Causality

This study explored how domestic cats perform in a horizontal string-pulling task to determine whether they understand this case of physical causality. Fifteen cats were tested on their ability to retrieve an unreachable food treat in three different set-ups: (a) a single baited string, (b) two parallel strings where only one was baited and (c) two crossed strings where only one was baited. All cats succeeded at pulling a single string to obtain a treat, but none consistently chose the correct string when two strings were parallel. When tested with two crossed strings one cat chose the wrong string consistently and all others performed at chance level. There was no evidence that cats understand the function of the strings or their physical causality.

I examine Skinner's objections to mentalism, concluding that his only valid objections concern the "specious explanations" that mentalism might afford, and their fostering explanations that are incomplete, circular, or faulty inother ways. Unfortunately, themere adoption of behavioristic terminology does not solve that problem. It camouflages the nature of "private events," while providing no protection from specious explanations. I argue that covert states and events are causally effective, and may be sufficiently different in their nature to deserve a name other than "behavior." To call such events "mental" does not force a dualistic metaphysics: Such a distinction can be easily assimilated by an "emergent behaviorism." Emergent behaviorism will make explicit use of theories. It will be inductive and pragmatic, and will evaluate hypothetical constructs in terms of their utility inclarifying and solving the outstanding problems of the discipline.

Techniques of molecular biology have improved diagnostic sensitivity, accuracy and validity in forensic medicine very much, especially in the field of identification (paternity testing, stain analysis). Since more than 10 years these techniques -meanwhile well established in clinical disciplines -are used also for other applications in forensic medicine: determination of cause and manner of death, tissue identification by mRNA and microRNA, examination of gene expression levels (survival time, time since death, cause of death), toxicogenetics.

La relación causal está presente en el modo en que comprendemos los procesos de nuestro entorno, la forma en que creemos que se desarrollarán los hechos en el futuro y la manera en que justificamos nuestras acciones. Parte de la comprensión de lo ocurrido proviene de señalar las condiciones que hacen que cierto hecho tenga lugar, a qué se debió que un episodio haya ocurrido o a qué se debe que no haya tenido lugar. Parte de la información relevante para este conocimiento proviene de las teorías científicas vigentes, por lo cual, todo cambio de teoría puede redundar en una revisión del papel que cada factor juega en causar, facilitar, retardar o impedir cierto efecto. Por otra parte, no todas las relaciones causales son deterministas, de modo que el análisis de cuáles son las probabilidades de ocurrencia de un efecto luego de que tuvieron lugar sus causas abre la puerta a una relación de causa-efecto aun cuando no siempre una causa garantice la ocurrencia del efecto. El problema filosófico de comprender en qué consiste la relación causal es una de las preguntas clásicas de la metafísica que puede, a su vez, revitalizarse una y otra vez al tomar una perspectiva filosófica que contemple los contenidos y cambios de las teorías científicas. Es así que las discusiones sobre la flecha del tiempo, la termodinámica, las leyes físicas y los fenómenos que las nuevas teorías abordan, son una fuente abundante de novedades para la discusión renovada sobre la relación causal.

Many meta-analyses of comparative outcome studies found a substantial association of researcher allegiance (RA) and relative treatment effects. Therefore, RA is regarded as a biasing factor in comparative outcome research (RA bias hypothesis). However, the RA bias hypothesis has been criticized as causality might be reversed. That is, RA might be a reflection of true efficacy differences between treatments (true efficacy hypothesis). Consequently, the RA-outcome association would not be indicative of bias but an epiphenomenon of true efficacy differences. This meta-analysis tested the validity of the true efficacy hypothesis. This was done by controlling the RA-outcome association for true efficacy differences by restricting analysis to direct comparisons of treatments with equivalent efficacy. We included direct comparisons of different versions of trauma-focused therapy (TFT) in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). RA was measured from the research reports. Relative effect sizes for symptoms of PTSD were calculated. Random effects meta-regression was conducted. Twenty-nine comparisons of TFTs from 20 studies were identified. Initial heterogeneity among relative effect sizes was low. RA was a significant predictor of outcome and explained 12% of the variance in outcomes. The true efficacy hypothesis predicted the RA-outcome association to be zero; however, a substantial association was found. Thus, this study does not support the true efficacy hypothesis. Given findings from psychotherapy research and other fields that support a biasing influence of researcher preferences, RA should be regarded as a causal factor and conceptualized as a threat to the validity of conclusions from comparative outcome studies.

