Biomedical

ABSTRACT
In this paper the functions of the liver was summarized which includes firstly, Secretion of bile, the liver
assists intestinal digestion by secreting 700 to 1200 ml of bile per day. Bile is an alkaline, bitter-tasting,
yellowish green fluid that contains bile salts (conjugated bile acids), cholesterol, bilirubin (a pigment),
electrolytes and water. It is formed by hepatocytes and secreted into the canaliculi. Bile salts, which are
conjugated bile acids, are required for the intestinal emulsification and absorption of fats. Secondly,
Metabolism of bilirubin which is a byproduct of destruction of aged red blood cells and gives bile a
greenish black color and produces the yellow tinge of jaundice. Also Vascular and hematologic
functions,because of its extensive vascular network, the liver can store a large volume of blood. The
amount stored at anyone duration depends on pressure relationships in the arteries and veins. Moreover,
the liver has hemostatic functions, It synthesizes prothrombin, fibrinogen, and clotting factors. Vitamin K, a
fat-soluble vitamin, is essential for the synthesis of other clotting factors. Because bile salts are needed for
reabsorption of fats, vitamin K absorption depends on adequate bile production in the liver. Furthermore
Metabolism of nutrients, the liver plays essential roles in the metabolism of fat, protein and carbohydrates.
Also, Metabolic detoxification, the liver alters exogenous and endogenous chemicals (e.g. drugs), foreign
molecules, and hormones to make them less toxic or less biologically active. This process, called metabolic
detoxification, diminishes intestinal or renal tubular reabsorption of potentially toxic substances and
facilitates their intestinal and renal excretion. In this way alcohol, barbiturates, amphetamines, steroids
and hormones (including estrogens, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and testosterone) are metabolized
or detoxified, preventing excessive accumulation and adverse effects. Also, Storage of minerals and
vitamins, the liver stores certain vitamins and minerals, including iron and copper, in periods of excessive
intake and releases them in periods of need. The liver can store vitamins B12 and D for several months and
vitamin A for several years. The liver also stores vitamins E and K. Iron is stored in the liver as ferritin, an
iron-protein complex and is released when needed for red blood cell production. Finally, the liver has
immunologic functions as the liver contain cells involved in adaptive and innate immunity.
Keywords: Liver, Physiology, Functions, Lobule, Hepatocytes.

What are the effects of circumcision  on sexual function and experience? And what does sex—in the sense related to gender—have to do with the ethics of circumcision? Jacobs and Arora (2015) give short shrift to the first of these questions; and they do not seem to have considered the second. In this commentary, I explore the relationship between sex (in both senses) and infant male circumcision, and draw some conclusions about the ongoing debate regarding this controversial practice.

Many laboratories have begun to develop brain-computer interface (BCI) systems that provide communication and control capabilities to people with severe motor disabilities. Further progress and realization of practical applications depends on systematic evaluations and comparisons of different brain signals, recording methods, processing algorithms, output formats, and operating protocols. However, the typical BCI system is designed specifically for one particular BCI method and is, therefore, not suited to the systematic studies that are essential for continued progress. In response to this problem, we have developed a documented general-purpose BCI research and development platform called BCI2000. BCI2000 can incorporate alone or in combination any brain signals, signal processing methods, output devices, and operating protocols. This report is intended to describe to investigators, biomedical engineers, and computer scientists the concepts that the BCI2000 system is based upon and gives examples of successful BCI implementations using this system. To date, we have used BCI2000 to create BCI systems for a variety of brain signals, processing methods, and applications. The data show that these systems function well in online operation and that BCI2000 satisfies the stringent real-time requirements of BCI systems. By substantially reducing labor and cost, BCI2000 facilitates the implementation of different BCI systems and other psychophysiological experiments. It is available with full documentation and free of charge for research or educational purposes and is currently being used in a variety of studies by many research groups. University of New York, Albany. His research interests include use of operant conditioning of spinal reflexes as a new model for defining the plasticity underlying a simple form of learning in vertebrates and development of EEG-based communication and control technology for people with severe motor disabilities.

Ethosomes are specially tailored vesicular carriers able to efficiently deliver various molecules with different physicochemical properties into deep skin layers and across the skin. This paper reviews the unique characteristics of the ethosomal carriers, focusing on work carried out with drug containing ethosomal systems in animal models and in clinical studies. The paper concludes with a discussion on the safety of the ethosomal system applications.

One-dimensional (1-D) nanostructures have attracted enormous research interest due to their unique physicochemical properties and wide application potential. These 1-D nanofibers are being increasingly applied to biomedical fields owing to their high surface area-to-volume ratio, high porosity, and the ease of tuning their structures, functionalities, and properties. Many biomedical nanofiber reviews have focused on tissue engineering and drug delivery applications but have very rarely discussed their use as wound dressings. However, nanofibers have enormous potential as wound dressings and other clinical applications that could have wide impacts on the treatment of wounds. Herein, the authors review the main fabrication methods of nanofibers as well as requirements, strategies, and recent applications of nanofibers, and provide perspectives of the challenges and opportunities that face multifunctional nanofibers for active therapeutic applications.

