Diffusion

Continually are disclosed new scientific evidences supporting the role of phytochemicals in the preventing and treating chronic and degenerative diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and disorders and alterations of the lipids. In this respect, several studies have shown the beneficial properties that have the hibiscus flower and its extracts. The development products based on these represents a great alternative to the food and beverage industry, mainly in the sector referred to as “functional foods”, which have a significant increase in the national and international market. This review was conducted in presenting the most important aspects related to the functional properties of the calyces and extracts of hibiscus flower.
Keywords: phytochemicals, hibiscus flower extracts, functional foods.

In this article, we synthesize and analyze sociological understanding of fashion, with the main part of the review devoted to classical and recent sociological work. To further the development of this largely interdisciplinary field, we also highlight the key points of research in other disciplines. We define fashion as an unplanned process of recurrent change against a backdrop of order in the public realm. We clarify this definition after tracing fashion's origins and history. As a social phenomenon, fashion has been culturally and economically significant since the dawn of Modernity and has increased in importance with the emergence of mass markets, in terms of both production and consumption. Most research on this topic is concerned with dress, but we argue that there are no domain restrictions that should constrain fashion theories. We identify venues around which sociologists could develop further research in this field.

The aim of this study was to evaluate diffusion and dilution methods for determining the antibacterial activity of plant extracts and their mixtures. Several methods for measurement of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of a plant extract are available, but there is no standard procedure as there is for antibiotics. We tested different plant extracts, their mixtures and phenolic acids on selected gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Listeria monocytogenes) and gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Infantis, Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli) with the disk diffusion, agar dilution, broth microdilution and macrodilution methods. The disk diffusion method was appropriate only as a preliminary screening test prior to quantitative MIC determination with dilution methods. A comparison of the results for MIC obtained by agar dilution and broth microdilution was possible only for gram-positive bacteria, and indicated the latter as the most accurate way of assessing the antimicrobial effect. The microdilution method with TTC (2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride) or INT (2-p-iodophenyl-3-pnitrophenyl-5-phenyl tetrazolium chloride) to indicate the viability of aerobic bacteria was found to be the best alternative approach, while only ATP determination was appropriate for microaerophilic Campylobacter spp. Using survival curves the kinetics of bacterial inactivation on plant extract exposure was followed for 24 h and in this way the MIC values determined by the microdilution method were confirmed as the concentrations of extracts that inhibited bacterial growth. We suggest evaluation of the antibacterial activity of plant extracts using the broth microdilution method as a fast screening method for MIC determination and the macrodilution method at selected MIC values to confirm bacterial inactivation. Campylobacter spp. showed a similar sensitivity to plant extracts as the tested gram-positive bacteria, but S. Infantis and E. coli O157:H7 were more resistant.

Moving the debate beyond the criminalisation of international migration begins with taking seriously the measure of its cumulative effects on foreigners as well as on state-citizen relationships in all countries of migration. The drive for criminalisation has gained so much momentum in all countries of migration, be they rich or poor, democratically organised or authoritarian, conflict-ridden or in peace.
Criminalisation is not simply a name for the obvious securitisation of migration policies, or for how the latter have restricted the movement of people across borders. It is a name for a premise that gradually has come to regulate the complex relationships between states and their own citizens (be they mobile or not) as well as the organization of states’ interactions. In this connection, North African countries have learned to talk the talk of migration management and border controls while opening communicative channels with their European neighbours. However, as shown in this article, together with this process of socialisation based on iterative communication and reinvigorated patterns of interconnectedness, rules and practices transferred from abroad have been, as it were, re-appropriated while turning the socialiser (the EU and its member states) into a socialisee. In other words, European actors have become receptive to the diffusion of a counter-narrative from their North African neighbours, at the cost of making their cooperation framework more flexible with a view to addressing North African countries’ empowered agency and preferences.

The past decade has witnessed a quantum leap in our understanding of the origins, diffusion, and impact of early agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin. In large measure these advances are attributable to new methods for documenting domestication in plants and animals. The initial steps toward plant and animal domestication in the Eastern Mediterranean can now be pushed back to the 12th millennium cal B.P. Evidence for herd management and crop cultivation appears at least 1,000 years earlier than the morphological changes traditionally used to document domestication. Different species seem to have been domesticated in different parts of the Fertile Crescent, with genetic analyses detecting multiple domestic lineages for each species. Recent evidence suggests that the expansion of domesticates and agricultural economies across the Mediterranean was accomplished by several waves of seafaring colonists who established coastal farming enclaves around the Mediterranean Basin. This process also involved the adoption of domesticates and domestic technologies by indigenous populations and the local domestication of some endemic species. Human environmental impacts are seen in the complete replacement of endemic island faunas by imported mainland fauna and in today's anthropogenic, but threatened, Mediterranean landscapes where sustainable agricultural practices have helped maintain high biodiversity since the Neolithic.

