Consumer Protection

With the continuing growth of electronic commerce and markets a need for consumer protection has become a priority. The increase of transnational trades through e-markets has raised the number of low value high volume disputes in the ecommerce arena. Therefore, to effectively protect consumers alternative forms of justice should become available and accessible to anyone who operates online. In the last two decades, we have assisted to a significant development in the practice of resolving disputes via the internet and other modern digital applications. However, Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) has not advance as rapidly as the number of disputes for which there is no access to justice and no effective redress 2. Since its creation, eBay has been at the forefront of creating and developing resources for supporting ODR processes. Its Dispute Resolution Center is one of the biggest ODR systems in the world and has been considered by many the most successful example of Online Dispute Resolution. This study aims to examines whether eBay ODR system embodies principles of fairness, due process, accountability, and transparency. Additionally, this study will present a qualitative analysis of data collected from over two hundred reviews left by eBay consumers on the Better Business Bureau website with the aim of investigating issues experienced by eBay sellers and buyers with eBay Resolution program.

Cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin and Ether encourage the owners of computing resources to bring ever-increasing levels of processing power to bear in validating the distributed ledger of cryptocurrency purchases and sales.  Initial coin offerings (ICOs) involve the sale of cryptocurrency coins or tokens with the aid of on white papers.  Crypto coin white papers involve a mixture of scientific, sociopolitical, and economic speech.  They often contain extended arguments for how users of the coins and the Internet or society in general could benefit from a new way of organizing economic relations, assembling and deploying assets, or exchanging messages or entitlements.  While they share some similarities with forms of commercial speech that enjoy quite limited First Amendment protection, they are arguably more similar to other economic statements that enjoy First Amendment protection against censorship, or to direct advertisements that are deemed insufficiently misleading to result in civil liability.  Nevertheless, some interpretations of U.S. securities and commodities law would prohibit authors of such white papers from raising funds for crypto coin platforms if the coin's users expect to earn a return on their investment and rely on the coin issuer's expertise or representations. 

This article explores principles of free expression that could shield truthful speech and subjective opinions about new crypto coins from some of the worst chilling effects of U.S. laws.  It examines ways in which crypto coins may benefit marketplace participants and economic efficiency, including by providing a beneficial alternative to traditional software app stores, logistics infrastructures, or banking and payment systems.  It then surveys the First Amendment and other constitutional issues that onerous regulations raise, and draws analogies to doctrines that reconcile the freedom of economic expression with the cause of consumer or investor protection under the Lanham Act, the Securities Exchange Act, state deceptive practices laws, and the law of warranties.  Several themes in the case law are ripe for application to ICOs: the need for precision and proportionality in framing regulation, the proscription against regulatory overkill and one-size-fits-all approaches, and the requirement that basic freedoms be preserved.  More specifically, the securities or commodities are not properly read as applying to many crypto coin offering papers, and describes other concepts such as virtual commodities or virtual barter systems from other jurisdictions that may be a better fit. 

The article urges American lawyers and judges to probe thoroughly whether the interests served by prohibitions and penalties on crypto coin speech justify the burdens imposed on information providers. Regulating false statements of existing fact and enhancing the remedies for making them will be more effective and less constitutionally infirm measures than those aimed at preempting merely potential harm.  Courts must balance the values of fraud prevention and remediation with the values of freedom of expression and expanded economic opportunity.  Analogous fields of law provide several tools with which to achieve this balance, including the distinction between general or universal fraud prohibitions and narrower securities or commodities regulation regimes, the difference between forward-looking and other statements in several area of fraud law, First Amendment principles governing professional and occupational licensing, and rules against vague or discriminatorily enforced regulations. 

keywords: cryptocurrencies, tokens, appcoins, altcoins, coins, coin offerings, ICOs, "initial coin offerings", free speech, freedom of speech, freedom of expression, freedom of information, cloud computing, virtualization, virtual communities,  virtual currencies, virtual commodities, digital barter, securities law, regulation, consumer protection, false advertising, Lanham Act, misleading, First Amendment, commercial speech, least restrictive means, overbreadth, vagueness, Fifth Amendment, due process, human rights, Telegram, TON, Kik, Kin, Kik Interactive, Bitcoin, Ether, smart contracts, crowdfunding, SEC, The DAO, CFTC, CFPB, European Union, EU, banking, risk, innovation, technology, financial technology, payment systems, multistakeholder governance, polycentric governance, puffery, bespeaks caution doctrine, California, New York, Texas, occupational licensing, libertarianism

To carry out any type of Business, there must be consumer. Without consumers, no goods can be sold, no services can be provided. So it is very important to take due care of the needs of the consumers. This study critically analyzed the three tier mechanism of Consumer disputes redressal in India. This mechanism is present at District, State and National level. For the analysis of the functioning of these forums, secondary data was collected and analyzed. During the analysis, it was found that out of total cases filed in the district forums since inception, 92.43% cases were disposed of till date. The disposal rate of all State Commissions was 85.67%. However the disposal rate of the National Commission was better than State commissions i.e. 86.26%. Thus the disposal rate of district forums was found higher than national as well as state commissions. The overall level of functioning of the three tier mechanism was found satisfactory. Further to this out of 669 total District forums, 29 were found non-functional i.e. only 640 District forums are functional in India. As far as vacant positions are concerned there were 416 positions lying vacant in various forums. There is an urgent need to revive the non-functional Forums at the earliest to provide timely and speedy justice to the consumers.