The goal of this project is to develop and utilize a microfluidic device to isolate and enrich tumor cells circulating in peripheral blood. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have been used as biomarkers for cancer diagnostics and prognosis. However, the rarity of these cells (roughly 1 in a billion) poses a technological challenge to sort and concentrate them. CTCs hold potential sources for early detection, characterization, monitoring of cancers, and development of personalized treatment. The project is currently funded by the US National Cancer Institute (NCI) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

This article reports a new process chain for custom-made three-dimensional (3D) porous ceramic scaffolds for bone replacement with fully interconnected channel network for the repair of osseous defects from trauma or disease. Rapid prototyping and especially 3D printing is well suited to generate complex-shaped porous ceramic matrices directly from powder materials. Anatomical information obtained from a patient can be used to design the implant for a target defect. In the 3D printing technique, a box filled with ceramic powder is printed with a polymer-based binder solution layer by layer. Powder is bonded in wetted regions. Unglued powder can be removed and a ceramic green body remains. We use a modified hydroxyapatite (HA) powder for the fabrication of 3D printed scaffolds due to the safety of HA as biocompatible implantable material and efficacy for bone regeneration. The printed ceramic green bodies are consolidated at a temperature of 1250°C in a high temperature furnace in ambient air. The polymeric binder is pyrolysed during sintering. The resulting scaffolds can be used in tissue engineering of bone implants using patient-derived cells that are seeded onto the scaffolds.This article describes the process chain, beginning from data preparation to 3D printing tests and finally sintering of the scaffold. Prototypes were successfully manufactured and characterized. It was demonstrated that it is possible to manufacture parts with inner channels with a dimension down to 450 m and wall structures with a thickness down to 330 m. The mechanical strength of dense test parts is up to 22 MPa.

We present what is to our knowledge the first in vivo tomograms of human retina obtained by Fourier domain optical coherence tomography. We would like to show that this technique might be as powerful as other optical coherence tomography techniques in the ophthalmologic imaging field. The method, experimental setup, data processing, and images are discussed.

Objective:The aim of this study was to evaluate the progression of arthritis in a complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced Wistar rat model and to monitor inflammatory arthritis activity using thermal imaging compared with histopathology.Methodology: Fifteen adult male Wistar rats were studied in an adjuvant induced arthritis model by the injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant in the right hind limb and right forelimb, respectively, with the left limbs used as controls. Thermal image analysis based on skin temperature measurement, radiographic analysis based on erosion, limb circumference measurement, and histopathological evaluation were performed.Results. The average skin temperature difference on the arthritis-induced side and control for both the forelimb and hind limb were found to be 1.09 °C and 0.98 °C, respectively. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that skin surface temperature was positively correlated with the arthritis severity score (forelimb: r=0.64, hind limb: r=0.66, p<0.05).A significant correlation also existed between thermal imaging temperature and visual scoring of X-ray (forelimb: r=0.56, hind limb: r=0.67, p<0.05). Conclusion:Thermal imaging measurements correlated with arthritis severity score,radiological score, and ankle diameters. Hence, thermography could be used to diagnose and analyze inflammatory activity of arthritis at the preclinical stage.

Among various water purification and recycling technologies, adsorption is a fast, inexpensive and universal method. The development of low-cost adsorbents has led to the rapid growth of research interests in this field. The present protocol describes salient features of adsorption and details experimental methodologies for the development and characterization of low-cost adsorbents, water treatment and recycling using adsorption technology including batch processes and column operations. The protocol describes the development of inexpensive adsorbents from waste materials, which takes only 1-2 days, and an adsorption process taking 15-120 min for the removal of pollutants. The applications of batch and column processes are discussed, along with suggestions to make this technology more popular and applicable.

Diabetes, a state of improperly regulated homeostasis of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism is one of the major killers in recent times. Most prevalent form of diabetes is non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM/type II). Rapid hydrolysis of starch mediated by pancreatic α-amylase and α-glucosidases followed by glucose uptake at intestine results in sudden rise in blood glucose levels, causing hyperglycemia in type II diabetes patients. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors act as competitive inhibitors of enzymes needed to digest carbohydrates: specifically alpha-glucosidase enzymes in the brush border of the small intestines. Inhibition of these enzyme systems reduces the rate of digestion of carbohydrates. Less glucose is absorbed because the carbohydrates are not broken down into glucose molecules. Natural alpha-glucosidase inhibitors such as Acarbose and Miglitol used for management of diabetes widely, but they are associated with side effects, in this review search for more natural alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are discussed which are safer as compared to insulin and other oral hypoglycaemic drugs.

