Ethos

El presente artículo intenta exponer uno de los problemas más prominentes y vigentes en la filosofía de Martin Heidegger: la esencia de la técnica. Si bien, la reflexión parte sustancialmente de aquello que el filósofo de Selva Negra considera como técnica moderna, el sentido de pensarla en los límites de su esencia, nos lleva directamente a proponer allí, donde se le piensa como un riesgo latente en nuestros días, la posibilidad de una reorientación desde aquello que Heidegger piensa como Ethos. Hoy por hoy, la discusión se centra entre expertos y académicos, y entre defensores y opositores del pensamiento heideggeriano, en determinar si efectivamente el filósofo alemán propuso o no, un tratado ético o moral en su labor filosófica. Lo que también se intenta defender en la presente reflexión, es sostener que aunque Heidegger no elabora y propone una filosofía moral como algunos de sus antecesores lo hicieron, si procuró por dar “un paso atrás” hacia el Ethos griego tal como aparece en Sófocles y Heráclito, es decir, anterior a toda configuración de una disciplina ética platónica y aristotélica. En consecuencia, la propuesta de Heidegger no es ya por un Ethos tradicional en términos del deber y la normatividad, sino por un Ethos en relación a la esencia de la técnica moderna donde el hombre more y habite en medio del ente en el todo, sin ser él el medio y el fin de la misma. Visto de este modo, el Ethos posibilitará que se reestablezca la relación originaria entre la naturaleza, el hombre, la técnica y la verdad en la esencia de la técnica moderna.

This paper investigates narrative induction as one central means by which institutions acquire new members, and new members acquire a new identity. Narrative induction is the process by which people take on an existing set of stories as relevant to the shaping of their own story. Nonparticipant narratives (narratives told by speakers not present at the events narrated) are used to reproduce collective memory and induct new participants into this memory. The process has three parts: how a person comes to take on someone else's story as centrally relevant to their own; how a person comes to tell their own story in a way shaped by the stories of others, and how a person's story may come to be told and heard by others within an institution as an instance of a normative pattern. This paper demonstrates each phase of the process, using as data an ethnographic study of a major American insurance company.

Nuestra tradición filosófica ha funcionando como un mito de la racionalidady no como un desarrollo de la racionalidad misma. Esta tradición muestratodas las características típicas de los sistemas mítico–mágicos. Sólo uncambio de condiciones sociales podría permitir el surgimiento de unaracionalidad genuina. De manera inversa, sólo el surgimiento de unaracionalidad genuina, podría producir el surgimiento de las condicionessociales apropiadas en las que la racionalidad pueda prosperar. No puedehaber un desarrollo filosófico genuino al margen de las condiciones socialesapropiadas. Se intenta aquí hacer un bosquejo de esta situación.

This inaugural lecture outlines the contours of a history of critical thinking. Drawing on case studies from the 19th, 20th, and 21st-century humanities, it draws attention to demands that critical thinking makes on the self – that is, to skills, virtues, attitudes, and capacities characteristic of what one might call a “critical self.” On the one hand, the cultivation of such qualities in research and teaching alike is a theme that allows for cross-disciplinary comparisons of the kind that historians of the humanities like to make. On the other, it touches directly on questions of contemporary relevance. What does it mean to foster critical thinking skills in contemporary academia? Is critical thinking compatible with care and compassion, or does it cultivate a stance of detachment, perhaps even of suspicion? Is critical thinking a much-needed remedy against fake news, or are societies struggling with political polarization and diminishing trust in public institutions likely to benefit more from a “postcritical turn”?

