Cognitive Apprenticeship

Skills in being able to interact with accounting information systems (AIS), are increasingly seen as critical components of undergraduate accounting courses in Australia. In an AIS subject developed at a tertiary institution, students were required to use a written practice set to acquire the necessary skills to use MYOB, a common, computerised accounting information system for small business. Following evaluation of, and reflection on, the learning process, there were indications that students did not sufficiently comprehend the written instructions provided as part of the practice set. To remedy this problem, onscreen-actioncapture tutorials were developed using a cognitive apprenticeship approach to skill development. A full cohort of students will commence use of the tutorials in 2007. However, some preliminary issues and constraints have arisen which require resolution and need to be addressed. This paper represents the first interim stage in a study that will be progressed onc...

In this paper we demonstrate some examples of mathematics of everyday practice. In other words, we show examples of mathematics that if introduced in the teaching classroom, then they may be proved to be important instructional tools for the enhancement of teachinglearning process. The examples presented below, give a meaning to the purpose of learning mathematics, represent interesting problems, and attract students’ interest to the learning of mathematics. One important thing is their instructional transformation and their transfer in the classroom, regarding the learning theory, and the context, in which, this theory should be used. In this paper we publish the results of a related research, where we employed the Cognitive Apprenticeship model as a learning theory.

Complex learning aims at the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes; the coordination of qualitatively different constituent skills; and the transfer of what is learned to daily life or work settings. Recent instructional theories stress authentic learning tasks as the driving force for learning; but due to the complexity of those tasks, learning may be hampered by the limited processing capacity of the human mind. In this article we present a framework for scaffolding practice and just-in-time information presentation, aiming to control cognitive ...

In ancient times, teaching and learning were accomplished through apprenticeship: We taught our children how to speak, grow crops, craft cabinets, or tailor clothes by showing them how and by helping them do it. Apprenticeship was the vehicle for transmitting the knowledge required for expert practice in fields from painting and sculpting to medicine and law. It was the natural way to learn. In modern times, apprenticeship has largely been replaced by formal schooling, except in children’s learning of language, in some aspects of graduate education, and in on-the-job training. We propose an alternative model of instruction that is accessible within the framework of the typical American classroom. It is a model of instruction that goes back to apprenticeship but incorporates elements of schooling. We call this model "cognitive apprenticeship" (Collins,
Brown, and Newman, 1989).

The differences between schooling and apprenticeship are many, but for us one is most important. In school skills and knowledge have been abstracted from their uses in the world. In apprenticeship they are instrumental to the accomplishment of meaningful tasks.This difference is not academic: it has implications for the nature of the knowledge that learners acquire. This chapter attempts to elucidate some of the implications through a proposal for adapting apprenticeship methods for the learning of cognitive skills.

This paper outlines an ongoing research project on training, education and sharing of experiences among mobile people. The importance for professionals to continuously learn is widely recognized. Organizations in the new economy are dependent on organizational knowledge and competence. Mobile workers need alternative educational and knowledge development opportunities that are not restrained by time and space.

This research project sought to assist business three (3) students of Faith Senior High School to enhance their performance in budgeting and budgetary control using cognitive apprenticeship model of instruction. Many have argued that, our educational curriculum should be modelled to equip students with the requisite employable and entrepreneurial skills. Some scholars argue that the best form of education that give hands on practical training is the apprenticeship model of education and think it can be incorporated into our educational system. This can be done by replicating/bringing the process in the traditional apprenticeship that is the modeling, scaffolding, coaching, articulation and exploration into the classroom. The research was conducted in a way that saw the replication of all the elements of the apprenticeship model in the classroom for the impact to be evaluated. All the students in the class took part in the study. The researcher used exercises, observations, interview and administered questionnaire to gather data and used tables and figures/charts to analyze the data. The post-intervention results showed that the performance of the students improved consistently over the study period. The results mean that students' performance can be enhanced if the cognitive apprenticeship model of instruction is used.