Alumina has received considerable attention and has been historically well-accepted as biomaterials for dental and medical applications. This article reviews the applications of this material in dentistry. It presents a brief history, dental applications and methods for improving the mechanical properties of alumina-based materials. It also offers perspectives on recent research aimed at the further development of alumina for clinical uses, at their evaluation and selection, and very importantly, their clinical performance. This article also stated about the Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs) which has been conceived as a new material design approach to improve performance compared to traditional homogeneous and uniform materials. This technique allows the production of a material with very different characteristics within the same material at various interfaces. The importance of the FGM concept in biological applications and functions was highlighted. Fundamentally, the combination of mechanical properties and biocompatibility are very important factors in application of any biomaterial to medical or dental fields. The characteristics of the surface govern the biocompatibility of the material, and the mechanical strength is determined by the average mechanical strength of the materials. However, the fabrication of FGMs is most often hindered by the variation of elastic, plastic, thermal, chemical, and kinetic properties within the composite. Across a material interface, these discontinuities in material properties lead to the formation of residual stresses. Despite these challenges, compositional gradient structures offer significant benefits. Notable research literature is highlighted regarding (1) applications of alumina in various fields in dentistry; (2) improvement of the mechanical properties of alumina by microstructural manipulation, FGM as well as composite formulations involving metallic, intermetallic elements and bioceramics.

Among various water purification and recycling technologies, adsorption is a fast, inexpensive and universal method. The development of low-cost adsorbents has led to the rapid growth of research interests in this field. The present protocol describes salient features of adsorption and details experimental methodologies for the development and characterization of low-cost adsorbents, water treatment and recycling using adsorption technology including batch processes and column operations. The protocol describes the development of inexpensive adsorbents from waste materials, which takes only 1-2 days, and an adsorption process taking 15-120 min for the removal of pollutants. The applications of batch and column processes are discussed, along with suggestions to make this technology more popular and applicable.

Surface integrity of machined components has a critical impact on their performance. Magnesium alloys are lightweight materials used in the transportation industry and are also emerging as a potential material for biodegradable medical implants. Surface integrity factors, such as grain size, crystallographic orientation and residual stress, have been proved to remarkably influence the functional performance of magnesium alloys, including corrosion/wear resistance and fatigue life. In this study, the influence of dry and cryogenic machining (liquid nitrogen was sprayed on the machined surface during machining) using different cutting edge radius tools on surface integrity was investigated. Compared with the initial material, cryogenic machining when using a large edge radius tool led to enhanced surface integrity in terms of the following: (1) improved surface finish; (2) significant grain refinement from 12 mm to 31 nm in the featureless surface layer; (3) large intensity of (0002) basal plane on the machined surface; (4) 10 times larger compressive areas in residual stress profiles; these changes should notably improve the functional performance of machined AZ31B Mg alloy. In addition to the frequently reported benefits on tool life, this study suggests that cryogenic machining may also enhance the surface integrity of the workpiece and improve the performance of machined components.

RNA structure determination by solution NMR spectroscopy is often restricted to small RNAs (o15 kDa) owing to the problem of chemical shift degeneracy. A fruitful coupling of novel NMR techniques with segmental RNA labeling methodologies could be a powerful tool to overcome the molecular mass limitation of RNA NMR spectroscopy. Herein, we describe a time-and cost-effective procedure to prepare and purify segmentally labeled large RNAs. Two sets of RNA fragments with complementary labeling schemes, such as one fragment 13 C-and the other 15 N-labeled, are prepared by in vitro transcription from a single plasmid DNA. The desired RNA fragments are excised from the primary transcript by two cis-acting hammerhead ribozymes, yielding the required engineered ends for subsequent, complementary ligation. The resulting RNA oligonucleotides display NMR spectra with greatly reduced resonance overlap and thus enable NMR studies of smaller labeled RNA segments within the native context of a large RNA. The procedure is expected to take 3-4 weeks to implement.

A new method of physical activity monitoring is presented, which is able to detect body postures (sitting, standing, and lying) and periods of walking in elderly persons using only one kinematic sensor attached to the chest. The wavelet transform, in conjunction with a simple kinematics model, was used to detect different postural transitions (PTs) and walking periods during daily physical activity. To evaluate the system, three studies were performed. The method was first tested on 11 community-dwelling elderly subjects in a gait laboratory where an optical motion system (Vicon) was used as a reference system. In the second study, the system was tested for classifying PTs (i.e., lying-to-sitting, sitting-to-lying, and turning the body in bed) in 24 hospitalized elderly persons. Finally, in a third study monitoring was performed on nine elderly persons for 45-60 min during their daily physical activity. Moreover, the possibility-to-perform long-term monitoring over 12 h has been shown. The first study revealed a close concordance between the ambulatory and reference systems. Overall, subjects performed 349 PTs during this study. Compared with the reference system, the ambulatory system had an overall sensitivity of 99% for detection of the different PTs. Sensitivities and specificities were 93% and 82% in sit-to-stand, and 82% and 94% in stand-to-sit, respectively. In both first and second studies, the ambulatory system also showed a very high accuracy ( 99%) in identifying the 62 transfers or rolling out of bed, as well as 144 different posture changes to the back, ventral, right and left sides. Relatively high sensitivity ( 90%) was obtained for the classification of usual physical activities in the third study in comparison with visual observation. Sensitivities and specificities were, respectively, 90.2% and 93.4% in sitting, 92.2% and 92.1% in "standing + walking," and, finally, 98.4% and 99.7% in lying. Overall detection errors (as percent of range) were 3.9% for "standing + walking," 4.1% for sitting, and 0.3% for lying. Finally, overall symmetric mean average errors were 12% for "standing + walking," 8.2% for sitting, and 1.3% for lying.

