit the standard prototype of a crime intentionally committed, did respondents show a desire to incarcerate the actor in order to prevent future harms rather than assigning a just deserts based punishment.

Alcohol problems are widespread among individuals in county criminal justice probation systems. However, it is unclear why only a small fraction of these problem drinkers receive treatment. In this study, selfadministered questionnaires were mailed to 145 probation officers in nine California counties to identify factors that predicted probation officers' use of coercion to mandate alcohol treatment. The questionnaire measured characteristics of probation officers, characteristics of their caseloads, and perceptions about their departments. Principle components analysis combined some of the items into six factor-based scales.

In response to the paper by Keown andJochemsen in which the latest empirical data concerning euthanasia and other end-of-life decisions in the Netherlands is discussed, this paper discusses three points. The use of euthanasia in cases in which palliative care was a viable alternative may be taken as proof of a slippery slope. However, it could also be interpreted as an indication of a shift towards more autonomy-based end-of-life decisions. The cases of non-voluntary euthanasia are a serious problem in the Netherlands and they are only rarely justifiable. However, they do not prove the existence of a slippery slope. Persuading the physician to bring euthanasia cases to the knowledge of the authorities is a problem of any euthanasia policy. The Dutch notification procedure has recendy been changed to reduce the underreporting ofcases. However, many questions remain.

Ockelford J, et al. Investigation by Parkinson's Disease Research Group of United Kingdom into excess mortality seen with combined levodopa and selegiline treatment in patients with early, mild Parkinson's disease: further results of randomised trial and confidential inquiry.

The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) has embarked on an intensive campaign to integrate elimination of cancer health disparities into the Society's overall mission and activities. Key components of this commitment are enhancing awareness of disparities; improving access to care; and supporting research on health disparities. Major objectives are to advance the education of the oncology community in the care of patients from underserved and minority populations; increase the diversity of the clinical oncology workforce as a requisite to improving access to cancer care for the underserved; and support research in the area of health disparities. Racial and ethnic disparities in cancer care are an issue of critical importance to ASCO, the oncology community, and our society at large. The health disparities initiative outlined herein enunciates ASCO's dedication to eliminating disparities in cancer care and discusses our multipronged approach for addressing disparities within the clinical oncology community. ASCO is committed to collaborating with the diverse community of stakeholders to undertake the following: develop policies to guarantee equal access to quality health care, with special emphasis on reducing insurance and economic barriers to cancer care; develop a comprehensive plan to increase awareness of racial and ethnic disparities in cancer care; execute a strategy to enhance the supply of minority physicians and to improve the training of the oncology workforce to meet the needs of racially and ethnically diverse cancer patients; increase prioritization of public and private research on cancer care disparities; develop mechanisms to increase participation of racially and ethnically diverse populations in cancer clinical trials; and support initiatives to enhance patients' involvement in their cancer care.

The provision of care for survivors of sexual violence is a medicolegal emergency. However, due to social issues, healthcare providers face several ethical and legal dilemmas when administering care to such survivors at hospitals. Added to these are the compulsions under mandatory reporting laws, which oblige healthcare providers to abide by the ethical commitments of care and treatment, and make it mandatory for them to report cases of sexual violence to the police, failing which they face legal sanctions. This article draws on global evidence related to mandatory reporting of violence against women and children and the lessons learnt from it. While doing so, it presents the current status of mandatory reporting by healthcare providers in India and the challenges faced by them in operationalising the survivors' autonomy, ensuring confidentiality and overcoming obstacles that may impede treatment and care.

Mandatory and preferred arrest policies may be resulting in a backlash for victims who are arrested along with their batterers. Little prior research has explored why officers engage in dual arrests. The current study examines the rationales employed by officers to justify dual arrests in a preferred arrest jurisdiction. Content analysis of thought protocols of police officers (n = 24) who reported they would arrest both parties was undertaken. Officers justified arrest of both parties, citing that such was required by law and the desire to force both parties to obtain counseling for their relationship. Implications for policy development are examined.