The aim of this article is to assist nurses in the assessment of abdominal pain in adults presenting to the accident and emergency (A&E) department and other acute settings. Through a structured approach to history taking and pain assessment, nurses should be able to differentiate abdominal pain caused by acute rather than non-acute conditions. Within a contemporary, interprofessional healthcare environment, this will aid rapid and effective treatment. After reading this article you should be able to: Describe the anatomy and physiology of organs associated with abdominal pain. Identify the main causes of abdominal pain and differential diagnoses. Ask relevant questions of a patient presenting with abdominal pain. Discuss the appropriate investigations and nursing care required. Understand the principles of symptom management.

Objective. To investigate the clinical features of idiopathic headache with early onset, whose presence is probably underestimated by parents and physicians and the influence of environmental and psychological factors on headache in children.

This editorial describes the contents of this special issue of Sexual Health devoted to anal cancer. The aim of the issue is to provide readers with information to assist them in making decisions about what to do about detecting anal cancer early in men who have sex with men with HIV. Should they be advocating screening? It discusses the epidemiology of HPV infection, anal intraepithelial neoplasia, and anal cancer in MSM, heterosexual men and women; anal cancer screening and treatment of anal cancer. And most importantly, what should be done about vaccinating boys with the HPV vaccine.

This study investigates the relationship between exports, foreign direct investments (FDI) and economic growth in five Eurozone countries (Greece, Portugal, Ireland, Spain, and Italy) using panel data for the period 1970 to 2011. The panel data causality results revealed that there is bidirectional causality between exports and economic development, while there is no causality between economic growth and FDI nor between FDI and exports.

The purpose of this paper is to measure the risks posed by the COVID-19 outbreak on financial market indicators, which caused uncertainty and fear all over the world. In the paper, the Fourier KPSS unit root test, which helps to measure structural breaks more precisely by means of the Fourier transformations in time series, the Fourier-SHIN Cointegration Test to determine long-term relationships between time series, and the Fourier Granger Causality Test to determine causality relationships are used. As a result of these tests applied on the daily price series between 31.12.2019 and 01.05.2020, it has been found that in the long term, the COVID-19 outbreak has a significant effect on stock markets, crude oil representing oil markets, and fear index; but no significant effect on Bitcoin which represents money markets. In the short term, it is concluded that COVID-19 has had a significant effect on stock markets, crude oil, fear index, and Bitcoin.

We aimed to evaluate general features of children with chronic constipation and classified them according to the Iowa criteria and Rome II criteria in order to analyze applicability of these criteria in our population. The medical records of 485 children who were referred for chronic constipation over a six-year period were evaluated retrospectively. We found that 7.7% of the cases had an organic pathology, and short segment Hirschsprung disease was the leading cause. Other children (92.3%) were classified as functional constipation, with a mean age of 6.4 +/- 4 years and with slight male dominance. Encopresis was found in 117 children (51.7%) aged over four years, and was associated with older age, male predominance and long duration of symptoms. Both of the classification systems showed a similar prevalence of constipation, but 9.9% of the children with pediatric constipation were not recognized by Rome II criteria. Additionally, 1.8% of the children were not recognized by either ...