Although used in academic research for several decades, 3D culture models have long been regarded expensive, cumbersome and unnecessary in drug development processes. Technical advances, coupled with recent observations showing that gene expression in 3D is much closer to clinical expression profiles than those seen in 2D, have renewed attention and generated hope in the feasibility of maturing organotypic 3D systems to therapy test platforms with greater power to predict clinical efficacies. Here we describe a standardized setup for reproducible, easy-handling culture, treatment and routine analysis of multicellular spheroids, the classical 3D culture system resembling many aspects of the pathophysiological situation in human tumor tissue. We discuss essential conceptual and practical considerations for an adequate establishment and use of spheroid-based drug screening platforms and also provide a list of human carcinoma cell lines, partly on the basis of the NCI-DTP 60-cell line screen, that produce treatable spheroids under identical culture conditions. In contrast to many other settings with which to achieve similar results, the protocol is particularly useful to be integrated into standardized large-scale drug test routines as it requires a minimum number of defined spheroids and a limited amount of drug. The estimated time to run the complete screening protocol described herein-including spheroid initiation, drug treatment and determination of the analytical end points (spheroid integrity, and cell survival through the acid phosphatase assay)-is about 170 h. Monitoring of spheroid growth kinetics to determine growth delay and regrowth, respectively, after drug treatment requires long-term culturing (Z14 d).

In this paper, we developed and evaluated a robust single-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) delineation system based on the wavelet transform (WT). In a first step, QRS complexes are detected. Then, each QRS is delineated by detecting and identifying the peaks of the individual waves, as well as the complex onset and end. Finally, the determination of P and T wave peaks, onsets and ends is performed. We evaluated the algorithm on several manually annotated databases, such as MIT-BIH Arrhythmia, QT, European ST-T and CSE databases, developed for validation purposes. The QRS detector obtained a sensitivity of = 99 66% and a positive predictivity of + = 99 56% over the first lead of the validation databases (more than 980,000 beats), while for the well-known MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database, and + over 99.8% were attained. As for the delineation of the ECG waves, the mean and standard deviation of the differences between the automatic and manual annotations were computed. The mean error obtained with the WT approach was found not to exceed one sampling interval, while the standard deviations were around the accepted tolerances between expert physicians, outperforming the results of other well known algorithms, especially in determining the end of T wave.

The equilibrium and viscoelastic properties of alginate gel crosslinked with Ca 2+ were determined as a function of alginate concentration and duration of exposure to physiologic concentrations of NaCl. Compressive and shear stress relaxation tests and oscillatory shear tests were performed to measure the material properties at two time periods after storage in NaCl compared to no NaCl exposure. The effect of concentration was determined by testing 1-3% alginate gel in a bath of physiological NaCl and CaCl 2 . After 15 h of exposure to NaCl, the compressive, equilibrium shear, and dynamic shear moduli decreased by 63, 84, and 90% of control values, respectively. The material properties exhibited no further changes after 7 days of exposure to NaCl. The loss angle and amplitude of the relaxation function in the shear also decreased, indicating less viscous be-haviors in both dynamic and transient configurations. All moduli, but not the loss angle, significantly increased with increasing alginate concentration. The observed decrease in compressive and shear stiffness for alginate gel after exposure to Na + was significant and indicated that physiological conditions will soften the gel over a time period of up to 7 days after gelation. The alginate gel retains significant solidlike behaviors, however, as measured by a loss angle of approximately 3°. This study provides the first available data for material properties of alginate gel tested in physiological saline.

Calcium phosphate materials are similar to bone in composition and in having bioactive and osteoconductive properties. Calcium phosphate materials in different forms, as cements, composites, and coatings, are used in many medical and dental applications. This paper reviews the applications of these materials in dentistry. It presents a brief history, dental applications, and methods for improving their mechanical properties. Notable research is highlighted regarding (1) application of calcium phosphate into various fields in dentistry; (2) improving mechanical properties of calcium phosphate; (3) biomimetic process and functionally graded materials. This paper deals with most common types of the calcium phosphate materials such as hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate which are currently used in dental and medical fields.