Normal human tissues, bodily fluids, and other biospecimens of known quality are essential for research to understand the development of cancer and other diseases and to develop new diagnostics and therapies. However, obtaining normal biospecimens appropriate for contemporary large-scale molecular and genomic research is one of the most challenging biospecimen acquisition problems for scientists and biospecimen resources that support research. Recognizing this challenge, the U.S. National Cancer Institute recently convened a series of workshops and meetings focused on the acquisition of normal tissues for research and produced an extensive document, Recommendations for Postmortem Recovery of Normal Human Biospecimens for Research. This article summarizes these recommendations, addressing key ethical, operational, and scientific elements for collecting normal reference biospecimens from postmortem donors in the U.S. Awareness of these recommendations can foster more effective collabo...

The European regulation on chemicals, REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals), came into force on 1 June 2007. With pre-registration complete in 2008, data for these substances may provide an overview of the expected chemical space and its characteristics. In this paper, using various in silico computation tools, we evaluate 48 782 neutral organic compounds from the list to identify hazardous and safe compounds. Two different classification schemes (modified Verhaar and ECOSAR) identified between 17% and 25% of the compounds as expressing only baseline toxicity (narcosis). A smaller portion could be identified as reactive (19%) or specifically acting (2.7%), while the majority were non-assigned (61%). Overall environmental persistence, bioaccumulation and long-range transport potential were evaluated using structure-activity relationships and a multimedia fugacity-based model. A surprisingly high proportion of compounds (20%), mainly aromatic and halogenated, had a very high estimated persistence (>195 d). The proportion of compounds with a very high estimated bioconcentration or bioaccumulation factor (>5000) was substantially less (6.9%). Finally, a list was compiled of those compounds within the applicability domain of the models used, meeting both persistence and bioaccumulation criteria, and with a long-range transport potential comparable to PCB. This list of 68 potential persistent organic pollutants contained many well-known compounds (all halogenated), but notably also five fluorinated compounds that were not included in the EINECS inventory. This study demonstrates the usability of in silico tools for identification of potentially environmentally hazardous chemicals.

2006) An application of Stafford and Warr's reconceptualization of deterrence to a group of recidivist drink drivers. Accident Analysis and Prevention 38(3):pp. 462-471. Accessed from http://eprints.qut.edu.au Abstract Recent revisions of deterrence theory have highlighted the powerful effects of personal and vicarious punishment avoidance on criminal activity. The present paper

The arrest rates of nearly 2,000 psychiatric patients released from psychiatric centers in 1968 and those of nearly 2,000 patients released in 1975 were compared with the arrest rates of a group of 5,000 patients studied 25 years earlier. In general, arrest rates among the two recent samples were considerably higher than general population rates, primarily because of the large proportion of patients previously arrested. Other characteristics related to subsequent arrest were age and admitting diagnosis. One additional finding was that the number of patients with prior arrests had increased markedly over the years.

Adolescents' rights to abortion have traditionally been restricted more than adults' because of their presumed immaturity. In many states, minors must obtain adult consent for an abortion, but these laws all include a “bypass” stipulation allowing minors to seek consent from a designated third party—usually a judge—if they were denied parental consent or chose not to seek it. Consent and bypass statutes were designed to promote the welfare of minors, but lack of clarity in the standards for judging maturity has made it difficult for these laws to function as intended. Data indicate that courts cannot discriminate mature from immature minors, and that minors are put at greater risk by delaying the abortion in order to obtain third-party consent. Unless an alternative to or modification of bypass legislation is adopted, the best interests of minors may continue to be jeopardized by arbitrary application of the “mature minor” standard.