Consumer protection tends to becomes an ever decisive matter on a global and economic scale these days. It plays a principle role in maintaining and occassionally in recovery of balance between consumers and companies. This case study examines consumer protection as a system through the activity of protectional organizations. It puts the efficiency of consumer protection in Hungary compared to international examples on a scale, considering consumer and company aspects alike. The study basically focuses on the activities for legal claims of authorities and consumers, from which we can obtain an overall view of the appreciation of official control, different handlings of consumer complaints, the attitude of consumers and decent market policy of enterprises as well. The study serves as a guidance for future challenges and measures in the field of consumer protection, besides the evaluation of the state of affairs in Hungary from an international viewpoint.

This article deals with the protection of consumers when they enter e-commerce transactions with foreign companies. Most states reacted to the growing importance of e-commerce by enacting data protection and consumer protection legislation and by requiring registration of e-businesses. Companies have found a way to circumvent the consumer legislation by offering the consumers to agree to a choice of foreign courts and laws which are included in their terms and conditions. Consumers give away the protection of their home state simply by clicking to accept the general terms and conditions on the company's website. The purpose of this article is to examine if the solutions and the experience from the United States and the European Union could serve as a model for transnational protection of consumers in e-commerce. The authors discuss the different levels of protection offered in the United States and the European Union and consider unification of the standards by a multilateral convention.

Opšte je prihvaćeno mišljenje da su od potencijalne povrede svojih prava zaštićeni samo informisani potrošači. Oglašavanje predstavlja jedan od osnovnih načina informisanja potrošača, te je od krucijalne važnosti da ono sadrži adekvatne informacije koje potrošačima mogu olakšati proces donošenja odluke o kupovini. U cilju sprečavanja povrede osnovnih prava potrošača, oglašavanje je regulisano zakonskim aktima, kako na nivou EU tako i u Srbiji, pri čemu je posebna pažnja posvećena definisanju oglašavanja koje može dovesti do obmane potrošača. Predmet analize autora u ovom radu su stoga zakonska regulativa i teorijska objašnjenja obmanjujućeg oglašavanja. Prezentovani su i rezultati istraživanja oglašavanja u Srbiji i stepena informisanosti potrošača i njihove osposobljenosti da se zaštite od manipulacije oglašivača. Osnovni cilj autora je da doprinesu povećanju nivoa samozaštite potrošača kroz podizanje nivoa njihove svesti o obmanjujućem oglašavanju i njegovim posledicama.

Companies are increasingly relying on alternative promotional activities, such as word-of-mouth communication (WOM), to reach their target markets. From a consumer protection perspective this may be troubling, as consumers may not always be aware of what is commercially motivated WOM and what is not. Based on a synthesis of the literature, this article develops the first practitioner-friendly model, which explains WOM’s effectiveness as an information source for consumers and why it is a powerful tool for nonprofit organizations and government agencies. Then nine recommendations are developed to help nonprofit organizations and government agencies use WOM more effectively as a proconsumer tool. This is the first article to conceptualize proconsumer WOM rather than naturally occurring WOM or commercial WOM and to specifically focus on WOM to protect and educate consumers. The study paves the way to an untapped research area; that of proconsumer WOM by nonprofit organizations and government agencies.

A hulladékgazdálkodási közszolgáltatás kötelezően igénybe veendő szolgáltatás, amely minden ingatlanhasználót (magánszemélyeket, közületeket egyaránt) érint. E kutatás keretei között arra kerestünk válaszokat, hogy a közszolgáltatások magyarországi reformja mennyiben igazodik a fogyasztói érdekekhez, igényekhez. A szakirodalom utal arra, hogy mindazon közszolgáltatások körében, ahol az utóbbi években beavatkozott az állam a helyi szolgáltatásszervezésbe, korlátozva/kizárva a versenyt, elvonva a szolgáltatók gazdasági eredményét (rezsicsökkentéssel, új adókkal, központi árszabályozással), központosítással, már-már tendencia az ellátás minőségének romlása.  Azt vizsgáltuk, hogy ez megmutatkozik-e a hulladékgazdálkodással kapcsolatos fogyasztói panaszokban? Van-e a fogyasztói panaszok kezelésének olyan sajátos rendje, amelyik tükrözi a szektor átalakuló szerkezetét, abban a felelősség megoszlását a különböző szereplők között?
Kutatásunk során igyekeztünk hasznosítani a közszolgáltatás helyzetére vonatkozó szakirodalmi adatokat, illetve saját, korábbi eredményeinket. Emellett számos interjút készítettünk, egykori és jelenlegi közszolgáltatóknál. Áttekintettük a fogyasztóvédelmi hatóságnak az ágazatra vonatkozó, az interneten megtalált éves elemzéseit, számos a közszolgáltató internetes oldalát, illetve a közszolgáltatást koordináló szervezet honlapját, panaszkezelési szabályzatát és egyéb dokumentumait. Munkánkat nehezítette, hogy az érintettek (fogyasztóvédelmi hatóság, koordináló szervezet) honlapjáról csak töredékesen lehet elérni a megfelelő dokumentumokat (például jogerős hatósági határozatokhoz csak csekély számban sikerült hozzájutni). Ezek tükrében ugyan a joggyakorlat leírása nem lehetséges empirikus módszerekkel, de további kutatásokhoz hipotéziseket, illetve bizonyos jelenségek magyarázatához adalékokat szolgáltathatunk.