A very simple experimental protocol based cn the agar-well diffusion method was used to estima%e the ecotoxicological effects of p-benzoqulnone on the growth of 5 bacteria and 58 fungi after 24 or 48-h exposure. The considerable variations found between the %oxioity tests results stressed %he heuristic potency of the proposed me%hod for assessing the environmental effects of ~he polluT~nts.

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles of different physical characteristics (size, size distribution, morphology, zeta potential) can be synthesized by controlling the parameters specific to the synthesis method employed. The aim of this review is to clearly, quantitatively and comprehensively describe the top-down synthesis techniques available for PLGA nanoparticle formation, as well as the techniques commonly used for nanoparticle characterization. Many examples are discussed in detail to provide the reader with an extensive knowledge base on the important parameters specific to the synthesis method described and ways in which these parameters can be manipulated to control the nanoparticle physical characteristics.

Ethosomes are specially tailored vesicular carriers able to efficiently deliver various molecules with different physicochemical properties into deep skin layers and across the skin. This paper reviews the unique characteristics of the ethosomal carriers, focusing on work carried out with drug containing ethosomal systems in animal models and in clinical studies. The paper concludes with a discussion on the safety of the ethosomal system applications.

Although the significance of burst release in controlled delivery systems has not been entirely ignored, no successful theories have been put forth to fully describe the phenomenon. Despite the fact that the fast release of drug in a burst stage is utilized in certain drug administration strategies, the negative effects brought about by burst can be pharmacologically dangerous and economically inefficient. Therefore a thorough understanding of the burst effect in controlled release systems is undoubtedly necessary. In this article, we review experimental observations of burst release in monolithic polymer controlled drug delivery systems, theories of the physical mechanisms causing burst, some of the unique ideas used to prevent burst, and the treatment of burst release in controlled release models.

The use of low-cost activated carbon derived from bagasse, an agricultural waste material, has been investigated as a replacement for the current expensive methods of removing heavy metals from wastewater. With a view to find a suitable application of the material, activated carbon has been derived, characterized and utilized for the removal of cadmium and zinc. The uptake of cadmium was found to be slightly greater than that of zinc and the sorption capacity increases with increase in temperature. The adsorption studies were carried out both in single-and multi-component systems. Adsorption data on derived carbon follows both the Freundlich and Langmuir models. The data are better fitted by the Freundlich isotherm as compared to Langmuir in both the single-and multi-component systems. Isotherms have been used to obtain the thermodynamic parameters. The kinetics of adsorption depends on the adsorbate concentration and the physical and chemical characteristics of the adsorbent. Studies were conducted to delineate the effect of temperature, initial adsorbate concentration, particle size of the adsorbent and solid-to-liquid ratio. On the basis of these studies, various parameters such as mass transfer coefficient, effective diffusion coefficient, activation energy and entropy of activation were evaluated to establish the mechanisms. It was concluded that the adsorption occurs through a film diffusion mechanism at low as well as at higher concentrations. r

In this article we demonstrate why mathematical models of the World System evolution are so important for the world-systems research, in general, and for the issue of systemic boundaries in particular. The point is that those mathematical models demonstrate in a rather convincing way that in order that a certain set of human societies would demonstrate systemic qualities (and – thus – could be described with a single mathematical model), it is sufficient that just one condition is observed – it is necessary that the technological innovations made in one society of a system could diffuse within a millennium throughout all the other societies of the system. As soon as this condition is satisfied , the respective set of human societies can be treated as a single system (and – what is important – can be described with a single mathematical model), and we do not know any better designation for such a system than the 'world-system'. This, of course suggests rather specific criteria for the world-systemic boundaries. In this article we will attempt to demonstrate why mathematical models of the World System evolution are so important for the world-systems research in general, and for the issue of systemic boundaries in particular. We will try to show that these models suggest a novel approach to the world-systems research allowing perceiving the issue of the systemic boundaries in a new light.