The concepts of causation and prediction are different, and have different implications for practice. This distinction is applied here to studies of the problem of student attrition (although it is more widely applicable). Studies of attrition from nursing courses have tended to concentrate on causation, trying, largely unsuccessfully, to elicit what causes drop out. However, the problem may more fruitfully be cast in terms of predicting who is likely to drop out. One powerful method for attempting to make predictions is rule induction. This paper reports the use of the Answer Tree package from SPSS for that purpose. The main data set consisted of 3978 records on 528 nursing students, split into a training set and a test set. The source was standard university student records. The method obtained 84% sensitivity, 70% specificity, and 94% accuracy on previously unseen cases. The method requires large amounts of high quality data. When such data are available, rule induction offers a ...

Background and purpose: Studies on the comorbidity of migraine and epilepsy have shown conflicting results. We wanted to explore the epidemiological association between migraine and seizure disorders in a population-based material where case ascertainment was enhanced by individual specialist assessments. Methods: Information concerning migraine and seizure disorders was collected from 1793 participants in an interviewbased survey in a circumscribed community. Mixed headache, with features both of migraine without aura and tension-type headache, was excluded from further analyses because of its ambiguous character (n = 137). Thus, data from 1656 participants were included in the study. Results: The number of subjects with epilepsy was small, and a statistically significant association between migraine and the diagnosis of epilepsy was not found. There was a tendency to more active epilepsy in subjects with migraine (1.0%, 5/524), particularly for migraine with aura (1.8%, 3/168), compared with subjects without migraine (0.5%, 6/1132). Migraine was present in five of 11 subjects with active epilepsy (45%) and in four of 28 (14%) with epilepsy in remission (P = 0.09). Conclusions: An overall association between migraine and seizure disorders could not be demonstrated, but there was a tendency to more migraine in individuals with active epilepsy.

Three studies investigated whether young children make accurate causal inferences on the basis of patterns of variation and covariation. Children were presented with a new causal relation by means of a machine called the "blicket detector." Some objects, but not others, made the machine light up and play music. In the first 2 experiments, children were told that "blickets make the machine go" and were then asked to identify which objects were "blickets." Two-, 3-, and 4-year-old children were shown various patterns of variation and covariation between two different objects and the activation of the machine. All 3 age groups took this information into account in their causal judgments about which objects were blickets. In a 3rd experiment, 3-and 4-year-old children used the information when they were asked to make the machine stop. These results are related to Bayes-net causal graphical models of causal learning.

Although a number of studies have already been conducted on the economic impact of the development of the transport and logistics sector and international trade, these are regarded as two separated topics, and little has been done so far to study in depth the relationship between them. This paper seeks to shed light on this issue in the context of Australia. To this end, the vector autocorrelation (VAR) framework is employed to explore the causal relationship between Australia-China trade and the development of the Australian transport and logistics sector. This framework is then extended to allow for the effect of Australia's trade with the US, Japan, the rest of the world and other variables. Based on the analysis results, implications for the transport and logistics sector are discussed.

Hospital-acquired urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common infection acquired in hospitals. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of UTIs in Turkey. A nationwide one day pointprevalence survey was conducted. Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) standard definitions for nosocomial UTIs were used. Data were collected by detailed uniform questionnaires for each patient with UTI. A total of 13 269 patients were investigated, the number of patients observed in each hospital varied from 21 to 1329 patients, an average of 458 patients per prevalence study per hospital. The overall prevalence of UTI was 1.7%. Fifty-eight (26.1%) of the patients had sepsis or septic shock. Twenty-five (11.3%) patients had culture-proven bloodstream infection. Over 60% (65.3%) of urinary tract infections were associated with urinary catheters. Overall, 78.4% of UTIs were culture-proven. Escherichia coli (32.4%) was the most common reported pathogen, followed by Klebsiella spp. (17.0%), Candida spp. (12.8%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11.7%) and enterococci 8.5%. The prevalence of ampicillin-resistant E. coli was 23.9% and accounted for 73.8% of all E. coli isolated from UTI 8.2%, and 24.6% of E. coli were resistant to quinolones and ceftriaxone, respectively. There were no resistance to carbapenems in E. coli but 6.25, 40.6, 59.4% of Klebsiella spp. were resistant to carbapenems, quinolones and ceftriaxone, respectively. The results of this first national point-prevalence study offers a reliable measure of the prevalence of nosocomial UTIs at hospitals in Turkey and provides a baseline for future studies which will enable the monitoring of trends over time.