The acquisition of a range of diverse clinical skills is a central feature of the pre-registration nursing curriculum. Prior to exposure to clinical practice, it is essential that learners have the opportunity to practise and develop such skills in a safe and controlled environment under the direction and supervision of clinical experts. However, the competing demands of the HE nursing curriculum coupled with an increased number of learners have resulted in a reduced emphasis on traditional apprenticeship learning. This paper presents an alternative model for clinical skills teaching that draws upon the principles of cognitive apprenticeship [Collins, A., Brown, J.S., Newman, S., 1989. Cognitive Apprenticeship: teaching the crafts of reading, writing and mathematics. In: Resnick, L.B. (Ed.) Knowing. Learning and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, pp. 453-494] and situated cognition within a technologically rich and authentic learning environment. It will show how high quality DVD materials illustrating clinical skills performed by expert practitioners have been produced and used in conjunction with CCTV and digital recording technologies to support learning within a pedagogic framework appropriate to skills acquisition. It is argued that this model not only better prepares the student for the time they will spend in the practice setting, but also lays the foundation for the development of a clinically competent practitioner with the requisite physical and cognitive skills who is fit for purpose [UKCC, 1999. Fitness for Practice: The UKCC Commission for Nursing and Midwifery Education. United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing Midwifery and Health Visiting, London].

Constructivist ideas have influenced recent major innovations in Dutch secondary education and new curricula for reading and math in primary education, for example, pay much more attention to metacognition than before. In our study, we compared the growth of student metacognition in varying learning environments, direct instruction, and cognitive apprenticeship in primary school. The study also included a control group of teachers. In order to measure metacognition we developed a questionnaire, with separate parts for metacognitive skills and metacognitive knowledge. In the item selection procedure we made use of item response modeling. It was found that in the direct instruction and the cognitive apprenticeship group the pupils had higher scores on metacognitive skills and metacognitive knowledge compared to the control group pupils. No clear differences were found between direct instruction and cognitive apprenticeship. Interactions of learning environment and student intelligence were non-significant for both output measures.

The paper presents stories of how a group of doctoral students chose the key disciplinary literature that they read in preparation for their thesis-undertaking (RT). The stories were analyzed in light of current understanding of literature reviewing as a situated practice and theory of doctoral education as socio-cognitive apprenticeship. As the stories reveal, key disciplinary literature does not exist 'cut-and-dried'. This applies particularly to undertakings carried out in fields where multiple paradigms exist. The complex epistemic landscapes of the students' research made selecting key literature to review much a difficult task. The task was in many cases facilitated by guidance provided by mentors such as thesis supervisors and panel members. Guidance was provided at various stages of the thesis-undertakings especially when theoretical and methodological issues emerged that called for the mentors' advice, often resulting in new directions and selections of reading. The stories suggest that choices of reading for a thesisundertaking are partly socially mediated and partly driven by contingencies arising in the students' fieldwork. This stands in some contrast to how RT is presented in thesis manuals, which tend to construe RT as an autonomous practice and emphasize search techniques via discipline-specific electronic databases. While not downplaying the importance of independence that students need to develop and that of the product-based approach to RT driven by the generic conventions of a literature review, the paper suggests that the contingent and social dimension deserves some attention in instructional literature and thesis preparatory courses.