Latex film formation, the process by which an aqueous dispersion of polymer particles is transformed into a continuous material, has a direct bearing on the final film morphology and properties. Each of the primary stages of film formation (evaporative drying and ordering; particle deformation; and polymer interdiffusion) have been studied experimentally. Recently-developed non-invasive techniques, including direct nonradiative energy transfer, atomic force microscopy, small angle neutron scattering, environmental scanning electron microscopy, and various optical techniques have greatly enhanced the study of these stages. Even so, the exact cause (or causes) of particle deformation is still a topic of considerable debate. Several factors are experimentally known to influence latex film formation: the ambient conditions; the presence of surfactants, plasticizers and pigments; and latex particle structure. An important aim in the study of latex film formation is to understand the mechanisms by which these and other factors affect the process. New challenges lie in the study of film formation of core-shell latices, latex blends and new compositions. © 1997 Elsevier Science S.A.

Most of tool wear studies are classified as empirical (e.g. Taylor's equation); thus, they do not bring out the physical nature of the wear phenomenon. Consequently, tool life in general cannot be predicted by extending the result from one study. By understanding the physics behind the process, the important wear mechanisms can be identified. By constructing a wear model for each wear mechanism with more fundamental quantities such as materials properties, these models can be combined and extended to estimate tool life. This should be the ultimate goal of tool wear research in machining. However, a major gap exists between the current understandings of tool wear and the ultimate goal of tool wear research. This paper will describe how cutting tools are being worn down during machining based on the physics behind tool wear.

Poorly water-soluble compounds are difficult to develop as drug products using conventional formulation techniques and are frequently abandoned early in discovery. In the present study, the melt emulsification method traditionally used to prepare solid lipid nanoparticles was adapted to produce drug nanosuspensions. The method was evaluated in comparison with the well known solvent diffusion process for ibuprofen as a model drug. Control of the preparation variables (stabilizers, drug content, homogenization procedure and cooling conditions) allowed formation of nanosuspensions with diameters less than 100 nm. The major advantage of the melt emulsification method over the solvent diffusion method is the avoidance of organic solvents during production, although the mean particle size is slightly greater. The combination of Tween 80 and PVP K25 as stabilizers yields nanosuspensions with the smallest average particle size. The formulation of ibuprofen as a nanosuspension, either in the form of lyophilized powder or granules, was very successful in enhancing dissolution rate, more than 65% of the drug being dissolved in the first 10 min compared to less than 15% of the micronized drug. The increase in in vitro dissolution rate may favourably affect bioavailability and improve safety for the patient by decreasing gastric irritancy.

La classification géographique et/ou sociologique des dialectes arabes modernes s'appuie, entre autres, sur certaines unités phonologiques qui, confrontées à une comparaison très minutieuse, ne s'avèrent pas fortement discriminantes. Les mêmes unités se retrouvent dans les parlers de plusieurs régions et variétés sociologiques à la fois en synchronie et en diachronie. Ont été revisitées plusieurs unités consonantiques et vocaliques dans diverses variétés linguistiques arabes (protoarabe, dialectes arabes anciens, arabe classique, arabe moyen, arabe moderne et dialectes arabes modernes). Devant cette extrême variabilité, la présente étude discute d'une part les éléments qui permettent de déceler dans les unités phonologiques celles produites par des développements parallèles vs celles qui sont le fruit des mécanismes de diffusion vs celles issues d'un processus d'héritage. L'hypothèse défendue dans cette étude est que certaines unités phonologiques, considérées comme discriminantes, sont le résultat soit d'un long héritage passé de l'arabe ancien aux dialectes arabes modernes, soit d'un processus de diffusion ample qui s'était développé à une époque très lointaine. D'autre part, elle verse dans le champ de la dialectologie arabe, à des fins de classification, des indices acoustiques fins dépendant de deux phénomènes différents, la coarticulation et la prosodie.

Review by Douglas White:
This "is a book of startling simplicity and depth that suggests an empirical solution to viewing the subjectivist/objectivist dilemmas in the social sciences and history.

It will have a profound effect on how comparison is done in the future in anthropology, and suggests an answer to why some anthropologists, starting with Geertz, are reluctant to suggest comparison as an adequate method.

The Murdockian comparative approach, up to Korotayev, had developed to the point where the nonindependence of cultures was well-recognized, and ways of taking the larger configurations of cultural systems into account had been reckoned to lie, in the latest iteration, along lines of high-order proto-linguistic communities.

Korotayev demonstrates the effects of breaking what might be seen as a ritual taboo of Murdockian comparison: Thou Shalt Not Code World Religion. By doing so, Korotayev releases the Murdockian spell that lingers over the comparative approach in anthropology, and goes on to demonstrate the powerful effects of world religious communities - dating from what Jaspers calls the 'Axial Age' (400-600BC) - on the preservation and differentiation of distinctive social and political structures in Eurasia.