This article explores a paradox-the simultaneous cultivation and suppression of "healing dramas" by pediatric rehabilitation therapists. Dramatic moments are defined as ones in which the routine exercises and treatment activities of therapeutic practice are transformed into narrative plots. These improvisational plots involve multiple characters, risks, suspense, and above all, a heightened sense that something is at stake. Experience itself becomes the focus of attention for the patient. Based upon ethnographic research in Chicago and Los Angeles, this article offers an anatomy of two such moments, investigating not only how healing dramas are constructed between patients and healers but how and why institutional discourses and practices invite their abandonment. When Oliver Sacks fell off a mountain, he found himself in a hospital with a leg that would not move. This temporary paralysis was no mere matter of torn tendons, but an injury to the nerves themselves. "The neural traffic had stopped, so to speak," Sacks tells us, "and the streets of the city were deserted and silent" (1987:65). He appears to his doctors and therapists as a patient with a leg injury, a local affair, but he knows better. He has lost his leg altogether, although, strangely, it is still attached to him. With this loss, his very spirit, his imagining, intending, purposeful self is endangered: "I had lost the power to 'call' to a part of myself, the power to call on a part of myself" (1987:65). It becomes painfully clear to Sacks that what he had initially viewed as a peripheral breakdown was, in fact, a breakdown at the center of things, "not just a lesion in my muscle, but a lesion in me" (1987:66). This article considers the role of rehabilitation for those who, in one way or another, confront lesions that run all the way to the center of themselves, when bodies become sources of pain or humiliation, or when they have cracked to the core. We investigate a puzzle Sacks raises in trying to understand the perspective of his healers. While he finds that his recovery is full of adventures and dramas, his healers see things as routine. How can this be? he wonders indignantly. How can they speak of his recovery as "uneventful" when "recovery is events, a series of wonderful, unpredictable events … advents, which are births and re-births" (1987:154)? In this article, we take up Sacks's puzzle, drawing from our own ethnographic research among occupational therapists, physical therapists, physicians, nurses, and other pediatric health professionals who treat children who are seriously ill or disabled. We will argue that the puzzle Sacks notes becomes ever more complex as one attends to the daily practices, discourses, and ideologies of these professionals. We have found the systematic suppression of certain kinds of dramas in clinical settings, especially dramas in which a central character is the patient as a complex, socially situated person with his or her own illness experience and biography. But-and here is the mystery that lies at the core of this article-we have also found sustained efforts to cultivate healing dramas which speak to such a person. Among occupational therapists (those health professionals we know best), there is even a discourse in the form of archetypal "best case" stories that stresses the centrality of such dramas to good practice.

A priori, rien ne fait événement chez Marcel Pagnol. Ne figurant pas un tournant esthétique ou une rupture dans l'histoire littéraire, mais incarnant un auteur mineur et un anachronique du XX e siècle, il serait improprement appelé « auteur-événement ». De plus, écrivant à propos d'une société rurale rétive à apprivoiser l'événement, puisqu'elle reste ce peuple sans histoire, englué dans une routine sociologique, Pagnol écrit peu sur l'événement. Aussi, si je parle d'« auteur-événement », c'est parce qu'il participe pleinement de la mutation médiatique engagée en littérature depuis le XIX e siècle, et de la spectacularisation de la vie d'écrivain.

Discussions of the cultural and linguistic construction of self often assume monoculturalism and monolingualism to be the norm. This article explores how the complex sociolinguistic repertoires of French-Portuguese bilinguals allow speakers to perform different kinds of "selves" in each language. Narratives of personal experience in each language are analyzed in terms of the effect of narrative forms on speakers' reported experience of dual selfhood and the effect of these forms on others' perceptions of the speakers in each language. This approach shows how different ways of speaking in each language point to contrasting experiences and positional identities of bilinguals iji French and Portuguese societies. It is suggested that the context from which "self" emerges is itself created in part by the choice among different forms of language(s).

In this article, we analyze the development of responsibility through the lens of the Peruvian Matsigenka, Samoan, and middle-class Los Angeles, California, childhoods. We propose that recognizing social awareness, social responsiveness, and self-reliance as keystone properties of responsibility supports an argument that children's routine work at home enables not only social but also moral responsibility, in the form of respectful awareness of and responsiveness to others' needs and reliance on knowledge that takes into consideration others' judgments. We document distinct modes of engagement in community and family activities evidenced in community ethnographies of children in Matsigenka, Samoa, and in middle-class Los Angeles, and propose seven arguments (related to sociopolitical organization, necessity, development, school priority, independence-interdependence, attention practices, and inconsistency) that bear on these observations. A contradiction in the values and practices for promoting independence and giving care is manifested exclusively in the L.A. families, creating a dependency dilemma for children of these families. If moral responsibility involves an active turning toward the other that engenders the capacity for compassion, our research indicates childhood socialization practices differentially facilitate or complicate achievement of this perspective. [responsibility, child development, socialization, Samoa, Los Angeles, Matsigenka]

Philosophers, psychologists, and linguists have argued that spatial conception is pivotal to cognition in general, providing a general, egocentric, and universal framework for cognition as well as metaphors for conceptualizing many other domains. But in an aboriginal community in Northern Queensland, a system of cardinal directions informs not only language, but also memory for arbitrary spatial arrays and directions. This work suggests that fundamental cognitive parameters, like the system of coding spatial locations, can vary cross-culturally, in line with the language spoken by a community. This opens up the prospect of a fruitful dialogue between anthropology and the cognitive sciences on the complex interaction between cultural and universal factors in the constitution of mind. STEPHEN C. LEVINSON is head of the Language and Cognition Group and director at the Max Planck Institute tor Psycholinguistics. Nijmegen, the Netherlands. Ethos 26(1 ):7-24.