Histone proteins are the major protein components of chromatin, the physiologically relevant form of the genome (or epigenome) in all eukaryotic cells. Chromatin is the substrate of many biological processes, such as gene regulation and transcription, replication, mitosis and apoptosis. Since histones are extensively post-translationally modified, the identification of these covalent marks on canonical and variant histones is crucial for the understanding of their biological significance. Many different biochemical techniques have been developed to purify and separate histone proteins. Here, we present standard protocols for acid extraction and salt extraction of histones from chromatin; separation of extracted histones by reversed-phase HPLC; analysis of histones and their specific post-translational modification profiles by acid urea (AU) gel electrophoresis and the additional separation of non-canonical histone variants by triton AU(TAU) and 2D TAU electrophoresis; and immunoblotting of isolated histone proteins with modificationspecific antibodies.

Background: Identifying treatments that offer value and value for money is becoming increasingly important, with interest in how health technology assessment (HTA) and decision makers can take appropriate account of what is of value to patients and to society, and in the relationship between innovation and assessments of value. Methods: This study summarizes points from an Health Technology Assessment International (HTAi) Policy Forum discussion, drawing on presentations, discussions among attendees, and background papers. Results and Conclusions: Various perspectives on value were considered; most place patient health at the core of value. Wider elements of value comprise other benefits for: patients; caregivers; the health and social care systems; and society. Most decision-making systems seek to take account of similar elements of value, although they are assessed and combined in different ways. Judgment in decisions remains important and cannot be replaced by mathematical approaches. There was discussion of the value of innovation and of the effects of value assessments on innovation. Discussion also included moving toward "progressive health system decision making," an ongoing process whereby evidence-based decisions on use would be made at various stages in the technology lifecycle. Five actions are identified: (i) development of a general framework for the definition and assessment of value; development by HTA/coverage bodies and regulators of (ii) disease-specific guidance and (iii) further joint scientific advice for industry on demonstrating value; (iv) development of a framework for progressive licensing, usage, and reimbursement; and (v) promoting work to better adapt HTA, coverage, and procurement approaches to medical devices.

The clinical use of plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings on metal implants has aroused as many controversies as interests over the last decade. Although faster and stronger fixation and more bone growth have been revealed, the performance of HA-coated implants has been doubted. This article will initially address the fundamentals of the material selection, design, and processing of the HA coating and show how the coating microstructure and properties can be a good predictor of the expected behavior in the body. Further discussion will clarify the major concerns with the clinical use of HA coatings and introduce a comprehensive review concerning the outcomes experienced with respect to clinical practice over the past 5 years. A reflection on the results indicates that HA coatings can promote earlier and stronger fixation but exhibit a durability that can be related to the coating quality. Specific relationships between coating quality and clinical performance are being established as characterization methods disclose more information about the coating. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res (Appl Biomater) 58: 570–592, 2001

There is enormous evidence that the initiation and growth of atherosclerosis is highly influenced by hemodynamic factors. In this study, hemodynamic factors in the following patient specific 3D carotid artery models were studied: i) normal, ii) stenosis (with plaque near to bifurcation of internal carotid artery (ICA)), and iii) surgical model (plaque with surgically fitted Palmaz–Schatz stent). The 3D model of the carotid artery was formed from CT image of a patient through a commercial software MIMICS. The geometrical measurement taken from the 3D model was used to form its CAD model using CATIA software. The CAD model was meshed in ANSYS ICEM CFD module. The inlet- and outlet- boundary conditions were defined and material properties were given in CFX-Pre module of ANSYS. Then the solver input file was given to CFX solver manager for performing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) on the model. The outputs of the CFD analysis were observed in CFD-Post. The wall shear stress and blood velocity were greater both at near the bifurcation and at bend of the carotid artery model. The abnormal model is characterized by high wall shear stress in the stenosed portion which indicates greater probability of growth of plaque. Disturbed flow patterns and oscillating velocity indicate that the vulnerability of plaque formation is high in such places. The hemodynamic values have come back near to normal values in the carotid model fitted with stent. The observed variations in hemodynamic factors in the carotid artery with plaque surgically fitted with stent were compared to its normal model. This information can be used to predict restenosis in future.

— This paper is a design of non-invasive instrument for measuring the glucose level in the body using saliva acetone. In this method, the electric current which is equivalent to the acetone level present in the body is converted into voltage using the sensor. This voltage has a negative correlation with the blood glucose level. Thus, it is converted into glucose level by programming done using ATMEGA328 processor which is displayed in LCD. This is a painless procedure with low energy consumption. It is a handheld device and it is cost effective.

