Flight mechanics and control

In an era of significant air traffic expansion characterised by a rising congestion of the radiofrequency spectrum and a widespread introduction of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are being exposed to a variety of threats including signal interferences, adverse propagation effects and challenging platform-satellite relative dynamics. Thus, there is a need to characterize GNSS signal degradations and assess the effects of interfering sources on the performance of avionics GNSS receivers and augmentation systems used for an increasing number of mission-essential and safety-critical aviation tasks (e.g., experimental flight testing, flight inspection/certification of ground-based radio navigation aids, wide area navigation and precision approach). GNSS signal deteriorations typically occur due to antenna obscuration caused by natural and man-made obstructions present in the environment (e.g., elevated terrain and tall buildings when flying at low altitude) or by the aircraft itself during manoeuvring (e.g., aircraft wings and empennage masking the on-board GNSS antenna), ionospheric scintillation, Doppler shift, multipath, jamming and spurious satellite transmissions. Anyone of these phenomena can result in partial to total loss of tracking and possible tracking errors, depending on the severity of the effect and the receiver characteristics. After describing GNSS performance threats, the various augmentation strategies adopted in the Communication, Navigation, Surveillance/Air Traffic Management and Avionics (CNS+A) context are addressed in detail. GNSS augmentation can take many forms but all strategies share the same fundamental principle of providing supplementary information whose objective is improving the performance and/or trustworthiness of the system. Hence it is of paramount importance to consider the synergies offered by different augmentation strategies including Space Based Augmentation System (SBAS), Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS), Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS) and Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM). Furthermore, by employing multi-GNSS constellations and multi-sensor data fusion techniques, improvements in availability and continuity can be obtained. SBAS is designed to improve GNSS system integrity and accuracy for aircraft navigation and landing, while an alternative approach to GNSS augmentation is to transmit integrity and differential correction messages from ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS). In addition to existing space and ground based augmentation systems, GNSS augmentation may take the form of additional information being provided by other on-board avionics systems, such as in ABAS. As these on-board systems normally operate via separate principles than GNSS, they are not subject to the same sources of error or interference. Using suitable data link and data processing technologies on the ground, a certified ABAS capability could be a core element of a future GNSS Space-Ground-Aircraft Augmentation Network (SGAAN). Although current augmentation systems can provide significant improvement of GNSS navigation performance, a properly designed and flight-certified SGAAN could play a key role in trusted autonomous system and cyber-physical system applications such as UAS Sense-and-Avoid (SAA).

An Aircraft Dynamics Model (ADM) augmentation scheme for Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) navigation and guidance is presented. The proposed ADM virtual sensor is employed in the RPAS navigation system to enhance continuity and accuracy of positioning data in case of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data degradations/losses, and to improve attitude estimation by vision based sensors and Micro-Electromechanical System Inertial Measurement Unit (MEMS-IMU) sensors. The ADM virtual sensor is essentially a knowledge-based module that predicts RPAS flight dynamics (aircraft trajectory and attitude motion) by employing a rigid body 6-Degree of Freedom (6-DoF) model. Two possible schemes are studied for integration of the ADM module in the aircraft navigation system employing an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and an Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF). Additionally, the synergy between the navigation systems and an Avionics-Based Integrity Augmentation (ABIA) module is examined and a sensor-switching framework is proposed to maintain the Required Navigation Performance (RNP) in the event of single and multiple sensor degradations. The ADM performance is assessed through simulation of an RPAS in representative fight operations. Sensitivity analysis of the errors caused by perturbations in the input parameters of the aircraft dynamics is performed to demonstrate the robustness of the proposed approach. Results confirm that the ADM virtual sensor provides improved performance in terms of data accuracy/continuity, and an extension of solution validity time, especially when pre-filtered and employed in conjunction with a UKF.