Η παρούσα πτυχιακή εργασία βασίστηκε σε ένα συνδυαστικό μοντέλο κατανόησης
γραπτού λόγου που ενσωματώνει τις βασικές κοινές θεωρητικές παραδοχές των κοινωνικογνωστικών και των κοινωνικο-πολιτισμικών προσεγγίσεων, καθώς και των προσεγγίσεων
γραμματισμού σκοπεύοντας να σχεδιάσει, να εφαρμόσει και να αξιολογήσει μια διδακτική
παρέμβαση που σχετίζεται με την μάθηση και την διδασκαλία της κατανόησης του γραπτού
λόγου και των πληροφοριακών κειμένων σε δίγλωσσους μαθητές.
Σκοπός της συγκεκριμένης έρευνας ήταν να σχεδιάσει και να εφαρμόσει ένα
υποστηρικτικό και παροτρυντικό περιβάλλον μάθησης και διδασκαλίας της κατανόησης του
γραπτού λόγου σε παιδιά που έχουν την ελληνική γλώσσα ως δεύτερή ή και ξένη γλώσσα με
την παροχή και τη χρήση κοινωνικο-διαδικαστικών διευκολύνσεων, προκειμένου να βοηθήσει
μαθητές της Ε΄ τάξης δημοτικού, οι οποίοι αντιμετωπίζουν προβλήματα στην κατανόηση του
γραπτού λόγου. Η παρούσα πτυχιακή εργασία στόχευε να διερευνήσει την επίδραση της
συγκεκριμένης διδακτικής παρέμβασης σε δίγλωσσους μαθητές-αναγνώστες στην βελτίωση
της ποιότητας της κατανόησης του γραπτού λόγου κατά την επεξεργασία πληροφοριακών
κειμένων σύγκρισης, στην ανάπτυξη της μεταγνωστικής γνώσης αναφορικά με την
αναγνωστική διαδικασία και στην ανάπτυξη μεταγνωστικών στρατηγικών κατανόησης κατά
την διαδικασία της αναγνωστικής κατανόησης.

Twenty-first-century music technology now intersects many disciplines, including sound engineering, computing, interactive media, networked performance, composition, gaming, and the digital humanities. For colleges and universities thinking of offering new interdisciplinary music technology degrees, this landscape can be intimidating. What does " interdisciplinary " even mean? Students, faculty, and administrators all have different perspectives. So do educators in STEM, liberal and performing arts, and the humanities. Addressing such questions requires an inclusive culture that sees music and computing as complementary, forming a single discipline. Coming to an agreement on a list of technology and art competencies—a collaborative task many academic stakeholders are not used to—complicate the " degree identity " challenges. Once ascertained, that vision forms the basis of a new curricular model that shows how the program readies students to face employment. This chapter uses cognitive apprenticeship and situated learning as theoretical structures to establish and assess critical relationships between the music technology industry and higher education. It describes a holistic organization in which faculty, administration, and business partners adopt a common language to support the pedagogical mission of music technology programs in the twenty-first century. It reflects on theoretical aspects of decision-making that affect music technology pedagogy and curriculum. The chapter then offers suggestions on how to use a balanced approach in advancing theory, praxis, and collaboration between music technology and STEM-related disciplines in higher education.

The University of Texas Master of Fine Arts (M.F.A.) program offers a cognitive apprenticeship for graduate students in drama-based instruction through Drama for Schools (DFS), a professional development program for K-12 educators learning to use drama-based pedagogies (DBP) across the curriculum. This article presents findings from an exploratory investigation of graduate students’ experiences in the cognitive apprenticeship in the pedagogy and practice of drama-based instruction. Findings indicate that when graduate students simultaneously participated in fieldwork and related coursework, they developed a nuanced understanding of how theory was realized and confounded within real world contexts.  Implications for faculty are included.

Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, we argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. We discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and we note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, we propose cognitive apprenticeship, which honors the situated nature of knowledge. We examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.