Sverigedemokraterna bildades1988 av tidigare aktiva inom nazistiska och fascistiska rörelser. Idag är partiet Sveriges tredje största. Partiets bakgrund, växande stöd och senaste framgångar i valet 2014 parallellt med uppmärksammande skandaler väckte nyfikenhet: Hur kommunicerar ett parti med så tydlig historia och en del ofördelaktiga avslöjanden för att bli accepterat? Avgränsning av kommunikationen gjordes till de tre valfilmerna som gjorts inför riksdagsvalen 2010 och 2014. Analysen redogör för hur olika element, retoriska och semiotiska, samverkar för att konstruera ett budskap, både implicit och explicit, för att övertyga. Vidare diskuteras likheter och skillnader i materialet från 2010 och 2014 och vem målgruppen kan tänkas vara, för att se åt vilket håll utvecklingen gått.

Collective memory is analyzed from the perspective of narrative organization. Specifically, narratives provided by a sociocultural context, especially the modern state, are examined in their capacity to serve as cultural tools for members of a collective as they recount the past. The power of these tools to shape collective remembering is examined with the help of a distinction between specific narratives and schematic narrative templates. The former include information about specific dates, places, actors, and so forth, whereas the latter are abstract forms of narrative representation and typically shape several specific narratives. The utility of these notions is assessed by examining the ''expulsion-of-foreign-enemies'' schematic narrative template that shapes much of Russian collective memory, both during the Soviet period and post-Soviet periods. [collective memory, narrative, schematic narrative template, Russia] Collective memory is a representation of the past shared by members of a group such as a generation or nation-state. The modern study of this topic is usually traced to the writings of the French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs (1887-1945), who argued in the early part of the twentieth century that remembering is shaped by participation in collective life and that different groups generate different accounts of the past (Halbwachs 1980).

The new American Ethos is a posthuman, criminal and hominist Morality of the Nietzschean type -the morality of "Zarathustra" and his anticritical Priesthood-: "My self is for me the great contempt of man... - he wrote- In another time you had passions, which you considered bad… All your passions ended up becoming virtues”) that inverts the principles of Aristotelian persuasion and replaces its three pillars (Ethos, Pathos and Logos) with a new Code of Ethics that stands on three columns (three vices converted into virtues): “Lie”, “Cheat” and “Steal”. Three masks of the Devil. Three fruits of the Tree of evil.

This study examines Chinese immigrant parents' perceptions of filial piety. The concept of filial piety is introduced and we discuss the impacts of modernization and immigration experience on the challenges faced by contemporary Chinese immigrants as they reconcile traditional values with the demands of sociohistorical change and child rearing in the United States. Factor analysis of a commonly applied scale demonstrates multiple aspects of filial piety and reflects modifications from traditional views. Interview results point to aspects of filial piety not fully represented in the quantitative scale and expose specific challenges in child rearing related to filial values. These findings suggest the evolution of expectations and strategies related to a cultural adaptation of filial piety. One key demand is for strategies consistent with parental values while maintaining respect for children's unique point of view. The conclusions focus on the development of approaches to understanding the evolving conceptualization and meaning of filial piety for contemporary immigrant Chinese. [Chinese, immigrants, parents, filial piety, cultural values, cultural models] People of my generation believe that taking care of our parents in the future is a universal truth, but I don't know if our children will have this sense of responsibility. I believe they won't have this sense of responsibility, but maybe if they really love us, they will want to take care of us. .. if they feel close to their parents. When the time comes, then