This study analyzes vehicle-pedestrian crashes at intersections in Florida over 4 years, 1999-2002. The study identifies the group of drivers and pedestrians, and traffic and environmental characteristics that are correlated with high pedestrian crashes using log-linear models. The study also estimates the likelihood of pedestrian injury severity when pedestrians are involved in crashes using an ordered probit model. To better reflect pedestrian crash risk, a logical measure of exposure is developed using the information on individual walking trips in the household travel survey. Lastly, the impact of average traffic volume on pedestrian crashes is examined. As a result of the analysis, it was found that pedestrian and driver demographic factors, and road geometric, traffic and environment conditions are closely related to the frequency and injury severity of pedestrian crashes. Higher average traffic volume at intersections increases the number of pedestrian crashes; however, the rate of increase is steeper at lower values of average traffic volume. Based on the findings in the analysis, some countermeasures are recommended to improve pedestrian safety.

Children's causal attributions about childhood mental health problems were examined in a national sample for prevalence; relative stigmatization; variation by age, race and ethnicity, and gender; and self-report of a diagnosis of depression or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A national sample of 1,091 children were randomly assigned to read vignettes about a peer with depression, ADHD, or asthma and respond to an online survey. Causal attributions and social distance were assessed, and correlations were examined. Logistic regression models for each causal item tested main effects and interaction terms for conditions, demographic characteristics, and self-reported diagnosis. The beliefs that parenting, substance abuse, and low effort caused the condition were all strongly intercorrelated and were moderately correlated with social distance. The depression condition was the strongest predictor of endorsement of the most stigmatizing causal beliefs. Stigmatizing cau...

Neuroleptic medication and sexuality: the forgotten aspect of education and care Discussing issues of sexuality is a challenging and difficult issue for many health care workers. When it comes to sexuality and people with mental health problems there seems to be a dual taboo. Mental health nurses are ideal members of the health care team to talk to service users about issues as sensitive as sexuality and the side effects of medication that impact on sexual health. However, in both clinical practice and the nursing literature, the side effects of medications that impact on sexual function are often ignored and unspoken about. This paper examines the impact of both conventional and atypical neuroleptic medication on sexual function and discusses the probable causes of such effects. The possible reasons why health care professionals are reluctant to discuss side effects impacting on sexual health with service users are explored and emphasis is placed on the need for mental health nurses to respond to requests from service users for more education and discussion in the area of sexuality and sexual health.

s Abstract Background This is an epidemiological study of a possible causal role of marijuana use in the development of Major Depressive Episode (MDE). Malefemale differences in the suspected causal association have also been studied. Method Data are from 6,792 National Comorbidity Survey participants aged 15-45 years, assessed via the University of Michigan modified version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (UM-CIDI). Survival analysis methods were used to estimate cumulative risk of MDE by levels of marijuana use and to estimate suspected causal associations after adjustment for other influences. Results The risk of first MDE was moderately associated with the number of occasions of marijuana use and with more advanced stages of marijuana use. Relative to never users, non-dependent marijuana users had 1.6 times greater risk of MDE (95 % Confidence Interval: 1.1, 2.2), even with statistical adjustment for sex, birth cohorts, alcohol dependence, and history of daily tobacco smoking. Conclusions There was male-female variation in the degree of association between stage of marijuana involvement and MDE, but the strength of the association is modest at best.