In recent decades, education in most Institutions of Higher Learning has become more academic and classroom based. Practical skills and application of knowledge has been sacrificed for theory based learning in content loaded curricula. As one consequence, increased youth unemployment rates around the world were regis-tered due to the mismatch in perceptions of graduate employability by the key stake-holders (McKinsey, 2012).
In Singapore, the Applied Study in Polytechnics and ITE Review (Aspire) committee was set up to examine how to strengthen the applied education pathway in the five Polytechnics and the Institute of Technical Education (ITE), and to propose feasible strategies to achieve this. Recommendation 2 of the report reads: “Enhance intern-ships at the polytechnics and ITE.” More specifically under item 3.2 it reads: “The learning of technical skills is most effective when such skills are acquired and applied in a real work environment. For students, this can be done through good internships.” Under 3.4 the committee states: “ ... Classroom learning and workplace application should be coupled as tightly as possible to support effective teaching and learning.” The ASPIRE recommendations are now incorporated into the SkillsFuture concept. The SkillsFuture Council is a Tripartite Council developing an integrated system of education, training and career progression for all Singaporeans. This represents a major, long term effort involving collaboration with all stakeholders, including employers, training providers, unions and individuals.
The anticipated coupling of classroom learning and workplace application results in a work-study program. It requires, in addition to the close cooperation of schools and industry, a sound pedagogical framework and good understanding of the resulting consequences. For Republic Polytechnic, as the institute promoting PBL pedagogy in Singapore, that task is intensified by the need to identify a theoretical framework which can pair its unique pedagogy with compatible industry learning and teaching practices. Ultimately, optimal support needs to be provided to the key stakeholders involved in a work-study program.

This article highlights four cognitive processes key to online reading comprehension and how one might begin to transform existing think-aloud strategy models to encompass the challenges of reading for information on the Internet. Informed by principles of cognitive apprenticeship and an emerging taxonomy of online reading comprehension strategies, I introduce think-aloud instructional models for explicitly teaching students how expert readers approach, interact with, monitor their understanding of, and respond to online information texts. A companion website for screenshot images and guided practice sessions of both think-aloud lessons is available at: http://sites.google.com/site/tiponlinethinkaloudlessons/

Fostering problem-solving abilities has long been recognized as an important issue in education; however, past studies have shown that it is difficult and challenging to find effective learning strategies or tools for improving students' problem-solving abilities. To cope with this problem, in this study, a hybrid approach that integrates the cognitive apprenticeship model with the collaborative learning strategy is proposed for conducting web-based problem-solving activities. Students' problem-solving performance is examined in such a hybrid learning context. Furthermore, past studies indicate that cognitive load could affect learners' performance; thus, the influence of cognitive load on students' problem-solving effectiveness with this new approach is investigated in depth. The experimental results show that middle-and low-achievement students in the experimental group gained significant benefits from the hybrid approach in comparison with those who learned with the traditional approach. Accordingly, a discussion of how to accommodate the needs of different learning ability groups is provided.

Preservation and conservation of traditional craft in our community is greatly important and need further attention to ensure the continuity of traditional heritage remains to future generations. Thus, to conserve teaching and learning of traditional crafts, a new model of virtual teaching and learning traditional craft will be developed. In order to capture the learning components for the model, this research focus on related conceptual theories, review existing models, and analyzing digital application of teaching and learning traditional craft. A proposed model also will be developed by concentrating on multimedia technology used as well as strategic learning using cognitive apprenticeship approach. A significant contribution in this research is providing development strategy to courseware designer and producing new learning approach that will motivate adult learners and enhance their skills learning process.

... and their outcomes, as well as their performance as a team, and the team is encouraged to ... and we consider this to be one of the major areas for improvement in our teaching. ... restricted to the final Practicum Project in which student teams must interact with real-world clients to ...

This chapter illustrates a teaching/learning process for enhancing rhythmic understanding and skills through group improvisation, as it has been experienced by the teacher-researcher with a small group of 5-7-year-old pupils in the context of a doctoral research study on children’s interactions in creative music making.
The focus is, on the one hand, on what these children have learnt, specifically the kind of interactive skills that they developed – synchronising and entraining to each other, and being able to consistently produce and coordinate rhythmic figures on a pulse. On the other hand, it is relevant to see how they have learnt it: based on the model of cognitive apprenticeship, the subsequent phases of the teaching pathway are described, as a successful example of a social constructivist approach to musical creativity.