His introduction and conclusion suggest that an objectivist natural history approach to human history, in which subjective factors are of local importance but fade out in terms of lasting effects over generations, is a valid approach to the 'pre-Axial' condition of human societies, while a subjectivist history of consciousness is a necessary complement to the 'post-Axial' condition.

Korotayev succeeds in placing these two complementary approaches in context and showing their linkages in terms of how subjective and religious factors play out in human history alongside objective factors such as demography and ecology, each informing the other. He shows how it is impossible to arrive at valid inferential results from comparative approaches without an integration of the two, a situation he aptly calls 'Galton's opportunity' for those are of century-old critiques of the comparative method.

The reader will be surprised at the depth of empirical comparative findings in this short book. Following Murray Leaf's Man, Mind and Science (1974) this work is a major contribution to repair of the material/ideational rift in anthropology."

Although based on strong historical, linguistic and ethnographic evidence, the conclusion that immigrant Khoekhoe pastoralists introduced the first livestock to southernmost Africa finds no convincing archaeological support. This may be for a number of reasons. Perhaps nomadic pastoralists leave no archaeological traces; or migrations are difficult to detect. Archaeology and the other disciplines may not be looking at the same thing. Or maybe the migrations date to the second millennium AD, long after the first livestock had reached southernmost Africa. It is not easy to tell: Later Stone Age animal bones, stones and pots do not broadcast the language and identity of the people who discarded them.

To cite this document: Muhammad-Bashir Owolabi Yusuf, Alias Mat Derus, (2013),"Measurement model of corporate zakat collection in Malaysia: A test of diffusion of innovation theory", Humanomics, Vol. 29 Iss: 1 pp. 61 -74 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.

This paper presents research on a rule-based approach to designing creative acoustic diffuser arrays. A shape grammar-influenced design method is specified that uses shape rules to recursively design arrays of quadratic residue diffusers (QRD) in ways that are neither mechanical nor deterministic.

Many types of nanoparticles (NPs) are tested for use in medical products, particularly in imaging and gene and drug delivery. For these applications, cellular uptake is usually a prerequisite and is governed in addition to size by surface characteristics such as hydrophobicity and charge. Although positive charge appears to improve the efficacy of imaging, gene transfer, and drug delivery, a higher cytotoxicity of such constructs has been reported. This review summarizes findings on the role of surface charge on cytotoxicity in general, action on specific cellular targets, modes of toxic action, cellular uptake, and intracellular localization of NPs. Effects of serum and intercell type differences are addressed. Cationic NPs cause more pronounced disruption of plasma-membrane integrity, stronger mitochondrial and lysosomal damage, and a higher number of autophagosomes than anionic NPs. In general, nonphagocytic cells ingest cationic NPs to a higher extent, but charge density and hydrophobicity are equally important; phagocytic cells preferentially take up anionic NPs. Cells do not use different uptake routes for cationic and anionic NPs, but high uptake rates are usually linked to greater biological effects. The different uptake preferences of phagocytic and nonphagocytic cells for cationic and anionic NPs may influence the efficacy and selectivity of NPs for drug delivery and imaging.

This article has several aims. First, it aims to sketch the historical use of the term "fake news" in the U.S. (now globalizing), while documenting key shifts (from comedic-economic meanings and uses to more "tragic" political-economic ones). The shift in use and meaning further corresponds to political-economic-entertainment effects, intermingled. Finally, recent discussions diagnosing causes and proposing solutions to correcting, containing, or eliminating fake news are considered (such as AI and ethical design, as well as cognitive bias) and critiqued, while different theories of causation and corresponding solutions are proposed.

This paper comprises the results of an empirical study on the use of project management standards in German and Swiss enterprises. This research points out the expectations, the realized benefits and -more importantly -the major differences between them. For this purpose, it compares ex-ante expectations of their respective users and compares them in turn with ex-post realised benefits. The results of the study are based on the statements made by 234 participants in an online survey conducted in 2006. Generally, standards are only rarely used in project management in Germany and Switzerland. And if standards are indeed used, they are rarely used ''as is"; in fact they are usually modified or adapted before application. Moreover, it can be observed that most participants expect consistent communication in the projects and better process quality to be the primary benefits of standards. However, it is often impossible to realize expected benefits. Benefits are offset by deficiencies, such as the lack of acceptance, administrational overheads and associated costs. Based on the results of this study, recommendations for standard-giving organizations and standard-applying organizations are put forward.