The article critically analyses the Internet of Things (IoT) and its intersection with cloud computing, the so-called Clouds of Things (CoT). ‘Things’ are understood as any physical entity capable of connectivity that has a direct interface to the physical world (i.e. a sensing and/or actuating capability). From another perspective (especially product liability), Things can be seen as an inextricable mixture of hardware, software, and services. Alongside a clarification of the essentials, the six factors of the CoT complexity are described and light is shed on the regulatory options (regulation, co-regulation, self-regulation, holistic approach, fragmentation). Focussing on the British legal systems, the article reports on the state of the art of CoT deployment in the United Kingdom and deals with some of the main technical and legal issues emerging from CoT. Particularly, the core will be data protection, privacy, and consumer law. Indeed, these themes are considered the most relev...

Resumen: Las plataformas intermediarias en línea se han convertido en protagonistas del desarro-llo del mercado digital y generan retos normativos importantes. Las nuevas tecnologías han favorecido nuevas formas de intercambio en las que el operador de la plataforma adopta una posición especial y compleja. El trabajo se centra en el análisis de las plataformas que, siendo prestadores de servicios de la sociedad de la información, actúan como intermediarias (también en sentido material), favoreciendo las transacciones entre los usuarios de la plataforma que pueden ser iguales (peer to peer, P2P, Consumer to Consumer, C2C) o entre empresarios (Business to Business, B2B), o entre empresario y consumidor (Business to Consumer, B2C). Se genera una relación contractual compleja: contrato celebrado por los usuarios con la plataforma que les permite el acceso para poder lograr la interacción y, posteriormente, el contrato celebrado entre los usuarios. El objeto del presente trabajo es el diagnóstico y propuesta de solución de los problemas que sus-cita la contratación a través de plataformas intermediarias en línea. Tenemos nuevos operadores que no encajan exactamente en los modelos regulados en la legislación de comercio electrónico lo que plantea problemas para determinar su responsabilidad en las transacciones realizadas por los usuarios a través de las plataformas. La "horizontalidad" de las relaciones jurídicas entre pares que se producen en un mercado multilateral es la que genera retos normativos. El acervo comunitario en materia de protección de los consu-midores está basado en un modelo de distribución en cadena: fabricante, mayorista, minorista y consu-midor en una escala vertical. El desequilibrio entre las posiciones de las partes cuando el empresario es proveedor y el adquirente consumidor (B2C), sirvió de justificación para el diseño de un sistema contractual de protección del consumidor, propio de la contratación en masa. La economía de la plataforma deja obsoleto este esquema porque los bienes y servicios se intercambian entre pares y los particulares actúan como proveedores (prosumidores). Y en este caso ¿Cuál es la parte débil que hay que proteger? En la primera parte del trabajo se analiza el fenómeno de la contratación a través de plataformas intermediarias en línea, tradicionalmente vinculado a la denominada "economía colaborativa".

Online intermediary platforms have become major players in the development of the digital marketplace and raise important regulatory challenges. Technological progress
This article focus on the analysis of platforms which are information society service providers and act as intermediaries (also in the material sense) enabling transactions between all kind of platform users: consumers (peer to peer, P2P, Consumer to Consumer, C2C) or entrepreneurs (Business to Business, B2B). A complex contractual relationship is generated: the contract concluded by the users with the platform that allows them access in order to achieve the interaction and, subsequently, the contract concluded between the users.
The purpose of this paper is to diagnose and propose solutions to problems arising from contracting through online intermediary platforms. We have new operators who do not exactly fit into the models regulated in e-commerce legislation, which poses problems in determining their responsibility for the transactions carried out by users through the platforms. 
The "horizontality" of the legal relationships between peers in a multilateral market that creates regulatory challenges. The Community acquis on consumer protection is based on a chain distribution model: manufacturer, wholesaler, retailer and consumer on a vertical scale. The imbalance between the positions of the parties when the entrepreneur is a supplier and the purchaser a consumer (B2C), served as a justification for the design of a contractual system of consumer protection, typical of mass contracting. The economics of the platform makes this scheme obsolete because goods and services are exchanged between peers and individuals act as suppliers (prosumers). And in this case, what's the weak part to protect?
The first part of the paper analyses the phenomenon of recruitment through online intermediary platforms, traditionally linked to the so-called "collaborative economy". After the necessary conceptual clarifications, the general characteristics are listed, at the same time as the problems that this contracting modality causes are diagnosed. Online reputation systems and the problems caused by false reviews, custom pricing are some of the topics discussed.
The second part of the article analyses the problems that the triangular structure of this kind of way of contract. It analyses the relationship between users and the platform operator, the rights and obligations of the parties, as well as contracts between users among themselves to which the platform operator is not a party, but is actively involved. The paper concludes with proposals for legal reform to promote transparency in this type of contract and clarify the liability regime of the platform operator.

Available as a free pdf book download from the National Consumer Law Center, the National Association of Consumer Advocates, the National Association of Consumer Bankruptcy Attorney web sites or directly from AttorneyFeeStudy.com.