This paper presents new efficient guidance algorithms allowing Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) to avoid a variety of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) continuity and integrity performance threats detected by an Aircraft Based Augmentation System (ABAS). In particular, the UAS guidance problem is formulated as an optimal control-based Multi-Objective Trajectory Optimization (MOTO) problem subject to suitable dynamic and geometric constraints. Direct transcription methods of the global orthogonal collocation (pseudospectral) family are exploited for the solution of the MOTO problem, generating optimal trajectories for curved GNSS approaches in real-time. Three degrees-of-freedom aircraft dynamics models and suitable GNSS satellite visibility models based on Global Positioning System (GPS) constellation ephemeris data are utilised in the MOTO solution algorithm. The performance of the proposed MOTO algorithm is evaluated in representative simulation case studies adopting the JAVELIN UAS as the reference platform. The paper focusses on descent and initial curved GNSS approach phases in a Terminal Maneuvering Area (TMA) scenario, where multiple manned/unmanned aircraft converge on the same short and curved final GNSS approach leg. The results show that the adoption of MOTO based on pseudospectral methods allows an efficient exploitation of ABAS model-predictive augmentation features in online GNSS guidance tasks, supporting the calculation of suitable arrival trajectories in 7 to 16 s using a normal PC.

The StopRotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is a new aircraft configuration capable of both rotary and fixed wing flight. The design combines the utility of the open rotor system with fixed wing efficiency by in flight configuration changes. The StopRotor is capable of carrying a 40% payload relative to its empty flying weight. The optimization of the platform for an expanded range, endurance and mission capability relies on the ability to model the platform aerodynamically. Wind tunnel and aerodynamic analysis using Vortex Lattice Methods were used to extract and validate the aerodynamic 6DOF model. This was investigated at RMIT University in the RMIT Industrial Wind Tunnel. The correlation between the VLM and experimental results were favourable and increased confidence in using approximated derivatives that could not be obtained through static wind tunnel tests. Key performance parameter include C D0 = 0.037, L/D max = 17, V Stall = 15ms-1 , C L,max = 1.6.

Purpose Aeronautic transport has an effective necessity of reducing fuel consumption and emissions to deliver efficiency and competitiveness driven by today commercial and legislative requirements. Actual aircraft configurations scenario allows envisaging the signs of a diffused technological maturity and they seem very near their limits. This scenario clearly shows the necessity of radical innovations with particular reference to propulsion systems and to aircraftarchitecture consequently. Methods This paper presents analyses and discusses a promising propulsive architecture based on an innovative nozzle, which allows realizing the selective adhesion of two impinging streams to two facing jets to two facing Coanda surfaces. This propulsion system is known with the acronym ACHEON (Aerial Coanda High Efficiency Orienting Nozzle). This paper investigates how the application of an all-electric ACHEONs propulsion system to a very traditional commuter aircraft can improve its relevant performances. This paper considers the constraints imposed by current state-of-the-art electric motors, drives, storage and conversion systems in terms of both power/energy density and performance and considers two different aircraft configurations: one using battery only and one adopting a more sophisticated hybrid cogeneration. The necessity of producing a very solid analysis has forced to limit the deflection of the jet in a very conservative range (±15°) with respect to the horizontal. This range can be surely produced also by not optimal configurations and allow minimizing the use of DBD. From the study of general flight dynamics equations of the aircraft in two-dimensional form it has been possible to determine with a high level of accuracy the advantages that ACHEON brings in terms of reduced stall speed and of reduced takeoff and landing distances. Additionally, it includes an effective energy analysis focusing on the efficiency and environmental advantages of the electric ACHEON based propulsion by assuming the today industrial grade high capacity batteries with a power density of 207 Wh/kg. Results It has been clearly demonstrated that a short flight could be possible adopting battery energy storage, and longer duration could be possible by adopting a more sophisticated cogeneration system, which is based on cogeneration from a well-known turboprop, which is mostly used in helicopter propulsion. This electric generation system can be empowered by recovering the heat and using it to increase the temperature of the jet. It is possible to transfer this considerable amount of heat to the jet by convection and direct fluid mixing. In this way, it is possible to increase the energy of the jets of an amount that allows more than recover the pressure losses in the straitening section. In this case, it is then possible to demonstrate an adequate autonomy of flight and operative range of the aircraft. The proposed architecture, which is within the limits of the most conservative results obtained, demonstrates significant additional benefits for aircraft manoeuvrability. In conclusion, this paper has presented the implantation of ACHEON on well-known traditional aircraft, verifying the suitability and effectiveness of the proposed system both in terms of endurance with a cogeneration architecture and in terms of manoeuvrability. It has demonstrated the potential of the system in terms of both takeoff and landing space requirements. Conclusions This innovation opens interesting perspectives for the future implementation of this new vector and thrust propulsion system, especially in the area of greening the aero-nautic sector. It has also demonstrated that ACHEON has the potential of renovating completely a classic old aircraft configuration such as the one of Cessna 402.