Many numerical methods use characteristic analysis to accommodate the advective component of transport. Such characteristic methods include Eulerian-Lagrangian methods (ELM), modified method of characteristics (MMOC), and operator splitting methods. A generalization of characteristic methods can be developed using an approach that we refer to as an Eulerian-Lagrangian localized adjoint method (ELLAM). This approach is a space-time extension of the optimal test function (OTF) method. The method provides a consistent formulation by defining test functions as specific solutions of the localized homogeneous adjoint equation. All relevant boundary terms arise naturally in the ELLAM formulation, and a systematic and complete treatment of boundary condition implementation results. This turns out to have significant implications for the calculation of boundary fluxes. An analysis of global mass conservation leads to the final ELLAM approximation, which is shown to possess the conservative property. Numerical calculations demonstrate the behaviour of the method with emphasis on treatment of boundary conditions. Discussion of the method includes ideas on extensions to higher spatial dimensions, reactive transport, and variable coefficient equations.

How do instances of popular protest spread across borders?  This question, which has eluded social scientists for decades, appears to have become more salient than ever in the wake of the mass protests that rocked the world in the wake of the Arab Spring in early 2011. In this chapter, we look at the diffusion of anti-austerity protests from Spain to Greece to the United States, focusing in particular on the claims and organizational forms behind these mobilizations. We note that, despite clear local varieties between them, the 15M movement in Spain, the Movement of the Squares in Greece, and the Occupy movement in the United States have a number of basic elements in common, most notably their critique of representation, their insistence on autonomy from political parties and the state, and their commitment to a prefijigurative politics based on horizontality, direct democracy, and self-organization. So how did this critique of representation and these alternative organizational models spread so rapidly across such widely divergent and geographically distant contexts? In approaching questions like these, social movement scholars have historically drawn on the concept of difffusion. In this chapter, we problematize some of the core assumptions behind classical difffusion theory and argue that its conceptual framework may be too linear to account for the local and transnational dimensions behind these protests. Instead of posing a clear-cut distinction between a 'transmitter' movement and an 'adopter' movement, we identify multiple sources of inspiration that simultaneously fed into each particular mobilization....

Large, explosive, caldera-forming eruptions are amongst the most destructive phenomena on the planet, but the processes that allow the large bodies of crystal-poor silicic magma that feed them to assemble in the shallow crust are still poorly understood. Of particular interest is the timescales over which these reservoirs exist prior to eruption. Long storage times—up to 10^5 y—have previously been estimated using the repose times between eruptions and radiometric dating of crystals found within the eruptive products. However, more recent work modelling diffusion within single crystals has been used to argue that the reservoirs that feed even the largest eruptions are assembled over much shorter periods—10^1–10^2 y.

In order to address this question, I studied the >10 km3, 22-ka, dacitic Cape Riva eruption of Santorini, Greece. Over the ~18 ky preceding the Cape Riva eruption a series of dacitic lava dome and coulées were erupted, and these lavas are interspersed with occasional dacitic pumice fall deposits (the Therasia dome complex). These dacites have similar major element contents to the dacite that was erupted during the Cape Riva eruption, and have previously been described as “precursory leaks” from the growing Cape Riva magma reservoir. However, the Cape Riva magma is depleted in incompatible elements (such as K, Zr, La, Ce) relative to the Therasia magma, as are the plagioclase crystals in the respective magmas. This difference cannot be explained using shallow processes such as fractional crystallisation or crustal assimilation, which suggests that the Cape Riva and Therasia magmas are separate batches. Furthermore, there is evidence that the Therasia dacites were not fed from a long-lived, melt-dominated reservoir. There are non-systematic variations in melt composition, plagioclase rim compositions, and plagioclase textures throughout the sequence. In addition, high-temperature residence times of plagioclase and orthopyroxene crystals from the Therasia dacites estimated using diffusion chronometry are 10^1–10^2 y. This is short compared to the average time between eruptions (~1,500 y), which suggests the crystals in each lava grew only shortly before eruption. The different incompatible element contents of the Cape Riva and Therasia magmas and plagioclase crystals suggest that a new batch of incompatible-depleted silicic magma arrived in the shallow volcanic plumbing system shortly before the Cape Riva eruption. This influx must have taken place after the last Therasia eruption, which 40Ar/39Ar dates show occurred less than 2,800 ± 1,400 years before the Cape Riva eruption.