This 579 page Survey Report publishes the results of the United States Consumer Law Attorney Fee Survey for 2017-2018. This Survey Report continues to be the only national survey of Consumer Law practitioners in the United States. Since the first Survey Report was published in 2000, the reported data has been used in more than 46 jurisdictions, state and federal courts, the U.S. Court of Federal Claims, the U.S. Department of Justice, the U.S. Department of Labor, and the American Arbitration Association to determine reasonable attorney fee rates, resulting in more than $10 million in attorney fee awards across the United States.

Attorneys in every state and the U.S. Territories took part in this national survey of Consumer Law attorneys and their law practice economics. The results of this exhaustive and peer reviewed survey continues the trend of being the most comprehensive since this continuous research work began in 1999.

The Survey Report provides data for the entire United States, Washington D.C., Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and 157 greater metropolitan areas. From Cape Coral, Florida to Eugene, Oregon, from San Diego, California to Hartford, Connecticut, and all points in between, this survey provides hourly rates for attorneys and paralegals, average years in practice, and far more information.

Chapters
1. Introduction - explaining what is new, the report sections, how to interpret the findings, data methodology, peer review, error rate
2. Summary Profile of the Typical U.S. Consumer Law Attorney - providing a national view of the data results, including median rates, experience and specialty and firm size variables
3. State Summary Tables - participation data, data analysis for 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, revealing median rates for Consumer Law’s niche practice areas, and the impact of specialty, firm size, and experience on hourly rates
4. Metropolitan Area Tables - participation data, data analysis for 157 major metropolitan areas, revealing median rates for Consumer Law niche practice areas and the impact of experience on hourly rates
5. Cases Employing Use of Prior Editions of this Survey Report - pages of quotes from major cases using the survey followed by a complete case listing by state jurisdiction
7. Cases on Use of Survey Data - citations on acceptance and use of survey data by courts
8. About the Editor - a short biography of the editor and author
9. Recommendations for Future Survey Data - contact information for survey recommendations
Appendix 1. 2017-2018 Survey Questions - listing the survey questions and answer fields
Appendix 2. Geographic Area Definitions Used in Prior Survey Reports - correlating states with the twelve regions used in prior versions of the published survey reports
Appendix 3.  Statement of Peer Review by The National Association of Legal Fee Analysis - Peer Review Statement of the National Association of Legal Fee Analysis non-profit association for the legal fee analysis field
Appendix 4.  Table of Authorities - indexing and locating case citations in the book

În ultimii ani, domeniul promovării intereselor consumatorilor a cunoscut o dezvoltare fără precedent, fiind influențat de extinderea nelimitată a societății noastre de consum. Dacă până în urmă cu puțin timp se făcea publicitate intensă protejării intereselor consumatorilor de alimente sau de produse cosmetice, astăzi studiile au devenit atât de numeroase în acest domeniu încât interesează nu doar protecția consumatorilor de bunuri și servicii tradiționale (cum sunt produsele textile, jucăriile, serviciile turistice, de asigurare, financiar-bancare), ci și sectorul unor bunuri și servicii mai speciale, cum ar fi: protecția consumatorilor de medicamente, de servicii de sănătate, protejarea intereselor consumatorilor de servicii poștale, de servicii electronice sau de servicii de transport aerian. Din acest motiv, când fiecare corporație caută prin orice mijloace să-și atingă interesele, când consumatorii aflați sub influența publicității agresive și subliminale aleargă necontenit după achiziționarea de bunuri și servicii tot mai numeroase, fără a avea nevoie reală de ele, când din punct de vedere teoretic există o legislație adecvată de protejare a intereselor consumatorilor, care se aplică în practică doar limitat, este extrem de dificil, practic imposibil, să se asigure o protecție reală a consumatorilor. În acest mod, politica de protecție a consumatorilor este în contradicție flagrantă cu obiectivele finale ale societății de consum (satisfacerea în cele mai bune condiții a cerințelor consumatorilor prin asigurarea unui nivel de trai ridicat și prin oferirea acestora a unei game suficiente de produse/servicii de calitate, sigure, la prețuri rezonabile).

Velika uloga lokalnih vlasti u pružanju lokalnih javnih i socijalnih službi u Europi se u suvremeno doba gotovo podrazumijeva, dok je u drugim dijelovima svijeta situacija raznolika. I u razvijenim zemljama, naročito u velikim gradovima, u kriznim situacijama ili uslijed velikih migracija (čak i turističkih) postoje veliki problemi s lokalnim javnim službama koje treba rješavati u uvjetima velikih očekivanja i ograničenih sredstava. Komparativno gledajući lokalne se službe pružaju odnosno osiguravaju na različite načine. Postoje razlikovanja komunalnih i osobnih lokalnih službi, ali i razrađeniji modeli razlikovanja socijalnih, ekonomskih, okolišno-urbanističko-planskih službi te policije i srodnih službi kojima je cilj osiguravanje javnog reda. Politika za službe odnosno usluge od općeg interesa Europske unije uzrokuje značajne promjene u sektoru lokalnih službi, pri čemu se mogu uočiti divergentna nastojanja, sektorski pristupi, ali i opstanak različitih modela pružanja lokalnih službi u zemljama članicama. Harmonizacija napreduje, no punu harmonizaciju je teško očekivati. Posebni problem za praćenje, analizu i evaluaciju stanja predstavlja nepostojanje opsežnih komparativnih pregleda stanja u novim zemljama članicama EU. Velika svjetska ekonomska i financijska kriza s kraja 2000-ih bila je vrlo izazovna za lokalne službe naročito u ekonomski slabijim zemljama članicama dovodeći do traženja inovativnih pristupa u prekarnoj situaciji. U Hrvatskoj čitav sektor lokalnih službi prolazi kroz značajne promjene, a od posebnog su značenja promjene koje se tiču vodnih usluga i zbrinjavanja otpada, kao i zdravstva i obrazovanja kao tipičnih lokalnih službi.