Early determination of renal scar development risk in children following first urinary tract infection (UTI) and early detection and treatment of vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) are important to prevent renal functional impairment. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of VUR and associated renal scar formation, in children who had acute pyelonephritis (APN), first afebrile UTI, and recurrent afebrile UTIs. Patient records of 642 children having UTI were scrutinized and 278 out of 642 were enrolled in this study. The patients were divided into three groups: Group 1, patients with APN (n = 73); Group 2, patients with the first afebrile UTI (n = 88); and group 3, patients with recurrent afebrile UTIs (n = 117). Among these groups, VUR prevalence did not differ significantly (group 1: 24.6%, group 2: 22.7%, and group 3: 26.4%. Renal scarring was detected in 19.3% of the patients and was remarkably lower in group 2 when compared with the other two groups (P \ 0.05). Renal scarring was found in 37.1% of the patients with VUR, whereas it was found in 14.3% of patients without VUR. Renal scarring incidence was remarkably higher in patients with grades 4-5 VUR (61.5%) compared with those with grades 1-3 VUR (30.6%) (P = 0.055). In conclusion, since VUR was demonstrated in as many as one-quarter of patients with the first afebrile UTI and VUR incidence did not differ significantly among the groups, all UTIs, lower and upper ones, should be carefully evaluated.

We consider evaluating the causal effects of dynamic treatments, i.e. of multiple treatment sequences in various periods, based on double machine learning to control for observed, time-varying covariates in a data-driven way under a selection-on-observables assumption. To this end, we make use of so-called Neyman-orthogonal score functions, which imply the robustness of treatment effect estimation to moderate (local) misspecifications of the dynamic outcome and treatment models. This robustness property permits approximating outcome and treatment models by double machine learning even under high dimensional covariates and is combined with data splitting to prevent overfitting. In addition to effect estimation for the total population, we consider weighted estimation that permits assessing dynamic treatment effects in specific subgroups, e.g. among those treated in the first treatment period. We demonstrate that the estimators are asymptotically normal and √ n-consistent under specific regularity conditions and investigate their finite sample properties in a simulation study. Finally, we apply the methods to the Job Corps study in order to assess different sequences of training programs under a large set of covariates.

Keywords health beliefs postpartum lifestyle behaviors perceived risk gestational diabetes type 2 diabetes prevention ABSTRACT Objective: To critically review and synthesize original research designed to examine the health beliefs, including risk perceptions and health behaviors related to diet and physical activity of women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus.

F Fe ec ca al l I In nc co on nt ti in ne en nc ce e i in n A Ac cu ut te el ly y a an nd d C Cr ri it ti ic ca al ll ly y I Il ll l P Pa at ti ie en nt ts s: : O Op pt ti io on ns s i in n M Ma an na ag ge em me en nt t C aring for acutely or critically ill patients with fecal incontinence is a daunting task that consumes substantial caregiver time and erodes patient comfort, self-image, and strength. Families and significant others often also are distressed by the evident patient discomfort, odor, and stigma associated with lack of bowel control. To avoid or minimize complications, fecal leakage, stool containment, and skin integrity must be addressed. This article reviews the etiologies of chronic and transient fecal incontinence, especially diarrhea; describes the pathophysiological and overall patient consequences of fecal incontinence; and discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and selection/rejection criteria for contemporary management options.

This paper relies on wavelet multiresolution analysis to capture the dependence structure of currency markets and reveal the complex dynamics across different timescales. It investigates the nature and direction of causal relationships among the most widely traded currencies denoted relative to the United States Dollar (USD), namely Euro (EUR), Great Britain Pound (GBP) and Japanese Yen (JPY). The timescale analysis involves the estimation of linear vis-à-vis nonlinear and spectral causality of wavelet components and aggregate series as well as the detection of short-vs. long-run linkages and cross-scale correlations. Moreover, this study attempts to probe into the micro-foundations of across-scale heterogeneity in the causality pattern on the basis of trader behavior with different time horizons. New stylized properties emerge in the volatility structure and the implications for the flow of information across scales are inferred. The examined period starts from the introduction of the Euro and covers the dot-com bubble, the financial crisis of 2007-2010 and the Eurozone debt crisis. Technically, this paper presents an invariant discrete wavelet transform that deals efficiently with phase shifts, dyadic-length and boundary effects. It also proposes a new entropy-based methodology for the determination of the optimal decomposition level. Overall, there is no indication of a global causal behavior that dominates at all timescales. When the nonlinear effects are accounted for, the evidence of dynamical bidirectional causality implies that the pattern of leads and lags changes over time. These results may prove useful to quantify the process of integration as well as influence the greater predictability of currency markets.