Semantic Similarity relates to computing the similarity between conceptually similar but not necessarily lexically similar terms. Typically, semantic similarity is computed by mapping terms to an ontology and by examining their relationships in that ontology. We investigate approaches to computing the semantic similarity between natural language terms (using WordNet as the underlying reference ontology) and between medical terms (using the MeSH ontology of medical and biomedical terms). The most popular semantic similarity methods are implemented and evaluated using WordNet and MeSH. Building upon semantic similarity we propose the Semantic Similarity based Retrieval Model (SSRM), a novel information retrieval method capable for discovering similarities between documents containing conceptually similar terms. The most effective semantic similarity method is implemented into SSRM. SSRM has been applied in retrieval on OHSUMED (a standard TREC collection available on the Web). The experimental results demonstrated promising performance improvements over classic information retrieval methods utilizing plain lexical matching (e.g., Vector

Bacteria are a convenient source of intrinsic marker proteins, which can be detected efficiently by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The patterns of protein masses observed can be used for accurate classification and identification of bacteria. Key to the reliability of the method is a robust and standardized procedure for sample preparations, including bacterial culturing, chemical treatment for bacterial cell wall disruption and for protein extraction, and mass spectrometry analysis. The protocol is an excellent alternative to classical microbiological classification and identification procedures, requiring minimal sample preparation efforts and costs. Without cell culturing, the protocol takes in general o1 h.

Understanding the process of synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles is important for its implementation in in vitro and in vivo studies. In this work we report the synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles made from ferrous oxide through coprecipitation chemical process.

As the number of frozen human embryos continues to rise daily, with numbers not expected to fall, an answer must be found to this dilemma. Four possible solutions have been suggested: a) thaw the embryos and allow them to perish; b) thaw them and donate them for biomedical research; c) thaw them and donate them in adoption; and d) leave them frozen indefinitely. This paper will evaluate the morality of these four possible solutions, particularly frozen human embryo adoption in the light of the Magisterium of the Catholic Church, which in its Instruction Dignitas Personae, appears to have opted to consider this practice as illicit. We also review the various stances of expert moralists in favour of or against frozen human embryo adoption, and we reflect on the extent to which the doctrine contained in Dignitas Personae can bind the moral conscience of the Catholic faithful. Finally, we make a personal evaluation of frozen human embryo adoption, in an attempt to find moral reasons that substantiate the negative opinion manifested by the Catholic Magisterium on this matter. Key words: frozen human embryos, solutions to the frozen state, frozen human embryo adoption, moral assessment, Magis-terium of the Catholic Church Evaluación moral de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados a la luz del Magisterio de la Iglesia Católica Resumen: Cada día aumenta el número de embriones humanos congelados y no se prevé que su número disminuya, por lo que parece necesario buscar una solución a este problema. Se han planteado cuatro posibles: a) descongelarlos y dejarlos morir; b) descongelarlos y donarlos para investigaciones biomédicas; c) descongelarlos y donarlos en adopción; y d) dejarlos congelados indefinidamente. En este trabajo se evalúa la moralidad de estas cuatro posibles soluciones, y especialmente de la adopción de los embriones humanos congelados, a la luz del Magisterio de la Iglesia Católica, que en su Instrucción Dignitas Personae se pronuncia por la ilicitud de dicha práctica. También se revisan distintas posturas de moralistas expertos favorables o no a la adopción de embriones humanos congelados. Igualmente se reflexiona sobre en qué medida la doctrina contenida en Dignitas Personae puede obligar a la conciencia moral de los fieles católicos. Finalmente se realiza una evaluación personal de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados tratando de buscar razones morales que fundamenten el por qué del juicio negativo manifestado por el Magisterio Católico. Palabras clave: embriones humanos congelados, soluciones al estado de congelación, adopción de embriones humanos conge-lados, valoración moral, Magisterio de la Iglesia Católica Avaliação moral de adoção de embriões humanos congelados, em consideração ao Magistério da Igreja Católica Resumo: Cada dia aumenta o número de embriões humanos congelados e não se espera o número diminua, portanto parece necessário encontrar uma solução para este problema. Foram levantadas quatro possíveis: a) descongelá-los e deixá-los mor-rer; (b) descongelá-los e doá-los para pesquisa biomédica; (c) descongelada-los e doá-los para adoção; e (d) deixá-los congelados indefinidamente. Nesse trabalho se avalia a moralidade dessas quatro possíveis soluções e especialmente a adoção de embriões humanos congelados à luz do Magistério da Igreja Católica, que em sua instrução Dignitas Personae, opta pela ilegalidade da prática. Também se revisam posturas diferentes dos moralistas especialistas favoráveis ou não à adoção de embriões humanos congelados. Igualmente, reflete-se sobre como a doutrina contida na Dignitas Personae pode obrigar a consciência moral dos fiéis católicos.Finalmente se realiza uma avaliação pessoal da adoção de embriões humanos congelados pretendendo buscar razões morais que fundamentem o porquê do juízo negativo manifestado pelo magistério católico. Palavras-chave: embriões humanos congelados, soluções para o estado de congelamento, adoção de embriões humanos con-gelados, valoração moral, Magistério da Igreja Católica

A brain-computer interface (BCI) based on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) records noninvasively activity of the entire brain with a high spatial resolution. We present a fMRI-based BCI which performs data processing and feedback of the hemodynamic brain activity within 1.3 s. Using this technique, differential feedback and self-regulation is feasible as exemplified by the supplementary motor area (SMA) and parahippocampal place area (PPA). Technical and experimental aspects are discussed with respect to neurofeedback. The methodology now allows for studying behavioral effects and strategies of local self-regulation in healthy and diseased subjects.