The rims of the plagioclase crystals found in the Cape Riva dacite are in equilibrium with a rhyodacite, with a similar composition to the Cape Riva glass. However, the major and trace element zoning patterns of the crystals record variations in the melt composition during their growth. The compositions at the centre of most crystals are the same as the rims; however, these crystals are often partially resorbed and overgrown by more calcic plagioclase. The plagioclase then grades normally back to rim compositions. This cycle is repeated up to three times. The tight relationships between the anorthite, Sr and Ti contents of the different zones suggests that the composition of the plagioclase crystals correlates with the composition of the melt from which they grew. The different plagioclase compositions correspond to dacitic and rhyodacitic melt compositions. The orthopyroxene crystals reveal a similar sequence, although they only record one cycle. These zoning patterns are interpreted to document the assembly of the Cape Riva reservoir in the shallow crust through the amalgamation of multiple batches of compositionally diverse magma. Models of magnesium diffusion in plagioclase and Fe–Mg interdiffusion in orthopyroxene suggest that this amalgamation took place within 10^1–10^2 y of the Cape Riva eruption.

This work is divided into two main parts: the first is the one about the diffusion of animated short entitled Via Tango and the second is the one about self-promotion thereof, through the use of different strategies and materials. In the part of diffusion I wanted to mention the selection of Via Tango at various film or video festivals or exhibitions (national, international, generalists, specialists...), its presence in various media online, blogs, websites, video portals (Vimeo, YouTube) and social networks (Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, LinkedIn ...). Also worthy of mention educational applications in different educational stage and collaborations with others within and outside the world of animation.
If in the previous part, the animated image was the protagonist, self-promotion will be the still image and we highlight the picture book, articles, business cards, greeting and celebration cards, exhibitions, derivative works (boxes , postcards ...), that they have been, all of them works produced as a result from the making of the short film and in order to give more visibility and publicity, but without forgetting that each piece has its own entity.

Assume that the physics on the microscale (interactions between atoms,
molecules, defects in crystals . . . ) is understood.What is the appropriate mesoscale
continuum theory for the problem? What are the assumptions involved and how do
they define the limitations of the continuum model? To answer these questions, we
begin with the definition of mesoscale continuum kinematics from the microscale
kinematics. The geometry of micro-structure (e.g., order vs. disorder) has a decisive
role in defining the continuum kinematics. We thus arrive at three kinematic
formulations: mass continuum, lattice continuum and granular continuum. Then,
upon formulating the power balance, we use the principle of virtual power to
arrive at a variety of mathematical formulations: simple continuum with moving
boundaries, phase field formulation, and, a higher order, size-dependent continuum.
The problems considered include: mixing of fluids and capillary flows, granular
flow/deformation, and, polycrystalline diffusional/dislocation creep accompanied
by dislocation plasticity.

A critical review is presented of modern theoretical developments on problems of droplet vaporization in a high-temperature environment and of spray combustion. Emphasis is placed upon analytical and computational contributions to the theory with some mention of empirical evidence. Four areas of basic phenomena are discussed in some detail: (i)droplet slip and internal circulation, (ii) transient heating of the droplets, (iii) multicomponent fuel vaporization, and (iv) combustion and vaporization of droplet arrays, groups, and sprays. Various relationships amongst these phenomena are analyzed as well. Several other problem areas are given brief mention. Future directions are suggested.

Adsorption of Cu(II) from aqueous solution onto H 3 PO 4 -activated carbon using rubber wood sawdust (RSAC) was investigated in a batch system. Kinetic and isotherm studies were carried out by considering the effects of various parameters, such as initial concentration, contact time, pH, and temperature. The optimal pH value for Cu(II) adsorption onto RSAC was found to be 6.0. Thermodynamic parameters such as standard Gibbs free energy ( G 0 ), standard enthalpy ( H 0 ), and standard entropy ( S 0 ) were evaluated by applying the Van't Hoff equation. The thermodynamics of Cu(II) adsorption onto RSAC indicates its spontaneous and exothermic nature. Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherms were used to analyze the equilibrium data at different temperatures. The Langmuir isotherm fits the experimental data significantly better than the other isotherms. Adsorption kinetics data were tested using pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion models. Kinetic studies showed that the adsorption followed a pseudo-second-order reaction. The initial sorption rate, pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion rate constants for different initial concentrations were evaluated and discussed. Adsorption mechanism studies revealed that the process was complex and followed both surface adsorption and particle diffusion. The rate-controlling parameter and effective diffusion coefficient were determined using the Reichenberg plot. It was found that the adsorption occurs through film diffusion at low concentrations and at higher concentration the particle diffusion becomes the rate-determining step.