Inoculation theory boasts a dynamic history since McGuire first introduced it in the early 1960s. The last decade, in particular, has been a period of explosive growth for inoculation. Research has offered a more nuanced understanding of how inoculation confers resistance, exploring precise workings of inoculation’s core concepts of threat and coun-terarguing in conjunction with concepts drawn from other theoretical domains, including issue involvement, attitude accessibility, self-efficacy, and affect. Research is also extending practical applications of inoculation, examining new uses in marketing, public relations, politics, and adolescent health campaigns. The purpose of this chapter is to review the classic work on inoculation theory, examine recent developments that inform the workings of inoculation and its applications, and suggest directions for future research. The chapter also suggests extending the application of inoculation into the areas of childhood obesity, body image, gang activity, consumer protection, and employee satisfaction, among others.

THE INVESTIGATION IN THE COMPARATIVE LAW PERSPECTIVE OF THE PREVENTIVE MEASURES PROTECTING
THE DIPSOMANIAC CONSUMERS
Assist. Prof. Özlem Tüzüner (Ph.D.)
ABSTRACT
Comparative law is cautious against the uncontrolled consumption of alcoholic beverages of the dipsomaniac consumer. About the compensation for losses due to the dipsomaniac consumer, the aforementioned alcoholic beverages consumer may not be the only obligor. The consumer who drank over dose alcoholic beverages, the alcoholic drinks provider (business entity) and the workers in such enterprises may be subject to joint and several liability. Indeed, the provider, which serves excessive alcoholic beverage as well as the business manager, the waiters, the bartenders and even the security guards, can be found responsible all together. In Anglo-American jurisdictions, dipsomaniac consumer conflicts are studied under the title of dram shop law. Also in French and Swiss law, there exist measures to protect the dipsomaniac consumer from drinking too much alcoholic beverages. In many of the Swiss cantons, it’s illegal to serve alcohol to the consumer who has approached to become intoxicated.  It’s essential to take this subject into consideration in the Turkish Consumer Law.
Keywords: Dipsomaniac consumer, excessive alcoholic beverages service, dram shop law, joint and several liability

În ultimii ani, industria asigurărilor s-a dezvoltat tot mai mult atât la nivel mondial, cât şi în România. În acest context s-a născut şi ideea de protecţie a consumatorilor de servicii de asigurare, oamenii fiind tot mai expuşi la riscurile declanşate de eveni­mente nefaste şi neprevăzute.
Articolul de faţă abordează aspecte privind istoricul evoluţiei asigurărilor la nivel mon­dial şi în ţara noastră, tipologia serviciilor de asigurare, drepturile consumatorilor de astfel de ser­vicii şi pro­tecţia lor.

E-commerce has changed conventional sale of goods through global access in an online marketplace. The borderless online marketplace provides a worldwide platform for sale of goods to consumers. A new group of tech-savvy consumers, also known as e-consumers has emerged and grown rapidly in recent years because e-commerce goods are cheaper, more accessible and convenient and offer greater variety and quality. E-commerce transactions for sale of goods involve many parties, among others the platform provider, the seller (either manufacturer, intermediary, wholesaler or retailer), the internet provider, the financial service provider that provides the transfer of money using data, the website, the logistics provider, the shipping company, the delivering company and the consumer as buyer at the end of the transaction. In some circumstances, consumers can even be the seller in e-commerce. It is essential to determine the rights and liabilities of the contracting parties in an e-commerce contract which raises the issue of privacy of contract and other related contract law issues. The nature and the complexity of e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods trigger many legal issues; from forming of the contract to the conclusion of the contract. This paper focuses on the emerging issue of e-commerce contract contractual rights and obligations for sale of goods. As pure doctrinal legal research which employs the content analysis method, this paper aims to map out the connection among the parties both directly and indirectly involved in the contract. This paper also seeks to identify and analyse the relationship of various parties involved in e-commerce consumer contracts for sale of goods. The relationship between the parties in an e-commerce contract, with regard to their rights and liabilities in the sale of goods, was examined and reviewed with the aim to ascertain coherence with the privacy of contract doctrine.

La nota analizza due recenti ordinanze con le quali e` stata dichiarata l’inammissibilità dell’azione di classe proposta nei confronti di Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena e relativa ai danni subiti da quegli investitori che, nel sottoscrivere azioni di nuova emissione, hanno fatto affidamento, nella determinazione del valore di queste ultime, su bilanci e prospetti informativi che asseriscono essere viziati da irregolarità.