Metabolic profiling, metabolomic and metabonomic studies mainly involve the multicomponent analysis of biological fluids, tissue and cell extracts using NMR spectroscopy and/or mass spectrometry (MS). We summarize the main NMR spectroscopic applications in modern metabolic research, and provide detailed protocols for biofluid (urine, serum/plasma) and tissue sample collection and preparation, including the extraction of polar and lipophilic metabolites from tissues. 1 H NMR spectroscopic techniques such as standard 1D spectroscopy, relaxation-edited, diffusion-edited and 2D J-resolved pulse sequences are widely used at the analysis stage to monitor different groups of metabolites and are described here. They are often followed by more detailed statistical analysis or additional 2D NMR analysis for biomarker discovery. The standard acquisition time per sample is 4-5 min for a simple 1D spectrum, and both preparation and analysis can be automated to allow application to high-throughput screening for clinical diagnostic and toxicological studies, as well as molecular phenotyping and functional genomics.

Brain-computer interface (BCI) systems create a novel communication channel from the brain to an output device by bypassing conventional motor output pathways of nerves and muscles. Therefore they could provide a new communication and control option for paralyzed patients. Modern BCI technology is essentially based on techniques for the classification of single-trial brain signals. Here we present a novel technique that allows the simultaneous optimization of a spatial and a spectral filter enhancing discriminability rates of multichannel EEG single-trials. The evaluation of 60 experiments involving 22 different subjects demonstrates the significant superiority of the proposed algorithm over to its classical counterpart: the median classification error rate was decreased by 11%. Apart from the enhanced classification, the spatial and/or the spectral filter that are determined by the algorithm can also be used for further analysis of the data, e.g., for source localization of the respective brain rhythms.

Pyrosequencing is a sequencing-by-synthesis method that quantitatively monitors the real-time incorporation of nucleotides through the enzymatic conversion of released pyrophosphate into a proportional light signal. Quantitative measures are of special importance for DNA methylation analysis in various developmental and pathological situations. Analysis of DNA methylation patterns by pyrosequencing combines a simple reaction protocol with reproducible and accurate measures of the degree of methylation at several CpGs in close proximity with high quantitative resolution. After bisulfite treatment and PCR, the degree of each methylation at each CpG position in a sequence is determined from the ratio of T and C. The process of purification and sequencing can be repeated for the same template to analyze other CpGs in the same amplification product. Quantitative epigenotypes are obtained using this protocol in approximately 4 h for up to 96 DNA samples when bisulfite-treated DNA is already available as the starting material.

Future biomaterials must simultaneously enhance tissue regeneration while minimizing immune responses and inhibiting infection. While the field of tissue engineering has promised to develop materials that can promote tissue regeneration for the entire body, such promises have not become reality. However, tissue engineering has experienced great progress due to the recent emergence of nanotechnology. Specifically, it has now been well established that increased tissue regeneration can be achieved on almost any surface by employing novel nano-textured surface features. Numerous studies have reported that nanotechnology accelerates various regenerative therapies, such as those for the bone, vascular, heart, cartilage, bladder and brain tissue. Various nano-structured polymers and metals (alloys) have been investigated for their bio (and cyto) compatibility properties. This review paper discusses several of the latest nanotechnology findings in regenerative medicine (also now called nanomedicine) as well as their relative levels of success.

The identification of the four principal triterpenoid components of Centella asiatica has been achieved by TLC on silica gel plates and mass spectrometry, as a modification of the method described in the European Pharmacopoeia (5th edn). A combination of ethyl acetate and methanol as the mobile phase was found to be successful in separating these compounds from the rest of the main components of the extract. The spots were detected with anisaldehyde solution. The separated compounds were confirmed by MALDI -TOF mass spectrometry.

Urinary tract infections (UTI) are among the most common type of nosocomial infections. Patients with indwelling urinary catheters are at the highest risk of getting infected. The antibacterial effects of silver compounds have been known to man kind for ancient times. It has recently been found that silver nanoparticles possess significant antibacterial potential. Surface modifications of urinary catheters with Ag-NPs may prevent the risk of contamination and the associated infections. In this study we have studied the antibacterial effects of Ag-NPS on bacterial isolates from UTI cases. Our results suggest possible utility of Ag-NPs as coating agent.