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer used in consumer and medical products that can cross the placenta, disrupt steroid hormone synthesis, and activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor c. The authors examined DEHP exposure in relation to the timing of labor in a pregnancy cohort study of 283 women recruited in 4 US states (California, Iowa, Minnesota, and Missouri) between 2000 and 2004. The authors estimated associations between concentrations of DEHP metabolites and gestational age at delivery using linear regression models and associations between DEHP metabolites and clinical outcomes using logistic regression models. After covariate adjustment, women at the 75th percentile of DEHP metabolite concentrations had a 2-day-longer mean length of gestation than women at the 25th percentile (95% confidence interval: 1.4, 3.3). Log-unit increases in mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and mono-2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl phthalate concentrations were associated with increased odds of cesarean section delivery (30% and 50% increased odds, respectively), increased odds of delivering at 41 weeks or later (100% and 120% increased odds), and reduced odds of preterm delivery (50% and 60% decreased odds). These data suggest that DEHP may interfere with signaling related to the timing of parturition.

The goal of this article is to propose a new cognitive model that focuses on bottom-up learning of explicit knowledge (i.e., the transformation of implicit knowledge into explicit knowledge). This phenomenon has recently received much attention in empirical research that was not accompanied by a corresponding work effort in cognitive modeling. The new model is called TEnsor LEarning of CAusal STructure (TELECAST). In TELECAST, implicit processing is modeled using an unsupervised connectionist network (the Joint Probability EXtractor: JPEX) while explicit (causal) knowledge is implemented using a Bayesian belief network (which is built online using JPEX). Every task is simultaneously processed explicitly and implicitly and the results are integrated to provide the model output. Here, TELECAST is used to simulate a causal inference task and two serial reaction time experiments.

Keywords breastfeeding self-efficacy perceived insufficient milk supply formula supplementation ABSTRACT Objective: To examine the relationship between maternal perceptions of insufficient milk and breastfeeding confidence using the Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale.

Correlation and causality are the two key facets to understand interlinkages between Mutual funds and benchmark index. Hence this paper has tried to investigate the interlinkages associated with equity mutual funds with benchmark stock index in India. It has also attempted to look for presence of causality lying in the behaviour of equity funds. This paper resolves around the correlation and causality if any exists between the returns provided by the selected equity schemes and the benchmark index returns namely BSE SENSEX returns and Nifty 50. Monthly closing NAV’s of Equity funds along with benchmark indices ( BSE Sensex, Nifty 50) are examined for a period from April 1, 2008 till February 29, 2020. Results exhibited that there exists significant correlation between the mutual fund returns and the benchmark returns (nifty returns and Sensex returns). Explanatory power is also quantified to show the impact of benchmark index on mutual fund returns. The Lead lag relationship is identified with the help of Granger Causality test. Results revealed that no significant causality relationship between the different selected mutual funds and the market index

Clinical determinations of causation in cases of intervertebral disk (IVD) injury after a motor vehicle crash (MVC) are often disputed in medicolegal settings. No published systematic guidelines exist for making such determinations, which has resulted in infringement by nonclinical personnel into injury causation evaluations, a traditionally clinical activity. The result is causal determinations that are potentially disconnected from clinical observations of injury. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the current literature on causation, causal determinations after trauma and IVD injury after MVC, and to develop a practicable, logical, and literature-based approach to causation determinations of symptomatic IVD injury after MVC. The results of the review indicate IVD injury can result from any MVC regardless of magnitude, thus meeting the first criteria of causation, biologic plausibility. Individual determinations of causation depend entirely on the temporal association between the collision and the symptom onset (the second criterion) and a lack of a more probable explanation for the symptoms (the third). When these causal elements are met, clinicians can assert causation on a "more probable than not" or "reasonable probability" basis. Because of a lack of an established or reliable relationship between collision force and the probability of IVD injury the investigation of collision parameters is not a useful adjunct to causal determinations.