Drug addiction, violence and anti-social behaviour are characteristics of street prostitution. An alternative approach to zero tolerance is establishing a managed zone where sex workers operate according to regulations and can access health services. Using a consultation with sex workers ðn ¼ 50Þ, businesses ðn ¼ 51Þ, residents ðn ¼ 179Þ and the public ðn ¼ 789Þ we examined where a zone might be established in a UK city (Liverpool) and characteristics of the zone required by these stakeholders. All groups believed a zone would improve sex workers' safety and reduce prostitution elsewhere. Sex workers (96%) agreed to work in a zone. Location criteria from all groups were used to identify two potential business areas to host a zone but businesses in or near these areas rejected plans through fear for staff safety and reduced business. We discuss the consultation process, difficulties in locating services for marginalised groups in cities and the implications for health and judicial policy relating to prostitution. r

In the fall of 2005, the state of Missouri launched a three-prong assessment of the relationship between probation and parole and three of their stakeholders: police, courts, and treatment providers. The Division of Probation and Parole was interested in identifying these perceptions as they implement the Missouri Reentry Process (MRP). The MRP promotes the formation of interdependent working relationships between stakeholders and probation and parole. Before these relationships can be fostered or improved, an assessment of the current relationship was necessary. This article focuses on the 2nd year's project that involved a web-based, statewide survey of treatment providers. The purpose of the study was to conduct a utilizationfocused evaluation to ascertain treatment providers' perceptions of probation and parole's service delivery. The descriptive statistics examined and described broad perceptions of the relationship. Bivariate analysis was conducted to determine whether a relationship existed between different dimensions such as education level, facility staff size, and other variables such as perceived support for treatment and whether probation and parole officers participate in information-sharing meetings. An overall favorable perception of probation and parole was apparent from the survey results. Statistically significant results for several dimensions of the relationship between probation and parole officers and treatment providers were found. These statistically significant results provided insight into the effectiveness of probation and parole's service delivery. The article concludes with a presentation of policy implications.

Speeding is one of the main factors of car crash-risk, but it also contributes to increasing air-pollution. In two studies we attempted to lead drivers to abide by speed limits using "reducing air-pollution" as a new argument. We presented prevention messages that highlighted the role of speeding in increasing "crashrisk", "air-pollution", or both (Studies 1 and 2). The messages were also positively or negatively framed (Study 2). Given that women are more concerned with environmental issues than are men, we expected the following hypotheses to be validated for women. The message with the "air-pollution" argument was expected to be evaluated more positively than the "crash-risk" message (H1). The "air-pollution" and "crash-risk and air-pollution" messages were expected to be more effective than the "crash-risk" message on the behavioral intention to observe speed limits (H2a) and on the perceived efficacy of speed-limit observance in reducing air-pollution (H2b; Studies 1 and 2). Furthermore, positive framing was expected to be more effective than negative framing (H3), and presenting a message to be more effective than presenting no message (H4; Study 2).

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The main purpose of the study was to investigate whether Stop signs differ from Yield signs in terms of their associated accident rates. and whether or not an increase in level of traffic control is necessarily beneficial to traffic safety at all hazardous urban intersections. The study is based on a "before" and "after" evaluation of accident rates at several unsignalized intersections, where the level of control was changed because of their accident history. It was found that any increase in the level of control at such intersections tended to cause more vehicle accidents and fewer pedestrian accidents, although most of the changes were statistically insignificant. Several possible explanations to the findings are evaluated and discussed. It is concluded that increasing the control level at unsignalized intersections will not necessarily result in an overall reduction in accidents.