L'apprentissage basé sur la pratique suscite un intérêt croissant dans les pays dont l'économie est à la fois avancée et en développement. Une grande partie de cet intérêt vise à accroître l'apprentissage des étudiants dans le cadre de programmes d'enseignement professionnel ou supérieur de préparation professionnelle initiale ou de développement professionnel (c'est-à-dire le développement des connaissances professionnelles tout au long de la vie active). La valeur des contributions provenant des cadres de pratique et des expériences avec des exemples authentiques de pratique professionnelle est bien sûr reconnue depuis longtemps dans les principales professions et les principaux métiers. En effet, la plupart des métiers et des professions exigent que les individus s'engagent dans une longue période de pratique avant d'être acceptés en tant que personne de métier ou professionnel. Il existe donc aujourd'hui un intérêt croissant pour les programmes d'enseignement supérieur spécifiques à une profession, qui offrent ce type d'expérience aux praticiens novices. Toutefois, au-delà de leur utilisation dans la préparation professionnelle initiale, il existe un ensemble plus large de considérations sur l'utilité des expériences fondées sur la pratique pour promouvoir le développement continu tout au long de la vie professionnelle. En particulier, la pratique professionnelle et les expériences en milieu professionnel sont maintenant utilisées comme un véhicule de développement professionnel. De plus en plus, les programmes éducatifs organisés par les universités, les écoles techniques et les organismes professionnels sont souvent basés, en tout ou en partie, sur la pratique professionnelle de l'apprenant. Ainsi, à l'heure actuelle, il est de plus en plus largement admis que les expériences fournies dans des contextes de pratique, généralement sur le lieu de travail ou en milieu professionnel, sont essentielles pour développer les connaissances requises pour exercer efficacement les professions

In this study, the six components of the cognitive apprenticeship model: modelling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection and exploration were applied in an Advanced 3d Animation course for the length of one semester at a transnational university in Vietnam. Students’ perceptions of a situated learning environment were investigated and examined from a qualitative perspective. Students perceived that the six components of cognitive apprenticeship were helpful in overcoming the initial learning curve in the course and applying their newly acquired skill in different situations or problems. Students also agreed that working within a production team environment created an authentic learning experience for them. Peer-to-peer support from the community of practice was also found to be immensely beneficial in collaborative knowledge sharing and problem solving among students.

Noting that skills and knowledge taught in schools have become abstracted from their uses in the world, this paper clarifies some of the implications for the nature of the knowledge that students acquire through a i;roposal for the retooling of apprenticeship methods for the teaching and learning of cognitive skills. The paper specifically proposes the development of a new cognitive apprenticeship to teach students the thinking and problem-solving skills involved in school subjects such as reading, writing, and mathematics. The first section of the paper, after discussing key shortcomings in current curricular and pedagogical practices, presents some of the structural features of traditional apprenticeship, detailing what would be required to adapt these characteristics to the teaching and learning of cognitive skills. The central section of the paper considers three recently developed pedagogical models that exemplify aspects of apprenticeship methods in teaching thinking and reasoning skills. The section notes that these methods-A. S. Palincsar and A. L. Brown's reciprocal reading teaching, M. Scardamalia and C. Bereiter's procedural facilitation of writing, and A. H. Schoenfeld's method for teaching mathematical problem solving-appear to develop successfully not only the cognitive, but also the metacognitive, skills required for true expertise. The final section organizes ideas on the purposes and characteristics of successful teaching into a general framework for the design of learning "environments," including the content being taught, pedagogical methods employed, sequencing of learning activities, and the sociology of learning-emphasizing how cognitive apprenticeship goes beyond the techniques of traditional apprenticeship. Tables of data are included, and references are appended. (Author/NKA)

Web-based and Internet technologies are constantly being developed, evolving new ways of working, teaching, and learning for a broader range of professional and social groups. In a landscape of technology innovations, teacher professional development should try to capitalize on modern internet-based tools and services, better known as Web 2.0 and virtual worlds, in an effort to meet the increasing lifelong learning needs of pre-and in-service teachers. In this paper we suggest using the Second Life MUVE for teaching role-playing instruction to practitioners. After designing and implementing a 3D virtual learning environment in Second Life according to cognitive apprenticeship methods, we taught role-playing instruction to fifteen primary and secondary school teacher educators, using as a case scenario a rhapsody from Homer's Odyssey. We applied qualitative research methods to investigate the effect of role-playing on affective, behavioral and cognitive engagement of our participants. Our exploratory study indicated that learning role-playing instruction in a virtual learning environment has positive impact on learning engagement.