Delirium is a common and serious problem for older hospitalized patients. This investigation proposes a multifactorial model of delirium etiology, involving a complex interrelationship of predisposing (vulnerability) factors and precipitating factors (acute insults). An overview of risk factors for delirium identified in 14 studies published since 1980 is provided. Although these studies identify key risk factors for delirium, they do not allow the examination of the interrelationship of predisposing and precipitating factors. Thus, we present two prospective cohort studies by our group which empirically examine: (1) predisposing (vulnerability) factors, (2) precipitating factors, and (3) the interrelationship of predisposing and precipitating factors. Understanding these risk factors is the key to developing appropriate preventive strategies and to target intermediate and high risk patients for intervention efforts.

We present a novel derivation of both the Minkowski metric and Lorentz transformations from the consistent quantification of a causally ordered set of events with respect to an embedded observer. Unlike past derivations, which have relied on assumptions such as the existence of a 4-dimensional manifold, symmetries of space-time, or the constant speed of light, we demonstrate that these now familiar mathematics can be derived as the unique means to consistently quantify a network of events. This suggests that space-time need not be physical, but instead the mathematics of space and time emerges as the unique way in which an observer can consistently quantify events and their relationships to one another. The result is a potential foundation for emergent space-time.

People make social inferences without intentions, awareness, or effort, i.e., spontaneously. We review recent findings on spontaneous social inferences (especially traits, goals, and causes) and closely related phenomena. We then describe current thinking on some of the most relevant processes, implicit knowledge, and theories. These include automatic and controlled processes and their interplay; embodied cognition, including mimicry; and associative versus rule-based processes. Implicit knowledge includes adult folk theories, conditions of personhood, self-knowledge to simulate others, and cultural and social class differences. Implicit theories concern Bayesian networks, recent attribution research, and questions about the utility of the disposition-situation dichotomy. Developmental research provides new insights. Spontaneous social inferences include a growing array of phenomena, but they have been insufficiently linked to other phenomena and theories. We hope the links suggeste...

Whilst healthcare has increased its awareness of the retrospective safety assessment techniques, such as root cause analysis, adoption of the corresponding predictive safety assessment techniques has been slow and sporadic. Reasons for this may include lack of support in technique choice and practical knowledge in the published literature. Whilst there have been many publications on these techniques, few have aimed to support the novice user in selecting a technique from the broad array of choice to facilitate targeting of education in techniques for specific purposes. This paper aims to address this through collecting an evidence base towards developing a bottom-up (resources and constraints) and top-down (requirements) approach to technique selection. Conclusions indicate there is a lack of practical experiences described in the literature to conclusively define a technique for selection and a need for a dedicated research in this area to make it accessible for healthcare and other novice users.

Identifying the necessary and sufficient conditions for individuating and classifying diseases is a matter of great importance in the fields of law, ethics, epidemiology, and of course, medicine. In this paper, I first propose a means of achieving this goal, ensuring that no two distinct disease-types could correctly be ascribed to the same disease-token. I then posit a metaphysical ontology of diseases-that is, I give an account of what a disease is. This is essential to providing the most effective means of interfering with disease processes. Following existing work in the philosophy of medicine and epidemiology (primarily Christopher Boorse; Caroline Whitbeck; Alexander Broadbent), philosophy of biology (Joseph LaPorte; D.L. Hull), conditional analyses of causation (J.L. Mackie; David Lewis), and recent literature on dispositional essentialism (Stephen Mumford and Rani Anjum; Alexander Bird), I endorse a dispositional conception of disease. Following discussion of various conceptions of disease-identity, their relations to the clinical and pathological effects of the diseases in question, and how diseases are treated, I conclude (i) that diseases should be individuated by their causes, and (ii) that diseases are causal processes best seen as simultaneously acting sequences of mutually manifesting dispositions.