The framework and this toolkit were developed keeping in mind that most AFI member countries have established an authority responsible for receiving and resolving financial consumer complaints. It outlines critical directions to improve complaint handling practices across the AFI member countries.

Italian Abstract: I Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) costituiscono una grande opera di “diritto scientifico”. Essendo stati redatti come black letter rules, essi possono servire per l’interpretazione del diritto nazionale e degli strumenti di diritto internazionale, modellare le riforme dei codici civili, incentivare la concorrenza tra gli ordinamenti giuridici, così contribuendo alla loro efficienza. Soprattutto, i PECL possono essere scelti dalle parti contraenti come legge applicabile al loro contatto, sebbene nei limiti stabiliti dalle norme di diritto internazionale privato.
L’articolo si sofferma sul rapporto tra i PECL e le norme imperative del diritto nazionale, in particolare quelle riguardanti la tutela del consumatore e la concorrenza sleale. Sono prese in considerazione le norme di applicazione necessaria e la clausola di ordine pubblico internazionale.

English Abstract: The Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) stand as a great achievement of "scientific law". Being drafted as "black letter rules", the PECL may serve to interpret national laws and instruments of international law, to design the reform of national civil codes, to foster competition between national laws, thus enhancing their efficiency. Above all, the PECL can be chosen by the contracting parties as the law governing their contract, provided that such choice does not contravene the rules dictated by private international law. The article focuses on the relation between the PECL and the mandatory rules of national law, particularly those regarding consumer protection and unfair competition. Attention is heeded to overriding mandatory provisions and to the public policy of the forum (ordre public clause).

This paper is devoted to the Economics of Consumer Protection. It further analyzes the development of Consumerism in India, Consumer rights, Consumer awareness, Common law in the field of Consumer/Competition/Anti-trust Law in India and the key role of consumer education in ensuring consumer protection. After economic reforms such as Liberalization and Globalization along with the advancement of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, Consumers are the focal point of market economies such as India and the United States. It is gradually being transformed from a predominantly sellers' market to a buyers' market. (1) Consumption is the process by which goods and services are, at last, put to final use by people. (5) Consumer protection is the practice of safeguarding consumers from unfair/fraudulent business practices in the marketplace. Consumer protection given its imperative nature and incredibly wide spectrum makes it a State duty. Most consumer protection measure are established by legislative/policy instruments, with Consumer Protection Act, 1986 (repealed by Consumer Protection Amendment Act, 2019) being the cornerstone legislative instrument in India. Such laws play a key role in preventing business entities from engaging in fraud or other specified unfair trade/business practices, in order to gain a competitive edge over their competitors or mislead consumers for pecuniary reasons. Consumer protection can also be intended for additional protection for the consumers, even when they may not be direct buyers of the product and larger liability for manufacturers for examples regulations regarding automobile emission standards for which the general public may or may not be the direct buyer of the product but is definitely affected by any discrepancies.

This book discusses the major principles of Ethiopian Business Law with practical examples. It is an educational reference module primarily written for the students of the School of Business taking the course business law in Ethiopian Universities. Law instructors and law-proper students can also use the book as an introductory reference on Ethiopian business law.

Before the advent of the era of e-commerce in Nigeria; under the previous consumer protection regime, there was no recognition whatsoever for personal data protection as a species of consumer rights. Presently, a new consumer protection regime has just come into force under the new Federal Competition and Consumer Protection Act. This article therefore, critically assesses whether this new regime adequately addresses the data protection concerns of e-commerce aficionados (otherwise, known as data subjects). This assessment extends to a review of three extant national data protection policies under the Nigerian Information Technology Development Agency Data Protection Regulation (NDPR); the Central Bank of Nigeria Consumer Protection Framework (CBN-CPF); and the Cybercrime Act. The article concludes that under the current consumer protection regime, there is still scarce recognition and provision for personal data protection rights of citizens; as a species of consumer right; hence the need for a separate personal data protection legislation to be enacted. In doing this, the paper recommends the adoption of the legislative model of Singapore.

In the words of Henry J. Heinz, “Protect the consumer by owing the product all the way from the soil to the table” . This paper contributes to a comparative analysis of the laws related to the consumer protection provided in the English and Pakistani Laws. In the beginning, it opens up with a brief introduction by stressing upon the need for consumer protection across the globe in general, with a specific orientation towards the situation of existing consumer protection laws in the aforementioned countries. Gradually, it provides an insight into the background of consumer laws since there adoption till to date in both the countries. As Britain ruled Pakistan for a long period of time, therefore, both share some common ground in the historical aspect. Using this as the proverbial measuring stick, the paper then seeks to identify the various kinds of legislative Acts and Ordinances in force since the first, yet common piece of legislation – the Sales of Goods Act – to the present laws in practice in both the nations. The surge does not end here, it continues to explore the existence of regulatory frameworks related to the consumer protection legislation in practice. Additionally, an outlook into the future of consumer protection laws is also provided in the paper with regard to the Brexit for the UK and Pakistan in general.  In the end, the paper concludes with a case-study analysis of the consumer laws in both countries to throw light on the applicability of such laws in their own social contexts.

Keywords: Consumer Protection; Comparative Analysis; English and Pakistani Law; Legislative Acts; Regulatory Frameworks; Future; Case-Study Analysis.