Call N.4 «Digital work: more autonomy or a new subjugation of work?» Guest Editors: Antunes Ricardo-University of Campinas ([email protected]), Basso Pietro-University of Venice ([email protected]), and Perocco Fabio-University of Venice ([email protected]). The last two decades have seen profound transformations of work, both in the process of work organisation and in the functioning of the labour market. Among these, the most recent and fastest is the computerisation of work, in particular the digitisation of work. A new frontier has thus opened up in the field of work and, at the same time, in the exploitation and precarisation of work, which the current health and social-economic crisis is widening out of all proportion. The practice and the myth of "smart working" are the visible signs of a planetary dynamic of capitalist matrix which, once again, presents the possible liberation and humanization of labour within the framework of a new, and perhaps more radical, alienation, atomization and subordination of labour to the imperatives of the market and profit. The aim of this issue of the Journal is to critically analyse this dynamic, paying particular attention to the relationship between the so-called "digital platforms" and their "applications": alongside the intense development of informal and digital technology, we are witnessing the expansion of different modes of intense exploitation of the workforce, which is expressed in highly precarious working conditions, long working days, low wages, high levels of illness. Usually these new forms of work are presented as free and autonomous "services", the workers involved become "self-entrepreneurs", "masters" of their working time. And this allows the platforms, i.e. the companies that own and control them, to circumvent and cheat on the labour laws of the countries in which they operate. From this set of labour transformation processes, in which the technological element appears on the surface as prevalent on the structure of social relations that actually subsume it, important issues emerge that are of great interest for this call for papers dedicated to digital work:-What, in fact, characterizes this new mode of work? First of all: Is it something completely new, for the use it makes of ITC resources, or is it a combination of old and new forms of work organization? Based on what criteria, and for what purposes, were the algorithms built? How do they control the time and intensity of work? Who controls the algorithms? What is the role of artificial intelligence in these new forms of work delivery? What are, in them, the connections between materiality, immateriality, digital work and the creation of value and wealth? What about the exploitation of labour and overwork (surplus value)? How does the creation of surplus value take place when work is unpaid? What are the new ways taken up by the conflict between capital and labour? Is it possible to regulate these jobs that do not stop expanding?-There are also important questions relating to the social consequences of the computerization and digitization of work, which are also of great importance for this issue of the Journal: the impact of computerization on work intensification and working time; the effects of digitization

Debates about which policy initiatives can prevent or reduce the damage that illicit drugs cause to the public good are rarely informed by scientifi c evidence. Fortunately, evidence-based interventions are increasingly being identifi ed that are capable of making drugs less available, reducing violence in drug markets, lessening misuse of legal pharmaceuticals, preventing drug use initiation in young people, and reducing drug use and its consequences in established drug users. We review relevant evidence and outline the likely eff ects of fuller implementation of existing interventions. The reasoning behind the fi nal decisions for action might be of a non-scientifi c nature, focused more on what the public and policy-makers deem of value. Nevertheless, important opportunities exist for science to inform these deliberations and guide the selection of policies that maximise the public good.

La investigación estudia las consecuencias de la proliferación del alcoholismo en los barrios de San Salvador, capital de El Salvador, Centroamérica a mediados del siglo XX y los mecanismos de control social que esta ciudad generó para controlar este mal, tanto los mecanismos formales como informales utilizados para controlar a borrachos, prostitutas, bares, burdeles y cantinas.

Drug misuse and abuse are major health problems. Harmful drugs are regulated according to classifi cation systems that purport to relate to the harms and risks of each drug. However, the methodology and processes underlying classifi cation systems are generally neither specifi ed nor transparent, which reduces confi dence in their accuracy and undermines health education messages. We developed and explored the feasibility of the use of a nine-category matrix of harm, with an expert delphic procedure, to assess the harms of a range of illicit drugs in an evidence-based fashion. We also included fi ve legal drugs of misuse (alcohol, khat, solvents, alkyl nitrites, and tobacco) and one that has since been classifi ed (ketamine) for reference. The process proved practicable, and yielded roughly similar scores and rankings of drug harm when used by two separate groups of experts. The ranking of drugs produced by our assessment of harm diff ered from those used by current regulatory systems. Our methodology off ers a systematic framework and process that could be used by national and international regulatory bodies to assess the harm of current and future drugs of abuse.

Proponents of xenotransplantation hope that it will provide organs to fill the gap between the demand for and supply of organs for transplant. The scientific obstacles to transplanting animal organs into humans are daunting, as are the moral, political, and policy issues. Among them are concerns about animal rights and welfare, patient acceptance and informed consent, and broader public health issues, such as the cost-efficient deployment of scarce resources and the risk of disease in third parties. The latter is, in my view, the most immediately urgent issue. Pigs, the current animal of choice, carry many bacterial and viral pathogens, and it is currently impossible to assess the risk of disease to human populations. Because of this risk, a moratorium on xenotransplantation is necessary to protect public health; it is also questionable whether the technology, if successful, would be the most cost-effective way to promote health.