This case study explored educators' experiences in an online course to better understand how course design and pedagogical delivery can support student learning. Using the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model (Collins et al., 1987) as a theoretical lens, researchers investigated the following: 1) What methods of instruction assisted educators in learning how to use technology to support online communication and collaboration? How were these methods introduced and used? and 2) What were students' views of educational technology and of their own learning after participating in an online educational technology course? Interviews and course artifacts were collected from one online course instructor and 11 graduate students from various fields of study. Findings highlight specific methods of instruction that can inform educators' uses of Web 2.0 tools in online courses, illustrating how the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model can be used to inform online course development.

Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, the authors argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. They discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and they note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, they propose cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, in press), which honors the situated nature of knowledge. They examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.

Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, we argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. We discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and we note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, we propose cognitive apprenticeship, which honors the situated nature of knowledge. We examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.

Establishing cohesion in English writing is always a challenging technique to be grasped by ESL students. Research has pointed out the overuse of connectors as a very common writing problem among Hong Kong ESL students. In their study comparing a local students' corpus with a native English writers show clearly that

Design activities, when embedded in an inquiry cycle and appropriately scaffolded and supplemented with reflection, can promote the development of the habits of mind (scientific abilities) that are an important part of scientific practice. Through the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE), students construct physics knowledge by engaging in inquiry cycles that replicate the approach used by physicists to construct knowledge. A significant portion of student learning occurs in ISLE instructional labs where students design their own experiments. The labs provide an environment for cognitive apprenticeship enhanced by formative assessment. As a result, students develop interpretive knowing that helps them approach new problems as scientists. This article describes a classroom study in which the students in the ISLE design lab performed equally well on traditional exams as ISLE students who did not engage in design activities. However, the design group significantly outperformed the non-design group while working on novel experimental tasks (in physics and biology), demonstrating the application of scientific abilities to an inquiry task in a novel content domain. This research shows that a learning environment that integrates cognitive apprenticeship and formative assessment in a series of conceptual design tasks provides a rich context for helping students build scientific habits of mind.

This study concerns the effects of teacher training in instructional behaviour based on new insights in the field of learning and instruction. In an experiment, eight teachers were trained to apply a cognitive apprenticeship model and five teachers were trained to apply a direct instruction model in reading comprehension lessons in primary schools. The teachers in both experimental conditions received teaching guides, which were an adaptation of the curriculum for reading comprehension that they already used. The control group of seven teachers used the same curriculum, but received neither teaching guides nor training. In both experimental conditions teachers successfully changed their behaviour, but they did not succeed in implementing all characteristics of the instructional model aimed at in their training.

In this paper, we point to a few electronic conferencing tools, CU-SeeMe, PictureTel, and VAX Notes , that can support such student apprenticeship and interpersonal understanding.  More importantly, we detail one unique way to integrate these technologies.  In addition to documenting the technical specifications for joining two videoconferencing systems, we provide some anecdotal results of our first attempt to marry all three of these electronic conferencing technologies in an attempt to apprentice student learning and potential enhance their perspective taking abilities.

This study analyses how a group of students develop their teaching over the four years of their B Ed degree. The thesis shows that although the process of ‘learning to teach’ is not linear, students’ development is not random either. The thesis develops a multifaceted model of student teaching which reflects the complexity of ‘learning to teach’ and is also context-sensitive. The facets of their teaching include their content knowledge, their preparation, their teaching strategies, their classroom management and the ways in which they monitor learning. As students teach, these facets interact in various ways. Some of these interactions play a pivotal role in enabling students to conceptualise and execute worthwhile learning processes. In particular, their content knowledge establishes the logical conditions necessary for the development of their pedagogical thinking.