Using molecular dynamic (MD) simulations of the TIP5P model of water, we investigate the effect of hydrophobic confinement on the anomalies of liquid water. For confinement length Lz = 1.1 nm, such that there are 2-3 molecular layers of water, we find the presence of the bulk-like density and diffusion anomaly in the lateral directions. However, the lines of these anomalies in the P-T plane are shifted to lower temperatures ( T ≈ 40 K) and pressures compared to bulk water. Furthermore, we introduce a method to calculate the effective diffusion constant along the confinement direction and find that the diffusion anomaly is absent. Moreover, we investigate the hydrogen bond dynamics of confined water and find that the hydrogen bond dynamics preserves the characteristics of HB dynamics in bulk water, such as a non-exponential behavior followed by an exponential tail of HB lifetime probability distributions and an Arrhenius temperature dependence of the average HB lifetime. The average number and lifetime of HBs decrease in confined water compared to bulk water at the same temperature. This reduction may be the origin of the reasons for the different physical properties of confined water from bulk water, such as the 40 K temperature shift.

A mathematical model for integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) and moving-bed biofilm reactor wastewater treatment processes was developed. The model is based on theoretical considerations that include simultaneous diffusion and Monod-type reaction kinetics inside the biofilm, competition between aerobic autotrophic nitrifiers, non-methanoldegrading facultative heterotrophs, methanol-degrading heterotrophs, slowly biodegradable chemical oxygen demand, and inert biomass for substrate (when appropriate) and space inside the biofilm; and biofilm and suspended biomass compartments, which compete for both the electron donor and electron acceptor. The model assumes identical reaction kinetics for bacteria within suspended biomass and biofilm. Analytical solutions to a 1-dimensional biofilm (assuming both zero-and first-order kinetics) applied to describe substrate flux across the biofilm surface are integrated with a revised and expanded matrix similar to that presented as the International Water Association (London, United Kingdom) Activated Sludge Model Number 2d (ASM2d) stoichiometric and kinetic matrix. The steady-state mathematical model describes a continuous-flow stirred-tank reactor. Water Environ.

The aim of the present work is to provide information about the migration of phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers generally used in flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC) applications. Plastisols (pastes) were prepared by mixing PVC, plasticizer, and thermal stabilizer. The plasticized PVC (p-PVC) films are obtained by gelation at 160 C for 15 min. The p-PVC films were heat treated at 50, 85, 100, 130, and 160 C up to 420 min to follow the mass loss to find out diffusivity of plasticizer out of films into air and to determine related activation energies. The films having di-octyl terephthalate (DOTP) and di-isononyl 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid (DINCH) exhibited the lowest mass loss in general, among the phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizer having p-PVC films, respectively, as confirmed by FTIR investigation. The same tendency was observed for diffusion coefficients and for the activation energies of migration. The diffusion coefficients were found to be around 3.5 Â 10 À18 -2.1 Â 10 À17 m 2 /sec for the studied plasticizers in PVC at 50 C and around 4.0 Â 10 À15 -9.9 Â 10 À14 m 2 /sec at 160 C. The activation energies for 85-160 C interval were determined to be between 70 and 153 kJ/mol (0.72-1.58 eV) for the plasticizers used herein those could be treated as a homologous series as deduced from the related compensation factors.

Soil moisture strongly affects the dynamics of soil organic matter and is an important environmental variable in all models predicting changes in soil carbon stocks from site to global scales. Despite this, the mechanisms determining the response of heterotrophic soil respiration to soil moisture remain poorly quantified, being represented in most current carbon cycle models as simple empirical functions. With the aim of providing an overview and new insights into the mechanisms involved, here we review the observations and theory behind the respiration-moisture relationship. We start by calculating best estimates of average empirical relationships using published data and comparing the results for contrasting soil types. The theoretical linkages between substrate and gas diffusivity in soil pores and heterotrophic respiration are then explored as a function of temperature and textural properties. Based on this theoretical model we interpret the variability of moisture effects observed in previous empirical studies. Transient CO 2 effluxemoisture relationships are discussed next, reviewing the theory and models developed in the last years with particular emphasis on the 'Birch effect'. We continue by giving an overview of recent pore-scale models and consider how these can be used to gain a more mechanistic understanding of carbon storage and stabilization in variably saturated soils. From this review we conclude that current empirical models are useful but limited approximations, with questionable predictive capacity. Significant efforts are still necessary to represent the full range of soil moisture responses in a unifying model with a sound theoretical basis that can help identify common underlying processes. Equations present here, combining diffusion, texture and substrate to model respiration, are a step forward in this direction.