In contemporary Jewish ultraorthodox communities, most three-year-old male children undergo a twofold ritual sequence in which the first haircut is associated with entering the world of study. Focusing on the paramount value of holy Torah study and its prerequisites, I seek to decode the psychocultural meanings of the haircutting and school initiation ceremonies and their ceremonial antecedent, circumcision, as markers on the male trajectory from milah (circumcision) to milah (word). The ritual sequence is evaluated comparatively against the widespread conception of manhood as a special-status category of achievement that requires indoctrination and testing. In order to account for the recent proliferation of the rituals, an attempt is made to situate them historically in the current context of contemporary ultraorthodox and Israeli society. Circumcision cannot be understood if it is examined in isolation. It should be left within the category of all practices of the same order which, by cutting off, splitting, or mutilating any part of the body, modify the personality of the individual in a manner visible to all.-Van Gennep I960 I n contemporary Jewish ultraorthodox (haredi) communities in Israel, most three-year-old male children undergo a twofold ritual sequence in which the first haircut is associated with entering the world of study. Although less binding than the rites of circumcision (brit milah) and bar mitzvah, and therefore less well known outside Jewish religious circles, the ritual complex at age three is an emotionally powerful rite of

Il movimento della cosiddetta riabilitazione della filosofia pratica, nato in Germania agli inizi degli anni Sessanta con la formula di Rehabilitierung der praktischen Philosophie, si connota come un movimento di rinascita dell’interesse filosofico per le tematiche della morale, del diritto e della politica, affrontate da una prospettiva alternativa rispetto sia a quella tecnico-scientifica che a quella metafisico-trascendentale(2). Per superare il relativismo ed il pluralismo etico della moderna società, globalizzata e policentrica, il movimento della Rehabilitierung rifiuta sia il modello della razionalità tecnico-scientifica (avvalendosi in ciò delle argomentazioni della prima Scuola di Francoforte) con il suo “divisionismo etico”(3), sia quello metafisico con la sua lontananza dagli ambiti della vita pratica (a partire dalla sua pretesa fondazione trascendentale), volgendosi invece alla ricerca di un modello di razionalità che, conciliando l’ethos con il logos (quindi né tramite una ratio calcolante e strumentale, né tramite la fede in ciò che risiederebbe prima e/o oltre la vita pratica), possa fungere da guida per l’azione.

Self-mentions (i.e., first person pronouns and self-citations) have proven to be one of the most powerful ways of rhetorical self-projection in academic discourse and their role in the construction of a self that engenders credibility in more overtly persuasive genres, such as political debates, has been extensively studied, given the vast literature on pronouns in political discourse analysis and specifically on their uses in political debates. To gain a better insight into the ways in which politicians can build a credible ethos through a competent and authoritative presentation of themselves in electoral debates, this paper compares the frequency and rhetorical roles of the self-mentions used by the candidates of the two major political parties (i.e., Democrats and Republicans) during the debates held for the United States presidential election of 2016. The Republican candidates (i.e., Trump and Pence) were found to make a notably greater use of selfmentions than their Democratic counterparts (i.e., Clinton and Kaine). Significant differences were also found in the rhetorical roles most commonly adopted by each politician to convey authority through the use of exclusive pronouns and self-citations.

Studying changing attitudes toward marriage rights in the United States, we consider how sexual and gender socialization and changes in values and beliefs regarding homosexuality and marriage influence lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and questioning (LGBTQ) youth. We begin by presenting the cultural environment of policies, court decisions, and political maneuvers in response to the question of "same-sex" marriage. In this context, we examine fluctuations of public opinion polling from 1989 to 2009. These issues background our main focus, which is to comment on the emerging, positive research on the resiliency, strength, and future aspirations of LGBTQ youth. Such research was begun in the late-1980s with a significant communitybased, ethnographic study on LGBTQ youth in Chicago. Although similar studies are being done now, more ethnographic research is necessary to build a catalog of data focused on positive traits in response to a deficiency model used in most psychological research on LGBTQ youth. We end by suggesting ways that psychological anthropologists might fruitfully engage with policy studies and advocates through such research. [bisexual, cohort effect, culture drift, gay, LGBTQ, lesbian, marriage, same-sex marriage, public policy, politics, queer, trans, youth attitudes] Setting the Scene for Marriage Understanding the influence of sexual socialization and gender attitudes on human development has long been a theme in psychological anthropology, especially as conceptualized through values, beliefs, rules, and culturally patterned emotional and cognitive mechanisms