The basic role played by models of the diarthrodial joints in surgery, in pre-surgical planning and in prosthesis design has been widely stressed in the literature. Different approaches have been proposed to highlight the role of the main anatomical structures of the joint. Most models are based on in vivo measurements which, however, are difficult to perform. This paper presents a sequential procedure based on three steps for the modelling of a joint. At each step a more and more complicated model of the joint is ...

In this paper, a modified backstepping approach will be developed and applied to control unmanned areial vehicles (UAVs), Quadrotor. In this modified backstepping approach, the number of control parameters is reduced by half compared with the classical back stepping approach used in the literature. Simulation is used to test the stability of the overall nonlinear Quadrotor system and compared with the classical one.

The innovative architecture of an advanced Flight Management
System (FMS) for Unmanned Reusable Space Vehicle (URSV) applications is presented with the associated re-entry trajectory
computation algorithm. The SL-12 unmanned space vehicle, developed by Cranfield University as a part of the 2012-2013 Aerospace Vehicle Design (AVD) Group Design Project (GDP) is used as the reference platform. The overall avionics architecture of the future space transportation vehicle is described. A detailed architecture is developed for the FMS and the core functions of such an FMS are described. A dedicated computation algorithm is presented for re-entry trajectory planning, which involves determination of the path of re-entry vehicle by means of angle of attack and bank angle modulation. Simulation case studies are performed in a realistic re-entry operational scenario resulting in the generation of efficient and feasible trajectories, without violating any of the defined constraints.

This paper presents a novel UAS (Unmanned Aerial System) designed for excellent low speed operations and VTOL performance. This aerial vehicle concept has been designed for maximizing the advantages by of the ACHEON (Aerial Coanda High Efficiency Orienting-jet Nozzle) propulsion system, which has been studied in a European commission under 7th framework programme.

This UAS concept has been named MURALS (acronym of Multifunctional Unmanned Reconnaissance Aircraft for Low-speed and STOL operation). It has been studied as a joint activity of the members of the project as an evolution of a former concept, which has been developed during 80s and 90s by Aeritalia and Capuani. It has been adapted to host an ACHEON based propulsion system. In a first embodiment, the aircraft according to the invention has a not conventional shape with a single fuselage and its primary objective is to minimize the variation of the pitching moment allowing low speed operations. The shape with convex wings has been specifically defined to allow a future possibility of enabling stealth operations.

Main objective of the design activity has been focused on low speed flight, very short take off and landing, and a control possibility by mean of two mobile surfaces in the front canard, which allow changing the pitch angle, and allows an almost complete plane control in combination with an ACHEON variable angle of thrust propulsion system. The design considers has been specifically to allow flying at a speed which is lower than 12 m/s with an high angle of attach (over 7°), without losses in terms of manoeuvrability and agility. These features allow innovative uses such as road monitoring, and police support and are characterized by a breakthrough performance level.