The study of groundwater hydrogeochemistry of the Paleozoic Basses-Laurentides sedimentary rock aquifer system in Québec produced a large geochemical dataset. Groundwater samples were collected at 153 sites over a 1500 km 2 study area and analyzed for major and minor ions. The large number of data can lead to difficulties in the integration, interpretation and representation of the results. Two multivariate statistical methods, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal components analysis (PCA), were applied to a subgroup of the dataset to evaluate their usefulness to classify the groundwater samples, and to identify geochemical processes controlling groundwater geochemistry. This subgroup consisted of 144 samples and 14 parameters (Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , K + , HCO À 3 , Cl À , SO 2À 4 , Fe 2+ , Mn 2+ , Br À , Sr 2+ , F À , Ba 2+ , HS À ). Seven geochemically distinct clusters, C1-C7, resulted from the HCA. Samples from clusters C3, C4, C6 and C7 are mostly located in preferential recharge areas. The majority of these samples have Ca-Mg-HCO 3 recharge groundwater (C3, C6, C7) and Na-HCO 3 evolved groundwater (C4). Samples from the other three clusters (C1, C2, C5) are characteristic of an aquifer system under confined conditions. The majority of these samples have Na-HCO 3 evolved groundwater (C1, C5) and Na-Cl ancient groundwater that exhibits elevated concentrations in Br À (C2). In addition to recognizing the importance of hydrogeological conditions on groundwater geochemistry, the distribution of clusters also showed the importance of the geological formations on minor and trace elements, such as Fe 2+ , Mn 2+ , Sr 2+ , F À and Ba 2+ . The first five components of the PCA account for 78.3% of the total variance in the 0022-1694/$ -see front matter ª (R. Therrien), [email protected] (M.M. Savard). Journal of Hydrology (2008) 353, 294-313 a v a i l a b l e a t w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / j h y d r o l

Universities play a key role in the development of society, and their involvement in sustainable development will be crucial in changing current practices in society towards sustainable development. Thus, information about the measures and actions taken towards sustainable development needs to be communicated to all university stakeholders. Sustainability reporting is a voluntary tool for disclosing efforts towards sustainable development, but little research has analysed the diffusion of sustainability reporting among universities. This study uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to explain the worldwide diffusion of sustainability reporting in universities. At the macro level, regressions using logistic curves showed the stage of diffusion regarding sustainability reporting for different regions around the world. At the micro level, two types of data were analysed to assess the sustainable practices used among universities: (i) data from the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) sustainability reporting database and (ii) sustainability reports from the GRI database. The results indicate that the diffusion of sustainability reporting is still at an early stage in universities, and no massive diffusion is expected based on the current data, despite the increasing concerns about sustainability in young people and other university stakeholders. Some actions need to be taken to persuade universities to adopt reporting standards and to highlight the benefits and necessity of sustainability reporting. Some European universities, which are the most active universities in providing sustainability reports, have improved their visibility by adopting the GRI, thus increasing their endowments and facilitating their ability to raise funds for future sustainability activities.

Cyclodextrins are cyclic oligosaccharides with a hydrophilic outer surface and a somewhat lipophilic central cavity. Cyclodextrins are able to form water-soluble inclusion complexes with many lipophilic water-insoluble drugs. In aqueous solutions drug molecules located in the central cavity are in a dynamic equilibrium with free drug molecules. Furthermore, lipophilic molecules in the aqueous complexation media will compete with each other for a space in the cavity. Due to their size and hydrophilicity only insignificant amounts of cyclodextrins and drug/cyclodextrin complexes are able to penetrate into lipophilic biological barriers, such as intact skin. In general, cyclodextrins enhance topical drug delivery by increasing the drug availability at the barrier surface. At the surface the drug molecules partition from the cyclodextrin cavity into the lipophilic barrier. Thus, drug delivery from aqueous cyclodextrin solutions is both diffusion controlled and membrane controlled. It appears that cyclodextrins can only enhance topical drug delivery in the presence of water.

Most industrially applied polymer resins and composites have low surface free energy and lack polar functional groups on their surface, resulting in inherently poor adhesion properties. A strong research momentum to understand polymer adhesion in the last decade has been motivated by the growing needs of the automotive and aerospace industries for better adhesion of components and surface coatings. This paper reviews the recent research efforts on polymer adhesion with a special focus on adhesion mechanisms. It starts with an introduction to adhesion with explanatory notes on adhesion phenomena. Recent research on the adhesion mechanisms of mechanical coupling, chemical bonding and thermodynamic adhesion is then discussed. The area of adhesion promoters is reviewed with the focus on plasma and chemical treatments, along with direct methods for adhesion measurement. The topics of polymer blends and reactive polymerization are considered and the interactions with adhesion mechanisms are reported. The concluding section provides recommendations regarding future research on the contentious aspects of currently accepted adhesion mechanisms and on strategies for enhancing polymer adhesion strength.