Resumo: Este trabalho visa a analisar algumas estratégias utilizadas pela instância midiática na produção de seu discurso que podem contribuir também na constituição de um ethos discursivo do profissional do jornalismo, principalmente na mídia impressa. Para isso, busca-se relacionar os diálogos teóricos acerca da Análise do Discurso – especialmente no que se refere à Teoria Semiolinguística e Argumentação – com alguns conceitos já postulados a respeito do ethos jornalístico no campo da Comunicação. A fim de proporcionar uma melhor compreensão das noções teóricas expostas, procura-se analisá-las e exemplificá-las por meio de excertos de textos jornalísticos de jornais impressos brasileiros, produzidos por enviados especiais no exterior. Sendo assim, espera-se mostrar que o ethos jornalístico pode estar relacionado a uma busca por um efeito de verdade que se baseia no ideal da verossimilhança com o real, o qual, por sua vez, permeia pelo imaginário da prática jornalística.

Palavras-chave: ethos; ethos jornalístico; mídia impressa; discurso midiático.

Abstract: This paper aims to analyze some strategies used by the media in the production of their discourse that can also contribute to the constitution of a discursive ethos of journalism professionals, especially in the print media. Then, we seek to relate the theoretical dialogues about Discourse Analysis-especially with regard to Semiolinguistic Theory and Argumentation-with some already postulated concepts regarding the journalistic ethos in the field of Communication. In order to provide a better understanding of the theoretical notions discussed, it's sought to analyze and exemplify them through excerpts from the journalistic texts of Brazilian printed newspapers produced by special envoys abroad. Thus, it is expected to show that the journalistic ethos may be related to a search for a truth effect that is based on the ideal of verisimilitude with the real, which permeates the imaginary of journalistic practice.

Page 1. Page 2. Spirits with Scalpels Page 3. To: Eleanor Jennifer David Suzanne With whom I am grateful to have shared this lifetime. Page 4. Spirits with Scalpels The Culturalbiology of Religious Healing in Brazil Sidney M. Greenfield Walnut Creek, CA Page 5. ...

... contexts such as school, preschool (eg, Corsaro 1985; Mayall 1994, 2001; Strandell 1999; Solberg 1994; Thorne ... The relationship between Andreas and his parents, and their options for overcoming problems and conflicts are ... Dreier, Ole 1997 Subjectivity and Social Practice. ...

Breastfeeding is not only a natural way of feeding children but also a parenting system that is practiced differently in diverse cultures depending on the ecological conditions and cultural values. In this study, videotapes of breastfeeding sessions and interviews with breastfeeding mothers of two ethnic groups of rural Cameroon, sedentary Nso farmers (n = 33) and nomadic Fulani pastorals (n = 18), were analyzed. The primary socialization goal of the two groups is the health and survival of the child in a hazardous environment. Yet their ideas about selfconstruct differ, with the Nso following a more interdependent developmental pathway and the Fulani following a more individualistic pathway. The results are discussed with respect to their relevance in defining a culturally informed developmental science, as well as developing intervention programs that are tailored to the needs of people in varying contexts. C hild morbidity and mortality constitute one of the most serious health problems found in Cameroon, especially its rural areas. Millions of children die every year from malnutrition, diseases due to lack of clean water, and inadequate sanitation. Over 70 percent of infant deaths are caused by diseases that could be prevented with the improvement of early infant nutrition (United Nations Children Fund [UNICEF] 2001a). However, as recent UNICEF statistics for Cameroon (2001b) indicate, only 16 percent of infants from zero to three months of age are exclusively breastfed. Because of the benefits of breastfeeding and its relationship with national, global, and sustainable development, much attention from international organizations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and governments has been focused on breastfeeding. Article 24 of the Charter of the Rights of the child (UNICEF 1990) emphasizes the child's right to nutrition for better development. In 1992, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) held an international conference in Dakar on assistance £0>Gs31(2):147-171.CopyriQht©2OO3. American Anthropological Association.