ABSTRACT: In this ethnographic study of summer undergraduate research (UR) experiences at four liberal arts colleges, where faculty and students work collaboratively on a project of mutual interest in an apprenticeship of authentic science research work, analysis of the accounts of faculty and student participants yields comparative insights into the structural elements of this form of UR program and its benefits for students. Comparison of the perspectives of faculty and their students revealed considerable agreement on the nature, range, and extent of students ’ UR gains. Specific student gains relating to the process of “becoming a scientist ” were described and illustrated by both groups. Faculty framed these gains as part of professional socialization into the sciences. In contrast, students emphasized their personal and intellectual development, with little awareness of their socialization into professional practice. Viewing study findings through the lens of social constructi...

In this paper we argue that both the cognitive and situative perspectives need to be modified in order to account for the empirical evidence on learning, taking as a central example the problem of knowledge transfer. Our proposal is that we need an approach that takes as a unit of analysis the individual in a constructive interaction with the world through a variety of mediated symbolic structures, some internal and some external, in rich socio/cultural settings. This should be done without denying that knowledge can be represented in some form in the memory system. While internal mental structures are acceptable in this framework, concepts should not be seen as stable and unchanging but rather, as flexible, malleable, and distributed. In order to explain conceptual change, we should allow for the possibility that what is already known can be radically restructured and that new, qualitative different structures emerge. Teaching for conceptual change, we argue, should utilize but cannot rely solely on cognitive apprenticeship types of methods. Attention must be paid to the appropriate design of curricula and to the acquisition of subject-matter knowledge, together with the development of instructional methods that utilize socio-cultural processes, like classroom discussion, to develop students' metaconceptual awareness and the ability to engage in intentional learning.

Although digital technologies have started to impact the architecture studio, this field is largely underresearched. Limited empirical results are available on Socratic learning, enabled by student-tutor interactions in the crit, especially associated with the synchronous online studio. This study is situated in a blended undergraduate programme in architecture at a University of Technology in South Africa. The part-time programme was designed to broaden access to the architectural profession, by enabling previously disadvantaged and non-traditional working students to upgrade their qualifications, through a blend of office-based mentorship, on-campus blocks and online learning. The aim of this research was to explore the student-tutor interaction in the live online crit, facilitated via a webinar platform. A better understanding is needed of how Socratic learning is mediated between the concrete and the abstract, to address challenges in the studio related to increased student numbers, diversification of the student body and utilisation of available learning technologies. Drawing on learning design, online learning,  Socratic learning and design critique literature by Laurillard, Gunawardena, Lam and Blair respectively, four modes of student-tutor interaction were identified. These are Negotiation,
Exploration, Application and Reflection (NEAR). A focus group interview of recent graduates and three online crit protocols provided the data. All four modes of interaction were found in the focus group interview and observed in the live online crits. The data was thematically analysed and the crit protocol analyses were translated in notations to visualise the student-tutor interactions. The crit notations, read in relation to the graduates’ reporting, revealed patterns of interaction and insights about which party took the lead (the student or the tutor) and when, how the
use of media impacted on the learning episodes, how the modes of interaction were sequenced in the live online crits, and how and when the most valuable learning interactions occurred.

The topics of learning and cultural transmission resonate among anthropologists. The question of how and why behaviors, beliefs, and ideas are learned and shared among a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next lies at the heart of our discipline. It is foundational to the understanding of cultural persistence and change. What factors influence people to perpetuate or deviate from the behaviors of other group members? How are social group boundaries produced, maintained, and changed by the cumulative outcome of these decisions? Archaeologists are well positioned to study the material consequences of these processes. Indeed, archaeological research in many domains-including style, artifact distributional patterning, and chronology construction-depends on understanding the mechanisms and manifestations of cultural transmission. Therefore, three key avenues of research-the socially organized nature of learning, cultural transmission, and cultural boundaries-form the basis of this volume. The boundaries we describe, however, are not only those found within and between societies that we study (past and present); they are also found within and between communities of scholars who study them.