A complete optimal sizing of the aircraft has been performed, together with an effective performance analysis, which allows identifying the strong points and the potential problems of the project. An effective energy analysis has been performed also. An effective prototyping is expected in about one year.

The rapid growth of air traffic in the Asia Pacific has brought about the need for more sustainable modes of flight. A key initiative is the development of next generation Decision Support Systems (DSS) for Air Traffic Management (ATM), which allow aircraft to fly optimal trajectories. Besides fuel-and time-related costs, other considerations for optimal routing include emissions, noise and contrails. Multi-Objective Trajectory Optimisation (MOTO) allows the generation of optimal trajectories with regards to these objectives, with dynamic weights depending on the phase of flight. Contrails are a major contributor to aviation's total Radiative Forcing (RF), being potentially more significant than that of carbon dioxide (CO 2). In particular, when formed in areas of low temperature and high relative humidity, contrails are known to persist for hours, spreading and eventually transitioning into cirrus clouds. Contrails trap heat by reflecting the long-wave infra-red radiation emitted by the earth back to its surface, producing positive RF. However, the albedo of contrails also reflects the incoming shortwave radiation from the sun, resulting in a negative component of RF. The impact of contrails, quantified by its associated RF, is thus not merely a function of environmental parameters but also a function of time. In this paper, a MOTO algorithm is used to generate optimal trajectories that minimize the radiative impact of contrails and CO 2 , while minimizing flight time and fuel burn. A case study of a transcontinental flight from Paris to Beijing is presented to demonstrate the feasibility of such an algorithm in providing strategic and tactical trajectory optimization capabilities.

A new computational technique based on Pseudospectral Discretisation (PSD) and adaptive bisection-constraint methods is proposed to solve multi-objective aircraft trajectory optimisation problems formulated as nonlinear optimal control problems. This technique is applicable to a variety of next-generation avionics and Air Traffic Management (ATM) Decision Support Systems (DSS) for strategic and tactical replanning operations. These include the future Flight Management Systems (FMS) and the 4-Dimensional Trajectory (4DT) planning and intent negotiation/validation tools envisaged by SESAR and NextGen for a global implementation. In particular, after describing the implemented PSD method, the adaptive bisection-constraint method is presented to allow an efficient solution of problems in which two or multiple performance indices are to be minimized simultaneously. Initial simulation case studies were performed adopting suitable aircraft dynamics models and addressing a classical vertical trajectory optimisation problem with two objectives simultaneously. Subsequently, a more advanced 4DT simulation case study is presented with a focus on representative ATM optimisation objectives in the Terminal Manoeuvring Area (TMA). The simulation results are analysed in-depth and corroborated by flight performance analysis, supporting the validity of the proposed computational techniques.

— This paper describes a Kalman filter that integrates the measurements coming from inertial system, GPS receiver and air data system with self-aligning probes to provide accurate sensing of the aircraft state in all the flight phases. A particular attention has been focused on the angle of attack and sideslip angle reconstruction. The evaluation of these angles becomes challenging during manoeuvres with high load factors, typical for high-performance aircraft. In these conditions, the air data elaboration accuracy is significantly lowered by the sensors' dynamics. The paper demonstrates that a relevant improvement of accuracy can be obtained in both high and low frequency range, and specific tests campaign has been carried out with a simulation platform including the flight simulator of a light military jet trainer.

Sangam M, Sabatini R, Ramasamy S and Gardi A. (2013). Advanced flight management system for an unmanned reusable space vehicle. International Journal of Unmanned Systems Engineering. 1(3): 48-67. The innovative architecture of an advanced Flight Management System (FMS) for Unmanned Reusable Space Vehicle (URSV) applications is presented with the associated re-entry trajectory computation algorithm. The SL-12 unmanned space vehicle, developed by Cranfield University as a part of the 2012-2013 Aerospace Vehicle Design (AVD) Group Design Project (GDP) is used as the reference platform.