1813 yılında doktora tezi olarak hazırlanmasının ardından, Schopenhauer felsefesinin temeli haline gelen Yeter Sebep İlkesinin Dört Katlı Kökü Üzerine (Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde) başlıklı çalışma, var olan her şeyin bir açıklamasının yapılabileceği varsayımından hareket eder. Yeter sebep ilkesinin bütün bilgi ve bilimin temelini teşkil ettiğini düşünen Schopenhauer, bir bütün olarak deneyimin doğasının aydınlatılması amacını taşır. Dört katlı kök altında sunulan ilke temelde tek bir ilkeye irca edilebilir: “Hiçbir şey, neden başka türlü değil de tam olarak olduğu gibi olmasına ilişkin bir sebep (reason) ya da temel (ground) olmaksızın meydana gelmez.” Schopenhauer, a priori geçerliliğe sahip olduğunu kabul ettiği ilkenin fiziksel (nedensel), mantıksal (önermesel), geometrik ya da matematiksel ve ahlâkî (moral) olmak üzere dört farklı açıklama tarzında karşılık bulduğunu belirtir. Fiziksel, bir diğer adıyla nedensellik adını alan ilk açıklama, yalnızca fizik dünyada gerçekleşen olaylar ya da durumlara uygulanır ve oluşun yeter sebep ilkesi adını taşır. Mantıksal kök, yargıya dayanmakla birlikte öncüllerin takip ettiği sonuca işaret eder ve bilginin yeter sebebidir. Matematiksel kök varlığın yeter sebep ilkesine karşılık gelirken, dördüncü kök ahlâk yasasına işaret eder ve bir bütün olarak eylemlerimizde açığa çıkarak eylemin yeter sebep ilkesi adını alır. İlkeyi dört düzeyde ele almakla Schopenhauer; varlık, bilgi, oluş ve eylemin yeter sebebini birbirinden ayırt etmiş olur. Bilimin açıklamalarını dayandırdığı yeter sebep ilkesi, işleyiş ve geçerlilik açısından daima duyusal alanla, eş deyişle fenomenal düzlemle sınırlı kalmak durumundadır. Buradan hareketle, zorunluluğu temin eden ilke olarak yeter sebep ilkesinin tasavvurun sınırlarını aşan kendinde şey (ding an sich) ile herhangi bir ilişkiye sokulabilmesi mümkün değildir. Yeter-sebep ilkesinin yegâne uygulama alanı olan, özne için nesneler sınıfını teşkil eden tasavvurlarımız bu ilke tarafından koşullanmıştır ve zorunlu yasalara sahiptir. Bu çalışma, Schopenhauer’in kendisinden önce kimsenin açık bir şekilde ayırmaya muktedir olamadığını söylediği ilkenin, dört farklı köke nasıl ve hangi amaç dahilinde ayrıldığının yanı sıra tasavvur dünyası ile olan irtibatına yer vermeyi hedeflemektedir.

Cognitive maps are representations of the causal beliefs or assertions of a specific individual. Maps of three Latin American policy makers (Carlos Andrés Pérez, Roberto de Oliveira Campos, and Aurelio de Lyra Tavares) suggest new hypotheses and ways of comparing maps across individuals: (i) individuals with broader political responsibility may have more complicated maps with respect to numbers of goals and policies, but less complicated maps with respect to linkages between policies and goals, than individuals with narrower responsibility; (2) maps of different individuals can and should be compared with respect to the degree to which they make (or fail to make) distinctions among related concepts; and (3) maps can be used to predict the future policies of individuals, and should be used in this way to test the theoretical potential of the approach.