ABSTRACT 
The issue of consumer rights protection is of the most complex and actual problems of tourism in the modern world. Unfortunately, today this issue also possess the urgency in our country and misunderstandings between tourism companies and customers, violation of consumers' rights during vacation which is considered the most undersireable experience for consumers appear in various forms. Therefore, tourism companies need to pay adequate consideration and care to this subject as well as become aware of the significance of consumer protection in obtaining customer satisfaction.
Appropriately in the research part of master thesis, through descriptive quantitative research that based on structured questionnaries, satisfaction level of local touristic consumers from local tourism companies, their awareness regarding consumer rights and the current situation of consumer rights provision in tourism sectot in our country are revealed properly.
The outcome of the answers related to the customer satisfaction level of local customers from Azerbaijan tourism enterprises signifies that, in spite of the tourism sector started to develop in our country, still there are various complications. In our Republic, the uncertainty of the boundaries of tourism product retailers' responsibilities accross consumers in case of contract terms' violation especially in package tours makes the issue of consumer rights protection more complicated. Meanwhile, like in all other fields the consumers of the tourism products do not have sufficient information on their consumer rights. However, such a result could not be considered acceptable for the country which has a rich nature, favourable geographic position, national traditions, tangible and intangible resources.
The result of this study conducted on consumer rights protection in tourism sector demonstrated that both in terms of development of tourism and consumer rights protection tourism companies should take various liabilities such as provision of clear and true information to consumers about products and services, implemention of marketing activities through considering consumers' interests and rights, strengthening of relationships with partners and customers, clear identfying of the wants and needs of customers and regulating activities in this direction, as
VII 
well as not allowing the violation of the customers' rights by the companies they cooperate, not deviating from the responsibility to restore consumers’ rights, applying the contract clearly describing commitments and responsibilities of tourism enterprises, developing of short time roads to solve consumer complaints. In this issue government in its term should take measures on supplementing a constant control by a sufficient number of qualified employees over tourism product retailers, regulating the punishment of one-sided and misleading contracts, ensuring of favorable condition for consumers' use of right to be heard and etc.
Due to the assessment of the issue of consumer rights protection in tourism sector considering the situation of this issue in our country the recommendations such as estimation of laws related to the consumer rights protection, interpreting together with the applied Consumer Protection Law, Law on Tourism and other laws and elimination of intersection and confusions, precise determining of responsibilities and obligations of tourism products retailers especially regarding package tours, ensuring the awareness of tourism companies about the violation of consumer rights as well as about the applied penalties in case of failure in ensuring consumers' rights, providing new lisence to the tourism enterprises with the expired license due to their ability to solve consumer complaints properly, carrying out the awareness activities among consumers by the interested bodies, accelerating of adaptation works to European Union in terms of protection of touristic consumers might be given.

Berdasarkan kenyataan yang tidak dibantahkan bahwa bisnis merasuki seluruh kehidupan semua manusia, maka dari perspektif etis, bisnis diharapkan dan dituntut untuk menawarkan sesuatu yang berguna bagi manusia dan tidak sekedar menawarkan sesuatu yang merugikan hanya demi memperoleh keuntungan. Kondisi konsumen yang banyak dirugikan memerlukan peningkatan upaya untuk melindunginya, sehingga hak-haknya dapat ditegakkan. Namun di sisi lain, perlindungan tersebut harus juga melindungi eksistensi produsen yang sangat esensial dalam perekonomian negara. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan perundang-undangan yang dapat melindungi kedua belah pihak. Perlindungan Konsumen adalah segala upaya yang menjamin adanya kepastian untuk memberikan perlindungan hukum kepada konsumen. Pengertian konsumen sendiri adalah setiap orang pemakai barang dan/atau jasa yang tersedia dalam masyarakat, baik bagi kepentingan diri sendiri, keluarga, orang lain, maupun makhluk hidup lain dan tidak untuk diperdagangkan. Hak konsumen yang diabaikan oleh pelaku usaha perlu dicermati secara seksama. Pada era globalisasi dan perdagangan bebas saat ini, banyak bermunculan berbagai macam produk barang/pelayanan jasa yang dipasarkan kepada konsumen di tanah air, baik melalui promosi, iklan, maupun penawaran barang secara langsung. Jika tidak berhati-hati dalam memilih produk barang/jasa yang diinginkan, konsumen hanya akan menjadi objek eksploitas dari pelaku usaha yang tidak bertanggung jawab. Tanpa disadari, konsumen menerima begitu saja barang/jasa yang dikonsumsinya. Oleh karena itu, masalah perlindungan konsumen perlu diperhatikan.

Consumer protection in Tanzania is a phenomenon associated with the operation of markets. There are also non-market issues that concern or are involved in consumer protection. Law is one of the instruments for protecting rights of consumers of goods. The law provides for the rights of consumers and mechanisms for their protection. This article uncovers that law in Tanzania, which has evolved for many decades, that establishes legal and institutional frameworks for protecting rights of consumers of goods. It demonstrates that the law has inadequacies and the institutions have limitations that undermine their efficacy in safeguarding rights of consumers of goods. The article describes several factors that undermine the capacity of consumers of goods in Tanzania to protect and realise their rights. This unsatisfactory situation calls for reforms of the country's consumer protection legal and institutional frameworks. The article proposes some measures that can be implemented to invigorate the law-based consumer protection mechanisms in Tanzania.