This article explores the experience of offenders while under probation supervision and analyses the "pains of probation" in connection to rehabilitation aspirations. The article has two main parts. In the first part of the article, the experiences of probationers are examined using thematic analysis, and eight different pains of probation are identified. In the second part of the article, these pains of probation are examined from two different perspectives: human rights and the Good Lives Model. The conclusion is that these two perspectives support each other and can help reduce the frustrations and deprivations experienced by individuals on probation. By implementing these two perspectives, probation services may overcome the obstacles toward desistance and earn more legitimacy in the eyes of probation recipients.

The present study introduces and discusses the Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Law of the People's Republic of China. The law was promulgated in the context of Chinese socioeconomic reforms and legal reforms in response to the rising delinquency since the early 1980s. The study explains the social and political background of the law with respect to the patterns of delinquency in China. The law has several main features that reflect the Chinese philosophical underpinnings of crime prevention and control, and the study discusses the connection between the law and the traditional Chinese philosophy and thinking. Finally, the study discusses the challenges to the enforcement of the law in Chinese society, which has lacked a legal tradition in its history.

Pregnancy is barbaric' ' proclaimed Stiulamith Firestone in the first head). days of the new cvomen's movement; s h r lookrd 1i)rLvar-d t o the time when technolog)-would free \vorneri from t tir oppression of biological reproduction. Yet as reproductive options multiply, somr frminists are makirig common (:ause with conservatives h r a ban on innovations. \\'hat is Soing on'?

Bereaved individuals often experience profound social pressure to conform to societal norms that constrict the experience of grief rather than support it. This article explores grief in Western society 1 through an analysis of the underlying structures and values that are a part of this social system, utilizing the lens of critical theory. Critical theory examines social norms and conditions in order to identify and expose oppression in various contexts. This article examines the social rules that govern the expression of grief, the role of attachment, social pain, and shame as potent forces that promote compliance with social rules, and the ways that the underlying assumptions and values in Western society shape how bereaved individuals are expected to react. Implications for clinicians who work with terminally ill or bereaved individuals are then reviewed.

It is said that the transition from the informal social control executed by non-professionals into the formal social control executed by state authorities and professionals is an imminent and positive change that is connected with the general evolution of society and a part of progressive differentiation of labor that occurs in the modernizing social systems.

Although the advantages of professionalization are visible and well-recognized, it might be valuable to take a look at some possible losses that it can bring because this process can include some potential threats, as well. It is also questionable whether it is a one-way street and moreover, whether it will require the complete replacement of informal control by the one carried by professionals.

The differences between formal and informal social control can be found on several levels: the location of the punishment, the forms of the law, the professional dominance in the punishment and the right to control. Those will be the main areas of my analysis in the paper that I am proposing to the publication entitled “Prawo jako narzędzie  kształtowania społeczeństwa”. I believe that If we want to know more about the features of law as a tool of social control and social change, we should also analyze it in a broader perspective, eg. in comparison to other normative systems also capable of playing that role in society.

In my paper, I would like to argue that if we take a look at some characteristics of the formal social control (exercised by state authorities and state law), as well as the informal social control (based on normative systems other than law – like moral, religious or customary law institutions), certain advantages of the informal control and the disadvantages of formal control can be observed.

The analysis of the characteristics and features of both formal and informal social control will be carried out in the context of restorative justice paradigm. In my opinion, this paradigm is suitable for distinguishing and recognizing certain features of those two types of social control and the effects they have on society.

Road use patterns in Delhi. India are very different from those in cities in highly industrialized countries. In Delhi roads are also shared by unmotorized vehicles in large numbers. This study is an attempt to understand fatal crash patterns in Delhi in 1980 using police data. The results indicate that fatality patterns in Delhi are very different from those in highly industrialized countries. Pedestrians. two-wheeler riders and bus commuters comprise 80% of fatalities and motor-vehicle occupants a small minority. It appears that priorities for safety countermeasures in Delhi would have to be significantly different from those in more industrialized high-income countries. Some short-term and long-term measures are suggested in the paper.