Obtaining comprehensive, untargeted metabolic profiles for complex solid samples, e.g., animal tissues, requires sample preparation and access to information-rich analytical methodologies such as mass spectrometry (MS). Here we describe a practical two-step process for tissue samples that is based on extraction into 'aqueous' and 'organic' phases for polar and nonpolar metabolites. Separation methods such as ultraperformance liquid chromatography (UPLC) in combination with MS are needed to obtain sufficient resolution to create diagnostic metabolic profiles and identify candidate biomarkers. We provide detailed protocols for sample preparation, chromatographic procedures, multivariate analysis and metabolite identification via tandem MS (MS/MS) techniques and high-resolution MS. By using these optimized approaches, analysis of a set of samples using a 96-well plate format would take ~48 h: 1 h for system setup, 8-10 h for sample preparation, 34 h for UPLC-MS analysis and 2-3 h for preliminary/exploratory data processing, representing a robust method for untargeted metabolic screening of tissue samples.

The materials at the nanoscale can have different properties compared with same materials at the larger scale. This change in behaviour can be attributed to increased relative surface area and dominance of quantum effects. It has been shown that the nanomaterials can cause adverse effects to human and environmental health. Therefore there is need for developing guidelines for safe use of nanomaterials in the laboratory to minimise exposure to researchers and environment. The purpose of this document is to provide the guidance on proper handling and disposal of nanomaterials (NMs) for personnel involved in activities that entail handling of NMs, in order to minimize risks from exposure to NMs in a laboratory.

Horse milk has long been a popular gourmet food with an exceptionally delicious flavor and subtle nuances found in no ordinary dairy product in central Asia. Equine milk has important nutritional and therapeutic properties that can benefit the diet of the elderly, convalescent or newborn. Horse milk seems with regard to composition on milk of people. It has a sweet taste because it contains a lot of lactases. Beside that the taste is very gentle and a little watery in comparison with cow milk. Horse milk contains less casein than cow milk as a result of which it is better digestible. In this study, we investigated the composition, equine milk proteins, milk allergy and Homology between mammal species with horse.

In recent years, there has been increasing interest by reconstructive surgeons in improving the aesthetic and functional outcomes of donor sites. As the success rate of free tissue transfers has exceeded more than 95% in most microsurgical centers, more emphasis can be shifted to the donor site. However, morbidities of donor sites can occur not only in free tissue transfers, but in locoregional flaps as well. In reconstructive procedures, the main principle is to mobilize normal tissue and utilize it to reconstruct an area of defect. The donor site, of course has no pathology, but is a previously healthy area. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to not only minimize postoperative complications at recipient sites, but also pay attention to donor sites. Just as in organ transplantation where efforts are made to ensure the safety and a good outcome for a donor patient, outcomes should be improved and morbidity reduced at donor sites in reconstructive surgery.

Aims:  To study protease production from four Bacillus species.
To optimize the production of extracellular protease by testing
various environmental and nutritional factors and its application as
a contact lens cleanser.
Methodology: The assay was carried out in duplicates. Cultures of
Bacillus subtilis, Batcillus licheniformis, Bacillus thermophilus,
and  Bacillus cereus  were used for Protease production and assay.
Sterile Bushnell  –  Hass medium containing 1% casein was used.
The clear zone of casein hydrolysis indicated protease secretion.
Protease assay was done using modified sigma protocol for
enzymatic assay of protease. Effect of incubation time, pH,
temperature and aeration on protease production was studied.
Diameter of colony and zone of clearance was measured and Cx
ratio was calculated. The best protease producer was selected.
Extracted and crude protease enzymes were added to artificial tear
solution prepared with 0.2% lysozyme. Enzyme treatment was
done for 10, 30, 60 and 90 min at optimum temperatures of
respective enzymes. Light  transmission readings were recorded
using visible range spectrophotometer at 285 nm.
Results:  All four species of Bacillus produced protease enzyme.
Bacillus subtilis (Cx ratio=6) was the best protease producer. 37
o
C
temperature, 48 hrs of incubation and pH 7.5 was optimum for
maximum production of protease from Bacillus subtilis. Optimum
temperature and pH for the crude enzyme activity was 40ºC and 8.
The optimum ammonium sulfate fractionation (40% (w/v)
saturation) showed 4.76 fold increase in the specific activity of the
crude extract. Protein solution was degraded by purified enzyme in
30 min whereas crude enzyme required 60 min.
Conclusion:  Protease enzyme extracted from  Bacillus subtilis
showed good activity against artificial tear solution.

Adenanthera pavonina L. syn. Red Sandalwood, (Fabaceae) is an unarmed deciduous tree and its bark is traditionally used for treatment of various disease conditions in gonorrhea, haematuria, ulcers, it is astringent, vulnerary and aphrodisiac in nature. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the qualitative analysis of phytochemicals and antibacterial activity of solvent extracts of Adenanthera pavonina bark. Antimicrobial activity of different solvent extracts of Adenanthera pavonina bark were tested against Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains by observing the zone of inhibition. The bacteria used in the study were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Enterbacter aerogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Salmonella typhimurium. Ethanolic and aqueous extracts showed the highest activity against all the tested bacteria. These results were compared with the Zones of inhibition produced by commercially available standard antibiotics .The inhibitory effects of extracts are higher or very close and comparable with the standard antibiotics used.