Alice Walker, a proponent of eco-spirituality, endeavors to usher the flourishing spirit of solidarity and Justice through little acts of earthly functions which may transform our environment and adorn the surroundings with heavenly touch of natural beauty. Earthly delights always in abundance, revel and recognize wholeness and integrity, though unfortunately it is man himself who never bothers to explore and avail the worshipful treasures of bliss on this planet. Walker as an eco-spiritualist attempts to relocate the redemptive springs of earthly clinging that evidently protects and nourishes human family without any abuse or exploitation.

first taught us that children understand much more than we think about chronic and life-threatening illness. In this insightful, well-written book, part of the Rutgers Series in Childhood Studies edited by Bluebond-Langner, Cindy Dell Clark delves into the social worlds of young children with asthma and Type 1 diabetes. Clark's premise, that "children's framings of reality constitute singular social worlds which are pervasive, full of impact, and woefully underexplored" (p. 160), responds to a quickly growing literature on child-centered research (cf. James, Jenks, and Prout 1998). The idea that social interaction mediates the experience of chronic illness is not new to medical and psychological anthropology, but Clark's efforts to understand children's own perspectives, feelings, and understandings of and about illness form a unique contribution to the literature.

Gaslighting is defined as a dysfunctional communication dynamic in which one interlocutor attempts to destabilize another's sense of reality. In this article, we advance a model of gaslighting based in an epistemic rhetoric perspective. Our model directs attention to the rhetorics used to justify competing knowledge claims, as opposed to philosophical models that tend to rely on objective truth-value. We probe the discursive manifestations of gaslighting in logocentric, ethotic, or pathemic terms. We then apply our model to explain sexist and racist gaslighting that derives power from normatively instantiated discourses of rape culture and White supremacy. Specifically, our analysis identifies the appeal structures used to legitimate such gaslighting in response to disclosures of sexual violence and testimony about racial injustice.

Abstract In psychology and allied disciplines, autism has been erroneously conceived as a disease that precludes meaningful social behavior. Anthropologists are beginning to address this problem by rejecting the narrow confines of what constitutes human social functioning, and by showing the complex ways in which autistic children and adults participate in and contribute to their societies. At the same time, anthropologists have begun to contextualize public debates about autism prevalence and etiology in historical and cultural processes. This commentary identifies two major disjunctions in contemporary public debates about autism: the first between a depersonalized form of knowledge constructed by science and a narcissistic claim for knowledge that privileges anecdotal, personal experience; the second between a “mainstream” discourse on science and a new discourse on science that explains autism in terms of environmental insults. These new environmental perspectives, especially those that concern vaccine damage, can be situated in late modernity. They mediate between a nostalgic memory of ontological certainty, trust, and authenticity and a postmodern world characterized by a loss of faith in scientific institutions. [autism, sociality, vaccines, advocacy]

Par le Commentaire historique sur les ouvrages de l’auteur de la Henriade, publié en 1776, deux ans avant sa mort, Voltaire répond à une demande longtemps implicite, puis devenue publique et de plus en plus pressante, de donner l’histoire de sa vie. Le Commentaire historique embrasse sa vie tout entière. Il est composé de deux volets : un discours narratif est ensuite complété d’un dossier de trente et une lettres, toutes de l’auteur, sauf deux auxquelles il répond, présentées en annexe comme des « pièces justificatives ».
Malgré la pression d’une attente favorable qui aurait pu légitimer une prise de parole à la première personne, Voltaire parle de lui-même à la troisième personne. Voltaire a écrit ce texte et s’en est en même temps absenté. Quelqu’un dit « je », qui ne représente pas Voltaire. Ce « je » n’est pas nommé, on le perçoit comme pouvant être un familier, un secrétaire peut-être, ou un proche ou un ami, quelqu’un qui l’a bien connu. Et ce quelqu’un qui dit « je » parle de M. de Voltaire en le désignant par « il », « lui », « Voltaire » Ce « je » est également celui qui dit avoir composé le recueil de lettres qui constitue la deuxième partie de l’ouvrage, légèrement plus longue que la partie narrative.

Voltaire a finement fabriqué cette « mise en scène». Passant de la scène privée à la scène publique, Voltaire a cru devoir dire « je » en position oblique, se faire parler et vivre en « il ».

L’éthos est une notion complexe, dans la mesure où elle a été examinée dans le cadre de disciplines différentes, qui vont de la sociologie à la linguistique, de la rhétorique à l’analyse du discours... Nous nous proposons ici de redéfinir d’abord la notion, voire son noyau, à partir d’une réflexion théorique sur les approches préexistantes et opérant une généralisation de la notion. Ensuite, par l’analyse d’un cas empirique, notamment le discours politique, nous considérerons les limites des typologies actuelles pour en proposer une nouvelle à partir des travaux d’Eric Landowski. Enfin, nous effectuerons quelques réflexions générales sur la nécessité d’étudier la notion en contexte pour la restituer à sa complexité et à son dynamisme.