A FACILITAÇÃO DA DEFESA DO CONSUMIDOR EM JUÍZO NA FORMAÇÃO DE PRECEDENTES E UM NOVO INTERVENIENTE PROCESSUAL EM FAVOR DO VULNERÁVEL: A DEFENSORIA PÚBLICA ENQUANTO CUSTOS VULNERABILIS - THE FACILITATION OF CONSUMER PROTECTION IN COURT AND THE FORMATION OF LEGAL PRECEDENTS — A NEW PROCEDURAL ACTOR IN FAVOR OF THE VULNERABLE: THE PUBLIC DEFENDER'S OFFICE AS "CUSTOS VULNERABILIS"- (CASAS MAIA, Maurilio. A facilitação da defesa do consumidor em juízo na formação de precedentes e um novo interveniente processual em favor do vulnerável: a Defensoria Pública enquanto custos vulnerabilis. Revista de Direito do Consumidor, São Paulo, p.407-435, Jan.-Fev. 2020).

Kepastian hukum sebagai salah satu cita hukum, oleh Gustav Radbruch merupakan konstruksi fakta dalam suatu kaedah hukum yang dirumuskan secara jelas dan tegas (Satjipto Rahardjo, 2006:136). Hukum perlindungan konsumen yang tertuang dalam UU No. 8 Tahun 1999 tentang Perlindungan Konsumen, salah satu asasnya adalah kepastian hukum (Pasal 2). Dalam penjelasannya, asas kepastian hukum dijelaskan bahwa agar baik pelaku usaha maupun konsumen menaati hukum dan memperoleh keadilan dalam penyelenggaraan perlindungan konsumen, serta negara menjamin kepastian hukum.

"Abstract.
“Our key role is to identify these deficiencies and advocate to have them corrected”. “Some of its provisions must be amended in order to bring Tanzania in line with its international treaty obligations as well as evolving international norms. As it is, it simply does not go far enough to protect creators and producers in the digital environment” . 
This report is concerning the impacts of Information and Communication Technology on Copyrights protection in Tanzania. The report is based on Dar es Salaam and Iringa Regions, which is one among the region in Tanzania that develop and still developing the aspect of information and communication technology.
At the end of this report a person may be able to assess the impact of ICT evolution in Tanzania, to measure whether the society is aware that their conducts using ICT facilities hamper copyright protection, to assess if the society understands the concept of copyrights and copyright infringement, to assess the extent of copyright infringement facilitated by ICT evolution, and lastly to measure whether the legal regime present in Tanzania suffices to deal with copyright scenarios observed in the exercise.
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This paper contains the Introduction of a book with the same title recently published by Cambridge University Press, which is reproduced here with their permission. The book offers an updated analysis of the various consumer dispute resolution processes, its laws, and best practices, which are collectively referred as the Law of Consumer Redress. The book argues that many consumer redress systems, and in particular publicly certified Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) entities, are more than a mere dispute resolution mechanism as they provide a public service for consumers that complements, and often replaces, the role of the courts. In examining the current redress models (i.e. public enforcement, private enforcement and other market options) the book calls for greater integration amongst these various redress options. It also advocates, inter alia, for processes that encourage parties to participate in ADR processes, settle meritorious claims and ensure extrajudicial enforcement of final outcomes. Lastly, the book calls for a more efficient rationalisation of certified ADR entities, which should be better coordinated and accessible through technological means.

With the business landscape undergoing significant changes in the last decade, need for an evolved consumer protection framework is being felt across sectors and nations. This is largely due to the emergence of digital economy, technological advancements relating to how transactions are carried out and growing complexity of goods and services.
Consumer protection frameworks need to be in line with these changes in business environment. This paper studies the emerging trends which have a bearing on the interests of consumers in the marketplace.The paper further explores the new challenges being faced in the Indian market with a special focus on protection of the consumers in financial services, e-commerce and of vulnerable groups. It needs to be ensured that consumers are not subject to unfair and deceptive practices, have access to relevant and comparable information, have recourse mechanisms available to resolve disputes, and privacy of their personal information is maintained.

Consumer protection has become a legal phenomenon to reckon with on a global scale, with repercussions for, among others, contracts concluded between consumers and business entities – i.e., B2C contracts. While the path chosen by EU law is one of special legal protection (on the basis of special legislation) and the introduction of restrictions, the model applied in the United States is based on protection afforded according to general law of contract principles. The author maintains that the model applied in the United States is more efficient as it does not prevent markets which are based on a high degree of autonomy (but also responsibility) on the part of all contractual partners, including the consumer, from prospering. He argues that “liability” is the other side of the coin labeled “autonomy” and must be applied with a broad brush, both in terms of substantive-law aspects and procedural aspects. This also extends to arbitration agreements concluded between consumers and business entities. He maintains there is no need for special restrictions when it comes to incorporating arbitration clauses in consumer contracts, and that instead, the lawmaker should focus on seeing to it that the basic principles of arbitration are observed. In concluding he finds that the European model often leads to the abuse of the system of consumer protection by the consumers themselves and that the German model represents an interesting and efficient model, striking a compromise between the restrictive system established under EU law and the U.S. model.